NĀGA CULT IN INDIA - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/35963/3... · 51 these tales. The stories were exclusively related to the Nāga. These are, virtuous Nāga

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NĀGA CULT IN INDIA

The beginning of Nāga worship and the Nāga cult is shrouded in obscurity in

India. As snakes are found across the country and people inhabited those regions, they

must have come in contact from a very early stage of human colonization. Snake bite

leading to death might have been treated like natural calamities, culminating fear and

subsequently revering it. Here an attempt has been made to look for references of

Nāgas evidenced in various literary sources as well as in the archeological contexts.

This chapter takes a brief review of the mention of Nāgas in various religious and

secular literatures. Besides taking a review of literature a brief description of the Nāga

sculptures found from the archaeological excavation as well as from other

archeological contexts are documented. The attempt here is also taken to understand

the association of Nāga cult with other major contemporary religions i.e. Jainism and

Buddhism, apart from other Brahmanical sects.

The evidences related to the worship of snakes, one of the most remarkable

and primitive forms of religion can be seen in various ways in earlier religious

institutions of India. Snakes got a powerful hold upon the imagination of people

because of several rituals and local customs are associated with this creature. The

origin and gradual development of thought and ritual through different ages is very

difficult to trace. Therefore, this practice has remained more or less mysterious among

different socio-cultural and religious beliefs of India. However, the human

psychology could perhaps provide reasons for the continuation of this practice even

today. Snakes have a ubiquitous distribution and the threat of the loss of life due to

these animals creates makes some sort of fear in human mind. This threat might have

been one of the reasons leading to the worship of this animal. While the animal is

dreaded on one side, it is admired on another side. This is because of the mysterious

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stories associated with this animal and also due to its unusual motion. People believe

that snakes are the symbol of immortality and purification as its habit of stripping its

skin on a regular basis. A closer analysis of Nāga Cult can help to trace pertinent

Indian sources on the basis of its chronological. The snake as a symbol enters into the

various mythology of the world over (Hartel 1979).

The practice of snake worship in India is an age-old system and has lots of

stories to tell in the socio-religious aspect. During the earliest stages of the growth of

religious ideas, it seems, it was conceived that the animal world to be superior to

them. Naturally, snakes which are un-canniest of all animals became a symbol to

express their ideas of divinity.

NĀGA IN DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS TEXTS

The occurrences of the Nāga worship can be seen in various ancient literatures

especially Vedas, Epics, Sūtras, Purānās and other secular texts.

Vedas: Vedic texts mentions the word mostly used for snake is ‘Ahi'. The

term ‘Ahi’ stands for expressing the fear of the snake. Simultaneously it

wonders for its uncommon form and admires its beauty. These characters

might have been the reason for the beginning of the snake-worship or the

direct adoration of this animal. Rig-Veda mentions about the initial and

developing stages of Nāga worship and it became a regular deity for worship

by Yajurvedic people (Pratap 1990). The Rig-Veda records the sacrificial

offerings that were started in the name of Nāga during this period

(Arrowsmith 1972). Atharva Veda deals with numerous charms and prayers

against Nāgas and also mentions a rite of propitiations on the full moon day of

Mārgaśīrśa. Atharvaveda shows Nāgas are associated with Vedic and post

Vedic divinities as the protectors of the quarters. Snakes have been identified

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as divine beings and also expressed a desire for their destruction (Chand 1999;

Macdonell 2004; Vogel 1926). This shows that the Snake worship probably

originated out of fear.

Sūtra: The earlier sacred texts Sūtras contain instruction as to when and how

the offering to the snakes should be made. Grihya- Sūtras, a secular text gives

the details of annual ritual, ‘Sarppabali’. This ritual were conducted for two

purposes; first one related to the honouring the snake and the next related to

warding away of any kind of evils. ‘Asvalāyana Sutra’ says that offering the

sacrifices is the way to gratify the Nāga. The ‘Paraskara Grihya Sūtra’ also

gives the details of sacrificial rites to the Nāgas (Sastri 1985).

Mai- trāyani Samhitā: It tells about homage to the snakes. It can move along

with the earth. It tells us that the snakes can live both on land and water. As

mentioned above snakes are called by specific names in the early group of

texts. The peculiar characterization leads to the adoration of snakes. The

worship of snakes as semi-divine beings stands as the deities of the waters,

springs and rivers. This development takes place in to the sub consciousness

of a popular myth of a big demoniacal as well as divine dragon which is

closely connected with the extensive myths of the storm and the struggle of

light with darkness (Keith 1986; Basu 1979).

