Prof. Amit Kumar [email protected]FIT Group of Institutions 1 UNIT I Negotiation Negotiation is a technique of discussing issues among one selves and reaching to a conclusion benefiting all involved in the discussion. It is one of the most ways to avoid conflicts and tensions. When individuals do not agree with each other, they sit together, discuss issues on an open forum, negotiate with each other and come to an alternative which satisfies all. In a layman’s language it is also termed as bargaining. Please go through the above two real life situations once again. You want to go for a movie but you know that your parents will never agree to your decision. Will you fight with your parents? Obviously NO, instead you will sit with them and try your level best to convince them and negotiate with them without fighting and spoiling everyone’s mood. Probably you will spend the coming weekend with your parents if they allow you today for the movie else you will negotiate with your friends so that they agree for a noon show. Negotiation helps you to achieve your goal without hurting anyone. Your goal in this case is to go for a movie and you negotiate either with your parents or friends to achieve the same. In the second situation, Tom could not afford to lose the CD player as it was an exclusive one, thus he tries to negotiate with the store owner to lower the price so that it suits his pocket and even the store owner earns his profit as well. Negotiation is essential in corporates as well as personal lives to ensure peace and happiness. Your boss asks you to submit a report within two working days and you know that the report is a little critical one and needs more time. Will you say a yes to your boss just to please him? Your yes might make the boss happy then but later you will land yourself in big trouble if you fail to submit it within the desired time frame. It’s always better to negotiate with your boss rather than accepting something which you know is difficult. Ask for some more time from your boss or probably don’t make an exhaustive report. Negotiation is better as it would prevent spoiling your relation with your superiors later. Negotiator An individual representing an organization or a position who listens to all the parties carefully and comes to a conclusion which is willingly acceptable to all is called the negotiator. Skills of a negotiator A negotiator ideally should be impartial and neutral and should not favour any one. He needs to understand the situation and the parties well and decide something which will benefit all. It is not always that people will easily accept the negotiator’s decision; they may counter it if they feel their personal interests are not satisfied. In such a situation, where the negotiator is left with no choice, he must use his power to impose his ideas on all, after all one can’t please everyone. A negotiator has to be a little tactful and smart enough to handle all situations and reach to a conclusion. Elements of Negotiation Negotiation ↓ Process + Behaviour + Substance (Agenda) Process- The way individuals negotiate with each other is called the process of negotiation. The process includes the various techniques and strategies employed to negotiate and reach to a solution. Behaviour- How two parties behave with each other during the process of negotiation is referred to as behaviour. The way they interact with each other, the way they communicate with each other to make their points clear all come under behaviour. Substance- There has to be an agenda on which individuals negotiate. A topic is important for negotiation. In the first situation, going for the late night movie was the agenda on which you wanted to negotiate with your parents as well as your friends. Models of Negotiation Let us go through various models of negotiation: 1. Win Win Model - In this model, each and every individual involved in negotiation wins. No body is at loss in this model and every one is benefited out of the negotiation. This is the most accepted model of negotiation. Let us understand it with the help of an example: Daniel wanted to buy a laptop but it was an expensive model. He went to the outlet and negotiated with the shopkeeper to lower the price. Initially the shopkeeper was reluctant but after several rounds of discussions and persuasion, he quoted a price best suited to him as well as Daniel. Daniel was extremely satisfied as he could now purchase the laptop without burning a hole in his pocket. The negotiation also benefited the store owner as he could earn his profits and also gained a loyal customer who would come again in future. 2. Win Lose Model - In this model one party wins and the other party loses. In such a model, after several rounds of discussions and negotiations, one party benefits while the party remains dissatisfied. Please refer to the above example once again where Daniel wanted to buy a laptop. In this example, both Daniel and the store owner were benefited out of the deal. Let us suppose Daniel could not even afford the price quoted by the storeowner and requests him to further lower the price. If the store owner further lowers the price, he would not be able to earn his profits but Daniel would be very happy. Thus after the negotiation, Daniel would be satisfied but the shopkeeper wouldn’t. In a win lose model, both the two parties are not satisfied, only one of the two walks away with the benefit. 3. Lose Lose Model - As the name suggests, in this model, the outcome of negotiation is zero. No party is benefited out of this model.
Lecture notes of Negotiation and counselling as per MMTU syllabus........