Epics and Purānās: In the famous Indian epics, Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana

as well as in the Purānās, genealogical stories about the divine origin of the

Nāgas were mentioned. The narrations of the stories of famous Nāgas were

also mentioned. The names of such famous Nāgas vary and mentioned not

only with Nāgaraja but also with Nāga devas. They were considered as the

guardians of underworld wealth, health and offspring. It also tells us about the

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physical feature and the inviolability of the Nāga. There are many stories

regarding the sanctity and the dreadful nature of the Nāgas both in Ramayana

and Mahabharata. Ādiparva, opening of epic Mahabharata, is rich in myths

and stories related to the Nāga. This also discusses about the myth related to

the birth of Nāga. It also explains the story of enmity between Garuda and

Nāga. The story of Nāga Padmanābha and the struggle between Krishna and

Kāliya mentioned in Mahābhārata vividly show the characters of snake and

their both destructive and benevolent nature. The murders of King Parikśit by

the Takśakan, the hostility between the Nāga and Pāndava etc. are also

mentioned in Epic literature (Fausboll 1981; Nair 1993; Vogal 1926; Vitsaxis

1977).

Vaiśnava mythology: Vāyupurāna mentions the name of some of the Nāgas in

Pātāla as Naimichi, Kāliya, Hayagrīva, Takśaka, Hemaka, Kalanemi, and

Vasuki (Aiyar 1914). Nāgas were also mentioned in Jātaka stories such as

story of ‘Nāga and the bird’, ‘Foolish rafts men and the angry Nāga’, and ‘The

Nāga Pandura who let his secret out. Nāgas were also seen in different fable

and fairy tales like the stories of ‘The Gold grading Snake and the poor

Brahmin, ‘the maiden that wedded a Snake’ etc. The ‘Bhāgavatha and Vishnu

Purāna’ also mention the cosmic snake Ananta being both the source and

physical support of all creation. Ananta means endless is also called Śeśa or

Adiśeśa. The ‘Matsyapurāna’ tells that when “all creatures are consumed by

fire at the end of the Yuga, Śeśa only will remain (Akhtar 1972; Banergea

1968; Mani 1999; Wilson 1986).

Jataka: Jataka is a story about the collection of tales of the repeated births and

deaths-of the Bodhisattva. Different types of Nāga stories were mentioned in

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these tales. The stories were exclusively related to the Nāga. These are,

virtuous Nāga Śankhapāla, and Nāga Champaka who were caught by a snake

charmer, the pious layman and the barbar, prince Padma sheltered by Nāga,

Nāga Pāndūra who let his secret out, the old well, the King Sēnaka received a

charm from a Nāgaraja, the story of Dārdara; the exiled Nāga and the bird

(Oldham 1988; Vogel 1926).

Apart from these, some foreign writers have also dealt with the theme of Nāga

worship in India. Writers mentioned that snakes were getting priority and treated

probably as a God during the invasion of Alexander. Such kinds of references also

help to provide evidences of the existence of Nāga worship in India during the later

centuries before the Christian era. Some of these descriptions satisfy with the rites

which are still practised today at the ‘Nāgapanchami’ and Āyilyam ceremonies

(Bunce 2000; Rose 1986).

EVIDENCES OF NĀGA WORSHIP; ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

The earliest evidences of snake representations in archaeological contexts can

be traced as early as to the prehistoric period as the evidence are found in paintings on

rock shelters in India found at Bhimbetka, Lekhania and Mahadaria (Wakankar 2005)

(Plate 3.1). The evidence of the snakes has also been found in a number of Harappan

sites. They appear at the archaeological sites in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.

The materials which were found from these sites include terracotta figurines,

depiction on potsherds and seals with the depictions (Kaul 2008) (Plate 3.2). Two of

such examples come from the site of Lothal. One of these specimens without head

and the other is a depiction of two upright snakes below a tree on a pottery fragment

(Hartel 1976; Ravindran 1993) (Plate 3.3). These two examples give the idea about

the probable relation between tree and Snake worship in India. In another depiction,

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the representation of two snakes entering and leaving an ant-hill was found on pottery

from the same site (Plate 3.4). This depiction shows that the snakes guard the

treasures of the earth or probably pot containing wealth. The theme resembles with

the concept of snake as a guardian of treasure. The worships of ant-hills in relation to

Nāga worships can still be seen throughout India. The illustrations of Harappan

period showed theriomorphic or zoomorphic figure with a ‘single hood’ (mono-

cephalous) snake rather than ‘multi hooded’ (poly-cephalous) mythical snakes has

evidenced. Other than terracotta and pottery, seals are the other objects that depict

snakes. The depictions on seals, sealing and amulets explain about Nāga cult not

directly, but in an indirect way. One of the seals from Mohenjo-Daro shows a

‘divinity seating on a platform with its legs bent and is honoured by two kneeling

adorers’ and an erect mono-cephalous snake just behind the figure (Harlet1976, Kaul

2008; Suresh 2000; Nair 1993) (Plate 3.5).

However, the representation of snake during the above periods though does

not give the direct evidence of its association in religious aspect or worship of Nāga

cult but suggest their presence of importance. Yet, it also cannot be denied that the

Nāga association with culture was not prevailing in those periods.

The pictorial representations of snakes were rare during the second and first

millennium B.C. After the decline of Indus valley civilization, the material evidences

were very scarce and it is difficult to explain the religious background of Nāga

worship in India on the basis of such evidences. On the other hand, this was the time

of the emergence of sacred secular texts like Vedas and Puranas. Such texts help to

draw cultural and historical events and the presence of Nāga in the society (Nair

1993).

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The earlier images of Nāga after Indus valley civilization started to appear in

the second century B.C. in the form of stone reliefs of many Stūpas. The snake

representations are found in the reliefs of Bharhūt Stupa of 2nd

century B.C and Stūpa

at Sanchi. The Nāgas were revered by constructing huge stone images near to the

irrigation dam (Shaw 2000). All the depictions in Bharhūt Stupa belong to

anthropomorphic category. Depiction of Nāgas can be seen in the railing, gateways,

bas reliefs and pillars of Bharhūt Stupa. One of the depictions is a standing five

hooded Nāga with two female attendants in the shape of Nāginis are seen in the

medallion relief on a railing pillar at Bharhūt (Plate 3.6).The female attendants to the

sides of the five hooded Nāga are represented in Therio-anthropomorphic style. Both

were having Jatāmakuta with necklaces and ear rings. Another depiction of Nāga can

be seen in the pillar relief showing a male wearing dhoti with turban on his head. Five

snake hoods like a canopy were depicted at the back of the image. This typical

anthropomorphic Nāga hooded figure is termed as Nāgarāja (Vogel 1926) (Plate 3.7).

The relief from Bharhūt as a whole can explain the importance of male Nāga divinity

in all his dignity as a worshipper of Buddha (Plate 3.8). Sometimes these figures are

found directly related to plants and leaves. The Nāgarāja figure from the pillar relief

stand in a tree leaves basement. As a whole, Nāga figures from Bharhūt Stupa have

shown in all three varieties like theriomorphic, anthropomorphic and therio-

anthropomorphic. So it can be assumed that these three image classification of Nāga

figures started to become visible in the earlier periods of millennium B. C. Nāgas as a

poly-cephalous with five hooded mythical snake can be seen in the tops of Bharhūt,

Sanchi, Amrāvati and the frescoes of Ajanta (De 1954).

The next evidences are available from the region of Mathura, a home of most

popular art school of Ancient India and a great centre of Nāga worship. Number of

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Nāga sculptures had been evidenced during 1stcentury A.D. from this place. The

oldest Nāga sculpture, belonging to 100 В.С. was found from Mathura and now

placed in State Museum, Lucknow. The particular oldest figure has lot of similarity

with famous old Yaksa image of that particular art school. The life sized figure is in a

standing posture with lower garment and edged by seven-snake hood at the back of

collapsed head. It might have been used for worship due to its independent pattern

and measurement. Another important Nāga figure with seven-hood accompanied by

two female Nāginis are preserved in State Museum, Mathura (Plate 3.9). A group of

four male and five female worshippers of completely human shape with two children

are depicted in a line. An interesting feature is that, all these anthropomorphic nāga

figures are holding one third of snake body in their left arm. However it can be

explained as the particular figure deliberately wanted to attach a mythical Nāga aspect

with his character (De 1954; Hartel 1976; Panda 1986; Nair 1993; Suresh 2000).