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UNIT I Negotiation Negotiation is a technique of discussing issues among one selves and reaching to a conclusion benefiting all involved in the discussion. It is one of the most ways to avoid conflicts and tensions. When individuals do not agree with each other, they sit together, discuss issues on an open forum, negotiate with each other and come to an alternative which satisfies all. In a layman’s language it is also termed as bargaining. Please go through the above two real life situations once again. You want to go for a movie but you know that your parents will never agree to your decision. Will you fight with your parents? Obviously NO, instead you will sit with them and try your level best to convince them and negotiate with them without fighting and spoiling everyone’s mood. Probably you will spend the coming weekend with your parents if they allow you today for the movie else you will negotiate with your friends so that they agree for a noon show. Negotiation helps you to achieve your goal without hurting anyone. Your goal in this case is to go for a movie and you negotiate either with your parents or friends to achieve the same. In the second situation, Tom could not afford to lose the CD player as it was an exclusive one, thus he tries to negotiate with the store owner to lower the price so that it suits his pocket and even the store owner earns his profit as well. Negotiation is essential in corporates as well as personal lives to ensure peace and happiness. Your boss asks you to submit a report within two working days and you know that the report is a little critical one and needs more time. Will you say a yes to your boss just to please him? Your yes might make the boss happy then but later you will land yourself in big trouble if you fail to submit it within the desired time frame. It’s always better to negotiate with your boss rather than accepting something which you know is difficult. Ask for some more time from your boss or probably don’t make an exhaustive report. Negotiation is better as it would prevent spoiling your relation with your superiors later. Negotiator An individual representing an organization or a position who listens to all the parties carefully and comes to a conclusion which is willingly acceptable to all is called the negotiator. Skills of a negotiator A negotiator ideally should be impartial and neutral and should not favour any one. He needs to understand the situation and the parties well and decide something which will benefit all. It is not always that people will easily accept the negotiator’s decision; they may counter it if they feel their personal interests are not satisfied. In such a situation, where the negotiator is left with no choice, he must use
his power to impose his ideas on all, after all one can’t please everyone. A negotiator has to be a little tactful and smart enough to handle all situations and reach to a conclusion. Elements of Negotiation Negotiation ↓ Process + Behaviour + Substance (Agenda)
Process- The way individuals negotiate with each other is called the process of negotiation. The process includes the various techniques and strategies employed to negotiate and reach to a solution.
Behaviour- How two parties behave with each other during the process of negotiation is referred to as behaviour. The way they interact with each other, the way they communicate with each other to make their points clear all come under behaviour.
Substance- There has to be an agenda on which individuals negotiate. A topic is important for negotiation. In the first situation, going for the late night movie was the agenda on which you wanted to negotiate with your parents as well as your friends. Models of Negotiation
Let us go through various models of negotiation:
1. Win Win Model - In this model, each and every individual involved in negotiation wins. No body is at loss in this model and every one is benefited out of the negotiation. This is the most accepted model of negotiation. Let us understand it with the help of an example: Daniel wanted to buy a laptop but it was an expensive model. He went to the outlet and negotiated with the shopkeeper to lower the price. Initially the shopkeeper was reluctant but after several rounds of discussions and persuasion, he quoted a price best suited to him as well as Daniel. Daniel was extremely satisfied as he could now purchase the laptop without burning a hole in his pocket. The negotiation also benefited the store owner as he could earn his profits and also gained a loyal customer who would come again in future.
2. Win Lose Model - In this model one party wins and the other party loses. In such a model, after several rounds of discussions and negotiations, one party benefits while the party remains dissatisfied. Please refer to the above example once again where Daniel wanted to buy a laptop. In this example, both Daniel and the store owner were benefited out of the deal. Let us suppose Daniel could not even afford the price quoted by the storeowner and requests him to further lower the price. If the store owner further lowers the price, he would not be able to earn his profits but Daniel would be very happy. Thus after the negotiation, Daniel would be satisfied but the shopkeeper wouldn’t. In a win lose model, both the two parties are not satisfied, only one of the two walks away with the benefit.
3. Lose Lose Model - As the name suggests, in this model, the outcome of negotiation is zero. No party is benefited out of this model.