There are different types of Nāga images in Mathura sometimes similar to life

size Nāga image or sometime small and images depicted on railing or single figures.

Similarly this is the basic theme of Nāga worship in Central Kerala. Here the south-

western portion of the house compound always left for the worship of snake Gods and

call it as sacred grooves or Sarppakkāvu. Atmosphere of sacred groves include the

above mentioned water body (pond or kulam), garden (canopy of forest) and images

of Nāga.

Nāga and Nāgini images became quite common in around 7th

– 8th

century

A.D in northern and eastern part of India. The temples like Mukteswar and

subsequent temples have beautifully carved images of Nāga and Nāginis (Plate 3.10).

Besides this the depiction of Anantaśayanam Śeśasāyi at Deogarh temple during

Gupta period tells the affiliation of snake in Vaiśnavite faith (Plate 3.11). The

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Tirthankara image (Plate 3.12) and the Nāgarāja image at Ajanta reveal their

popularity (Plate 3.13).

There are several inscriptions which explain different aspects of Nāga worship

with different names (Sanskrit inscription preserved in Lucknow Museum). All these

different types of inscriptions give homage to Nāga worship during the early centuries

of Christian era. On other hand, some inscriptions give the idea of a close connection

between Nāga images and water bodies and also explain the donation of Nāga

images. Several epigraphic and numismatic evidences clarify that the Northern and

Central India witnessed the establishment of kingdom associated with Nāga cult after

the decline of the Kuśana rule. Several coins of rulers like Virasena, Visakhadeva,

Dhanadeva and Kumundasena depicted a snake image during early years of Christian

era (Kaul 2008; Panda 1986).

Nāga Cult was also prominent in Bihar during the early historic period. For

instance, a circular brick structure popularly known as the Maniyār - Math is situated

at Rajagriha in Bihar. It is a collapsed brick structure and ten stucco-images are

arranged around the base of this structure. Following figures are being represented:

Śiva-liņga, Viśnu, two Nāgas, Nāgini, Ganeśa, three Nāgas again and Siva (Hartel

1976; Nayar 1993) (Plate 3. 14). These images belong to5th

century A D and they

illustrate Nāga cult as a part of the Hindu pantheon. But excavations in the peripheries

of the Maniyār Math unearthed two earlier structural phases below the circular brick

structure. The earliest structural phase belongs to the first century ВС (Panda 1986).

Terracotta figures of snakes and other animals were found from the excavation. Most

important findings were that of a group of terracotta cobra hoods forms the necks of

vessels. The exact period of the particular figures has not been dated. Eight Nāga in a

standing posture were found in the reverse side of a carved stone relief panel from the

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excavation. Nāgini figures are also depicted in the left and niche of a stone relief.

Base of the panel has one inscription which extracted and explains the meaning that it

is dedicated to ‘Mani-Nāga’. The particular mythical name of Nāga also is very

common in almost all part of Central Kerala. Two Nāgas in a standing posture

accompanied by attendants were also found from the obverse side of the stone relief.

The style of inscription suggested that it can be placed in the date of the second

century AD (Hartel 1976).

Another evidence of Nāga image was found on an excavation done by the

archaeological team of the Berlin Museum of Indian Art at Sonkh, Mathura in 1971

(Kaul 2008). The excavation revealed stone image of Ćāmardevi, Ćāmundã or Kāli

with the representation of seven hooded Nāgarāja. A theriomorphic seven headed

snake depiction was shown on the reverse side. Another relief on stone was collected

from a private house near the temple was a piece of a carved door-relief. It shows a

mounting ornamented male figure and also holds a three-hooded snake with his right

arm. This depiction explains, the male figure is not fighting with snake whereas trying

to taking out from the hidden area (Plate 3.15).

Excavation of the temple at Sonkh also unearthed seven hooded Cobra image

on terracotta. Apart from this two more stone images were also recovered. First one

was three hooded image of Nāgini; Abhaya-mudrā on right hand and holds a snake in

the left hand (Plate 3.16). This terracotta Nāga image is dated to early Kuśana period

of 100 A D on the basis of some coins of Wima Kadphises and KanishkaI were

unearthed from this excavation (Hartel 1976; Panda 1989).

Northern and Central India had fallen under control of foreign invaders from

Bactria during Pre-Kuśana period. These rulers had a better attitude towards a multi

religious tolerance. This freedom of worship becomes noticeable in the artistic

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innovations discovered in Pre-Kuśana sites and this influences lead depiction of

anthropomorphic and theriomorphic figures of Nāgas and Nāginis together in an

elaborated canvas.

The snake deity worshipped as a tutelary god has been evidence from Odisha.

The images of Nāga and Nāginis were discovered from many parts of Odisha. Some

of these images are shown snakes in two hands. Female Nāga images were holding

snake on left hand the right shows Varada mudra whereas some other deities holding

pot in left hand and Varada pose on right hand. In Mayurbhanj a dynasty is known by

the name of Virata Bhujanga or Virata. Evidences of Snake worship by this dynasty

are found many places of Mayurbhanj. In Orissa there is also mentioning of female

deity called as Nāgamātha; holding a child in left and Nāga on right hand (De 1954).

Ancient image of two armed seven-hooded Nāga Goddess in a seating posture has

been discovered in the Tundara village at Balasore district (Panda 1986; Panda 2004).

The composite figure of snake (Therio-anthropomorphic) frequently appears in the

temples of Mukteswar dated to 8-9th

century A.D (Plate 3.17). This depiction becomes

a regular feature in the subsequent temples in Odisha.

South India is famous for Nāga worship in different forms, sacred grooves or

Sarppakkāvūs are used as a ritual space for all kind of Nāga worship. Sacred grooves

in Kerala have a resemblance to Nāgavana of North India. The prevalence of Nāga

worship in South India in ancient times is known from different inscriptions at

Banavasi in Kanara which records the erection of Cobra stone in the middle of 1st

century A D (Vogel 1926). Such snake stones are common in every village in the

Bellary district, Gulbarga, Siddhapur and Sampgum in Karnataka (Bolchmann 1875).

Theriomorphic as well as anthropomorphic figures are also evidenced in the caves of

Badāmi and one of the depiction in Badāmi is showing the varāha incarnation of

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Viśnu (Plate 3.18) whereas a therio-anthropomorphic figure is shown in the medallion

of a pillar (Plate 3.19). Another deity (Viśnu) is in a sitting posture which is depicted

in a highly ornaments and having seven cobra hoods caped behind the head and sitting

on a coiled snake body (PLATE 3.20). The following figure shows details of the ritual

spaces given for Nāga worship in central Kerala (Fig 3.1).

Fig. 3.1 Ritual Space in association with the Nāga Worship

ASSOCIATION OF NĀGA WITH DIFFERENT SECTS:

The Nāga cult emerged in India as one of the most famous independent cult. It

is still noticed frequently to be associated with major religions like Buddhism and

Jainism along with other sub sects of Brahmanism.

Association of Nāga cult with Buddhism:

Buddha is not an Nāga descent but Nāgas are associated with the life of

Buddha. According to the mythical stories, there are several mentioning about

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Buddha and Nāga. Among this the story of two Nāgaraja Nanda and Upananda are

connected with the birth of Bodhisattva Gouthama. Another story says the relation of

Nāga, ‘Mucchilinda’ with Bodhisattva. The story says Nāga, Mucchilinda gives

protection to Buddha by capping his large hood over his head from the rain when he

got enlightenment. Moreover, it is believed that a stupa was constructed over his

relics after the Nirvana of Buddha and protection had given by the Nāgas. It can be

seen in the Stūpas of Amrāvati, Bharhūt and Nāgarjunkōnda. The frescos and

sculptural depiction of Ajanta has the evidences of Buddha with Nāga. He is

represented as a five hooded Nāgarāja at the Ajanta cave number nineteen. Thus

Buddhist Art and literature symbolize and endorse Nāga Cult and made a great mass

of Nāga worshippers faithful to Buddhism. Most of the depictions in Bharhūt are also

explain the worship of Buddha by Nāgas.