Had Daniel not purchased the laptop after several rounds of negotiation, neither he nor the store owner would have got anything out of the deal. Daniel would return empty handed and the store owner would obviously not earn anything. In this model, generally the two parties are not willing to accept each other’s views and are reluctant to compromise. No discussions help. Let us understand the above three models with an example from the corporate world. Mike got selected with a multinational firm of repute. He was called to negotiate his salary with Sara- the HR Head of the organization. Case 1 - Sara quoted a salary to Mike, but Mike was not too pleased with the figure. He insisted Sara to raise his salary to the best extent possible. After discussions Sara came out with a figure acceptable to Mike and she immediately released his offer letter. Mike got his dream job and Sara could manage to offer Mike a salary well within the company’s budgets - A Win win Situation (Both the parties gained) Case 2 - Sara with her excellent negotiation skills managed to convince Mike at a little lower salary than he quoted. Mike also wanted to grab the opportunity as it was his dream job and he was eyeing it for quite some time now. He had to accept the offer at a little lower salary than expected. Thus in this negotiation, Mike was not completely satisfied but Sara was - A win lose negotiation Case 3 - Mike declined the offer as the salary quoted by Sara did not meet his expectations. Sara tried her level best to negotiate with Mike, but of no use.-A lose lose model of negotiation. No body neither Mike nor Sara gained anything out of this negotiation.
4. RADPAC Model of Negotiation RADPAC Model of Negotiation is a widely used model of negotiation in corporates. Let us understand it in detail Every alphabet in this model signifies something: R - Rapport A - Analysis D - Debate P - Propose A - Agreement C - Close R - Rapport: As the name suggests, it signifies the relation between parties involved in negotiation. The parties involved in negotiation ideally should be comfortable with each other and share a good rapport with each other. A - Analysis: One party must understand the second party well. It is important that the individual understand each other’s needs and interest. The shopkeeper must understand the customer’s needs and pocket, in the same way the customer mustn’t ignore the shopkeeper’s profits as well. People must listen to each other attentively. D - Debate: Nothing can be achieved without discussions. This round includes discussing issues among the parties involved in negotiation. The pros and cons of an idea are evaluated in this round. People debate with each other
and each one tries to convince the other. One must not lose his temper in this round but remain calm and composed. P - Propose: Each individual proposes his best idea in this round. Each one tries his level best to come up with the best possible idea and reach to a conclusion acceptable by all. A - Agreement: Individuals come to a conclusion at this stage and agree to the best possible alternative. C - Close: The negotiation is complete and individuals return back satisfied. Let us again consider Mike and Sara’s example to understand RADPAC Model R - Rapport between Mike and Sara. They must be comfortable with each other and should not start the negotiation right away. They must first break the ice. The discussions must start with a warm smile and greetings. A - Both Mike and Sara would try their level best to understand each other’s needs. Mike’s need is to grab the opportunity while Sara wants to hire an employee for the organization. D - The various rounds of discussions between Mike and Sara. Mike and Sara would debate with each other trying to get what they want. P - Mike would propose the best possible salary he can work on while Sara would also discuss the maximum salary her company can offer. A - Both Mike and Sara would agree to each other, where both of them would compromise to their best possible extent. C - The negotiation is complete and probably the next course of action is decided, like in this case the next step would be generation of the offer letter and its acceptance.
STRATEGY AND TACTICS OF INTEGRATIVE NEGOTIATION
INTEGRATIVE NEGOTIATION
When a negotiation is integrative, it means that
negotiation is based on interest or otherwise negotiation
Given then ways that communication can be disrupted and
distorted, we can only marvel at the extent to which
negotiators can actually understand each other. Failures
and distortions in perception, cognition,and
communication are the paramount contributors to
breakdowns and failures in negotiation. Reseach
consistently demonstrates that even those parties whose
goals are compatible or integrated may fail to reach
agreement or reach suboptimal agreements because of
the misperception of the other party or because of
breakdown in the communication process.
Three main techniques are available for improving
communication in negotiation:
1.The use of questions-questions are essential elements in
negotiations for securing information; asking good
questions enables negotiators to secure a great deal of
information about the other party’s position, supporting
arguments; and needs. Questions can be divided into two
basic categories: those that are manageable and those
that are unmanageable and cause difficulty3.manageable
questions cause attention or prepare the other person’s
thinking for further questions, get information, and
generate thought. While unmanageable questions cause
difficulties, give information, and bring the discussion to a
false conclusion.
2. Another technique is listening. There are three major
forms of listening:
Passive listening-involves receiving the message while
providing no feedback to the sender about the accuracy or
completeness of reception.
Acknowledgement-is the second form of listening, slightly
more active than the passive listening. When
acknowledging, receiver occasionally nod their heads,
maintain eye contact, or interject responses.
Active listening is the third form. When receiver is actively
listening, they restate or paraphrase the sender’s message
in their own language4.
3.Role reversal –this occur when there is continual
argument for one particular position in debate lead to a
“blindness of involvement,” or a self-reinforcement cycle
of argumentation that prohibits negotiators from
recognizing the possible compatibility between their own
position and that of the other party.
SPECIAL COMMUNICATION CONSIDERATIONS AT THE
CLOOSE OF NEGOTIATIONS
Avoid fatal mistakes.
Achieving closure.
Having carefully examined the importance of
communication in negotiation, it is then highly imperative
that parties, during negotiation manage communication
effectively in order to avoid failure to reach an agreement
and breakdown in negotiation BEST PRACTICES: NEGOTIATING
1. Preparation 2. Structure diagnosis 3. Batna 4. Be willing to walk 5. Master negotiation paradoxes 6. Intangibles 7. Coalitions 8. Reputation 9. Relativity 10. Life-long learning 1. Be prepared
— Understand and articulate your goals and interests — Set high but achievable aspirations for negotiation
1. Diagnose the fundamental structure of the negotiation — Make conscious decisions about the nature of the negotiation: is it a distributive or integrative negotiation or blend of the two — Choose strategies and tactics accordingly
1. Identify and work the BATNA — Be vigilant about the BATNA — Be aware of the other negotiator’s BATNA 4. Be willing to walk away — Strong negotiators are willing to walk away when no agreement is better than a poor agreement — Have a clear walk away point in mind where you will halt the negotiation 5. Master the key paradoxes of negotiation — Claiming value versus creating value
— Sticking by your principles versus being resilient to the flow — Sticking with the strategy versus opportunistic pursuit of new options — Facing the dilemma of honesty: honest and open versus closed and opaque — Facing the dilemma of trust: trust versus distrust 6. Remember the intangibles — “see what is not there” — ask questions — take an observer or listener with you to the negotiation 7. Actively manage coalitions — coalitions against you — coalitions that support you — undefined coalitions that may materialize for or against you 8. Savor and protect your reputation — start negotiation with a positive reputation — shape your reputation by acting in a consistent and fair manner 9. Remember that rationality and fairness are relative — question your perceptions of fairness and ground them in clear principles — find external benchmarks of fair outcomes — engage in dialogue to reach consensus on fairness 10. Continue to learn from your experience — practice the art and science of negotiation — analyze each negotiation Plan a personal reflection time after each negotiation Periodically take a lesson from a trainer or a coach Keep a personal diary on strengths and weaknesses and develop a plan to work on weaknesses
BEST ALTERNATIVE TO A NEGOTIATED AGREEMENT
(BATNA)
What BATNAs Are.......
BATNA is a term coined by Roger Fisher and William Ury in
their 1981 bestseller, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Without
Giving In.[1] It stands for "Best ALTERNATIVE TO a
negotiated agreement." Said another way, it is the best
you can do if the other person refuses to negotiate with
you--if they tell you to "go jump in a lake!" or "Get lost!"
So it is not necessarily your ideal outcome--unless your
ideal outcome is something you can get without the
cooperation of the other person. It is the best you can do
WITHOUT THEM.
BATNAs are critical to negotiation because you cannot
make a wise decision about whether to accept a
negotiated agreement unless you know what your
alternatives are. If you are offered a used car for $7,500,
but there's an even better one at another dealer for
$6,500--the $6,500 car is your BATNA. Another term for
the same thing is your "walk away point." If the seller
doesn't drop her price below $6,500, you will WALK AWAY
and buy the other car.
Your BATNA "is the only standard which can protect you
both from accepting terms that are too unfavorable and
from rejecting terms it would be in your interest to
accept."[2] In the simplest terms, if the proposed
agreement is better than your BATNA, then you should
accept it. If the agreement is not better than your BATNA,
then you should reopen negotiations. If you cannot
improve the agreement, then you should at least consider
withdrawing from the negotiations and pursuing your
alternative (though the relational costs of doing that must
be considered as well).
Having a good BATNA increases your negotiating power. If
you know you have a good alternative, you do not need to
concede as much, because you don't care as much if you
get a deal. You can also push the other side harder. If
your options are slim or non existent, the other person can
make increasing demands, and you'll likely decide to
accept them--because you don't have a better option, no
matter how unattractive the one on the table is becoming.