The adoration of the snakes has some differences in northern India and

southern India. The Buddhism itself has two sectarian categories such as northern

Buddhism (Mahayana) and southern Buddhism (Theravada). The canonical texts of

both these sects of Buddhism have mentioning about Nāgas as wise and benevolent

animal. One of the myths of Mahāyāna Buddhist says that they are the guardian of

water and Sūtras. All over India Nāgas are considered as water deity by almost all

Brahmanical religious sects. In Mahayana mythology, mentioned Nāga-King Vāsuki

treated as king of the snakes in the earth and also mentioned the details of eight great

Nāgas. Nāgas were considered as the protectors of the Dharma. Years after Buddha’s

death, Mahāyāna Buddhism is still dealing with the Snake cult. The story of

Nāgārjuna is justifying this statement (Jakson 2000; Warder 1970).

Infact, such kinds of myths gave a smooth way to incorporate lower

tradition cultic thoughts into large and great tradition. In the later stages of Buddhism,

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Nāgas were started to consider as a protector of Buddha as well as Dharma. It is also

believed that Buddhism has been migrated to China and Japan from India through the

monks. In China Nāgas are considered as Dragons whereas in Japan Kami is the name

used for denoting Naga or Dragon spirit.

Association of Nāga cult with Jainism:

Nāgas played a prominent role in Jainism. The important evidences are the

snake symbol of Pārśvanātha and Supārasvanātha. Nāgas are also represented in Jain

sculptures as worshipping the Stūpas. The sculpture of Pārśvanātha is represented in

a standing posture with a multi-hooded snake covering his head (Plate 3.21). Ancient

Tamil country including Chēra kingdom witnessed the spread of culture and

architecture of Jainism in the form of rock cut temples (Damodaran 2002). The

temples at the northern boundary of Kerala like the Chitharal rock temple

(Tirucharanthumala), Chathurmukha Basati, Manjeswaram and Nāgarcovil temple at

the southern frontier along with Kallil in Ernakulam district and Kaviyoor rock temple

in Pathanamthitta district suggested the foundation of Jain culture together with the

presence of Nāga Worship (Plate 3.22). There was a custom that the Nāga images

were consecrating under the sacred trees and placed open to the nature (Nāga Bana)

by a particular Jain community called Bunt. They admire Cobra greatly.

The most common and the popular festival for propitiating the Nāgas is

Nāgapanchami which is celebrated on the fifth lunar day of the month of Srāvana

(July–August). Apart from Nāgapanchami, Āyilyam Pooja and Nagulachivathi are

other festivals which are celebrated in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, respectively. It is

reported that the festivals are marked by rituals bathing and worship of the images of

the sacred Nāgas. Even live Snakes (Cobra) and also ant hills are worshipped during

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this day (Plate 3.23). During this time, the sacred Nāga images were worshipped by

ritual bathing and pious fasting.

Association of Nāga cult with other religions:

The snake figures prominently showed in the art and narratives of

contemporary Saivism, Saktism, Vaishnavism, and even in Christian religion too. In

addition to these religions, many popular devotional practices of villages and ethnic

peoples throughout India worship snakes Gods in a separate ways. Commonly, Nāga

images or sculptures were defied and set up in the shrines for worship. These images

are sometimes worshipped as a sub deity together with other Gods and Goddesses of

other Brahmanical religious sects. Nāgas appear in association with the major Gods

of Brahmanical religion such as Śiva, Viśnu, Subramanian, Bhadrakāli, Swāmi

Ayyappan or Dharma Śāsta, Buddha and Jain. Additionally, there are some temples

which are dedicated to the worship of Nāgas only. However, the number of such

temples is very less as compared to the other major religions. In Kerala, instead of

shrines, south western portion of the house compound were left for the consecration

of Nāga images precisely under the pipal or nēm trees for the worship. This particular

area is known by the name of Sarppakkāvu. The snakes are known by different names

in different states of India. Such as Sarppam or Nāgam in Kerala, Mānasa and

Vishahārīs in West Bengal, Guja in Panjab, Basera in Shimla, MulNāgand star Nāga

in Chhamba, Nāgadeo in Sagar, SubbaraYudu in Andhra Pradesh, Subbaraya in some

parts of Karnataka, Subbarama in Tamil Nadu and Śeśa Nāga in Chhatishgarh.