Therefore, it is important to improve your BATNA
whenever possible. If you have a strong one, it is worth
revealing it to your opponent. If you have a weak one,
however, it is better to keep that detail hidden.
Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess have adapted the concept
of BATNA slightly to emphasize what they call "EATNAs"--
estimated alternatives to a negotiated agreement" instead
of "best alternatives." Even when disputants do not have
good options outside of negotiations, they often think they
do. (For example, both sides may think that they can
prevail in a court or military struggle, even when one side
is clearly weaker, or when the relative strengths are so
For many people and organization, international negotiation has become a norm rather than an exotic activity that only occasionally occurs. In the last 20 years, the frequency of international negotiation has increased rapidly bolstering the interests in international communication. However, there has been numerous inputs, from both academic and practitioner perspectives about the complexities of negotiation across borders, be it with a person from different country, culture, or region. Although the term culture has many possible definitions, we will use it to refer to the shared values and beliefs of a group of people. Country can have more than one culture, and culture can span national borders. As we have examined earlier, negotiation is a social process that is embedded in a much lager context. This context increases in complexity when more than one culture or country is involved, making international negotiation a highly complicated process. Phatak and Habib suggest that two overall contexts have an influence on international negotiations: THE ENVIRONMENT CONTEXTS: Salacuse identified six factors in the environmental context that make international negotiations more challenging than domestic negotiations: and these include the following; Political and legal pluralism. International economics. Foreign government and bureaucracies. Instability. Ideology. Culture. Phatak and Habib have suggested additional factor which is: External stakeholders. IMMEDIATE COTEXTS: At many points in our discussions, we have discussed aspects of negotiation that relate to immediate contexts factors, but without considering their international implications, at this junction we will list the concepts from the Phatak and Habib model of international negotiation. And the immediate contexts are: Relative bargaining power. Level of conflict. Relationship between negotiators. Desire outcomes. Immediate stakeholders. CONCEPTUALIZING CULTURE AND NEGOTIATION.
The most frequently studied aspect of international negotiation is culture and the amount of research on the effects of culture n negotiation has increased substantially in the last 20 years. There are many different meanings of the concept of culture, but all definition share two aspects. First, culture is a group-level phenomenon. That means that a defined group of people shares beliefs, values, and behavioural expectations. The second common element of culture is that cultural beliefs, values, and behavioural expectations are learned and passed on to new members of the group. It is also important to remember that negotiation outcomes, both domestically and internationally, are determined by several different factors. While cultural differences are clearly important, negotiators must guard against assigning too much responsibility to cultural factors. Dialdin, Brett, Okumura, and Lytle have labelled the tendency to overlook the importance of the situational factors in favour of cultural explanations the cultural attribution error. It is important to recognize that even though culture describes group-level characteristics, it doesn’t mean that every member of a culture will share those characteristics equally. In fact, there is likely to be a wide of a variety of behavioural differences within cultures as there is between cultures. Although knowledge of the other party’s culture may provide an initial clue about what to expect at the bargaining table, negotiators need to be open to adjusting their view very quickly as new information is gathered. The two important ways that culture has been conceptualized are: Culture as shared value And, culture as dialectic. THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON NEGOTIATION: Managerial perspectives Cultural differences have been suggested to influence negotiation in several ways. Now let’s examine different ways that culture can influence negotiation. Definition of negotiation: the fundamental definition of negotiation, what is negotiable, and what occurs when we negotiate can differ greatly across cultures.(i.e.) American way and the Japanese ways of viewing negotiations. Negotiation opportunity: culture influences the way negotiators perceive an opportunity as distributive versus integrative. Negotiators in North America are predisposed to perceive negotiation as being fundamentally distributive. But this is not the case outside North America. Selection of negotiators: The criterion used to select who will participate in a negotiation is different across cultures. These criteria can include such subject matter as age, seniority, gender, status, etc. Protocol: cultures differ in the degree to which protocol, or the formality of the relations between the two negotiating parties, is important. Communication: cultures influence how people