The place of Nāga in the later orthodox cults like Brahmanical Hinduism,

Buddhism, Jainism and also regional cults and its presence in architecture, sculpture,

paintings, literature, tradition and folklore became prominent. On the whole, wide

distribution of the snakes deities, presence of Nāga in art and architecture, worship of

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Nāga by the followers of different religions in India suggests that it was one of the

most popular forms of worship in India. Some studies about the Nāga worshippers’

show that there are innumerable people from different areas like Punjab, Sambalpur in

Odisha, Agra etc. who are involved in Nāga worships. The census report of 1891

showed the detailed report of the distribution and number of snakes worshippers in

different part of the country. James Fergusson in his book entitled ‘Tree and Snake

Worship’ recounts the propitiation of live Snakes in Manipur and Sambalpur. A snake

temple at Calicut (Kerala) contained several live cobras which are feed by the priest

and worshippers. At Mysoor and Vaisar Padi, near Chennai, crowds used to assemble

on Sundays to see the snakes preserved in the temple ground (Vogel 1926).

Through the course of time, many new features and some adjustments were

occurring in the sphere of the Brahmanical religions as well as associated with Nāga

worship. However, the ways the snakes were worshiped continued to be more or less

same except the change seen through economy and were not influenced much by

these developments of Brahmanism. The religious texts of the early period give

details of the early Gods. One can see that many of the Gods have been given many

new characters and become more tangible. This situation in the religion was leading

to the beginning of idea of anthropomorphism with the development of Yaksha on the

human attributes of early deities. Thereafter the figural representation of the Gods

became common and a regular Iconography began to develop (Panda 1986).

Gradually myths and legends emerged from various sources and lead to a

diversification of cults and deities. Slowly some sacred text like ‘Dhyānaslōka’ and

Śilpaśāstras were introduced to explain the iconic characters of different deities

(Narayanan 2000; Bumer 1986). These developments in religion continued even after

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the rise of Buddhism and Jainism with a little variation. In-fact, the origin and

developments of religious forms and believes goes along with human developments.

The question like why, how and when the Nāga worship has started in India

need an elaborated and exhaustive examination. Here, it is the only possible way to

recount and examine some of the basic and most essential information concerning the

Nāga Cult in India. Apart from the ancient religious as well as secular literature from

Vedic Age down to the modern period, the details of Nāga worship can be traced

from the following details and it will be helpful to draw the antiquity of Nāga worship

in India as a whole and Central Kerala in particular.

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Plate 3.2: Depiction of Snake in pottery and seal, Indus valley Civilisation

PLATES

Plate 3.3: Depiction of snake in Pottery

Plate 3.1: Snakes depiction in Pre historic Rock Shelter

Courtesy Hartel 197

Courtesy Hartel 1976

6

Courtesy Hartel 197

65

Plate 3.4: Two snakes entering and leaving the ant hill

Plate 3.6: Five Hooded Nāga with two female attendants, Bharhūt

Plate 3.5: Mono- Cephalous snake; Mohenjo-Daro

Courtesy Hartel 197

Courtesy Hartel 1979

66

Plate 3.7: Nāgarāja, Bharhūt Plate 3.8: Nāgarāja worshipping Buddha, Bharhūt

Plate 3.9: Seven hooded Nāga with Nāginis; Mathura Museum

Courtesy Vogel 1926

Courtesy Hartel 1976

67

Plate 3.10: Nāga figures from Mukteswar Temple

Plate 3.11: Anathasāyi Viśnu, Deogarh

68

Plate 3.12: Tirthankarās image with Nāga, Ajanta, Cave no. 19

Plate 3.13: Nāgarāja image, Hindu cave no. 29

69

Plate 3.14: Three stucco Nāga image, Maniyar Math,

Rajagriha

Plate 3.15: Depiction of Male and Nāga; Temple at Sonkh

Courtesy Hartel 1979

Courtesy Hartel 1979

70

Plate 3.16: Three Hooded Female Naga, Sonkh

Plate 3.17: Nāgini; Mukteswara, Orissa Plate 3.18: Varāha incarnation and Nāga;

Badami

Courtesy Hartel 1979

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Plate 3.19. Therio-anthropomorphic Nāga Plate 3.20 Viśnu on seven hooded Cobra;

Badami Badami

Plate 3.21: Pārśvanātha in Standing Posture (Supārasvanātha), Deogarh

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Plate 3.22: Jain Temple at Kallil, Perumbavoor, Ernakulam District

Plate 3.23: Worship of Ant-hill