communicate; both verbally and nonverbally. There are also differences in body language across cultures. Time sensitivity: cultures largely determine what time means and how it affects negotiations. For example, comparing North American time consciousness with that of China or Latin Americans. Risk propensity: Cultures vary in the extent to which they are willing to take risks. Some cultures tend to produce bureaucratic, conservative decision makers who want a great deal of information before making decisions. Groups versus individuals: cultures differ according to whether they emphasize the individual or the group.eg the United State is very much an individual-oriented culture. Nature of agreements: culture also has an important effect both on concluding agreements and on what form the negotiated agreement takes. Emotionalism: culture appears to influence the extent to which negotiators display emotions. These emotions may be use as tactics, or may be a natural response to positive and negative circumstances during negotiation. THEN INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON NEGOTIATION: Research perspectives A conceptual model of where culture may influence negotiation has been developed by different scholars, for example Jeanne Brett, suggested that culture will influence, setting of priorities, and strategies, the identification of the potential for integrative agreement, and the pattern of interaction between negotiators. Researchers also explore how intracultural and cross cultural factors will influence the outcome of an agreement. It has also been suggested that overall negotiation process and outcome will be influenced by cultures. CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE NEGOTIATING STRATEGIES Stephen Weiss has proposed a useful way of thinking about the options we have when negotiating with someone from another culture. Weiss observes that negotiators may choose from among up to eight different culturally responsive strategies. These strategies may be used individually or sequentially, and the strategies can be switched as the negotiation progresses. Weiss’s culturally responsive strategies can be arranged into three groups, based on the level of familiarity (.low, moderate, high): LOW FAMLIARITY: Employ agents or advisers (unilateral strategy) Bring in a mediator (joint strategy) Induce the other negotiator to use your approach (joint strategy) MODERATE FAMILIARITY:
Adapt to the other negotiator’s approach (unilateral strategy) Coordinate adjustment (joint strategy) HIGH FAMILIARITY: Embrace the other negotiator’s approach (unilateral strategy) Improvise an approach (joint strategy) Effect symphony (joint strategy) Lastly, there has been considerate research on the effects of culture on negotiation in the last decade. Findings suggest that culture has important effects on several aspects of negotiations, including planning, the negotiation process, information exchange, negotiation cognition, and negotiator perception of ethical Behaviour.
UNIT IV
COUNSELLING In general the counseling is to help individuals to overcome many of their problems. It involves two factors. TERMS INVOLVED IN COUNSELING 1. Counselor 2. counselee DEFINITION Acc.to Smith(1955): A process in which the counselor assists the counselee to make the interpretations of facts related to choice, plan or adjustments which he need to make. Acc.to Perez(1965): The counseling is an interactive process conjoining the counselor who needs assistance and the counselor who is trained and educated to give the assistance. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE EMERGENCE OF COUNSELING 1. Technological factors 2. Psychological factors 3. Educational factors 4. Human factors TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS Technological changes have made a major impact upon the people’s lives and work. Because of the rapid change in the technology the need of counseling arises and it comes into existence. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS The growth of counseling is also because of Psychological factors. As a part of broader field of psychology the counseling is being introduced for the development into it.
EDUCATIONAL FACTORS Modern counseling is a product of education system especially American education system. It has deep roots in the concern for an individual’s freedom, rights, and dignity. The development of counseling can best be appreciated by analyzing the various issues that affected and influence its development. HUMAN FACTORS There are several mutually opposed conceptions of the basic human nature. Is human nature either evil, or good, or neutral? This factor of human nature also helps in the emergence of the counseling. GROWTH OF COUNSELING The growth of counseling is divided into four phases. They are: 1. 1850-1900 2. 1900-1930
3. 1930-1940 4. Second world war and after
1850-1900 Under this period the innovations in the field of psychology were made. under this period the the first psychological laboratory was founded at Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879. However, it was Jesse b. Davis who first used the term “counseling” in this period. 1900-1930 During the first few years of the twentieth century several significant events took place. These movements boosted efforts to develop knowledge and services in order to assist the individuals. Unfortunately there is a wrong impression that counseling is a poor man’s psychotherapy. All these factors helps in the emergence of the counseling. 1930-1940 Under this era the workers needs the guidance for suitable tools and techniques to understand the concept of counseling. There were very few Psychological tests available and few persons were trained to use them at that time. SECOND WORLD WAR AND AFTER In this era a book was published as “counseling and psychotherapy” by “Carl Rogers” in 1942. Before this there was a hesitation regarding the acceptability of counseling as a form of psychotherapy. In this era counseling obtained the recognition by the American Psychological association(APA). The APA accepted the recommendation of meeting and designated counseling psychology as its seventeenth division.
LASTLY Over the past five decades counselors have gained overwhelming acceptance from society. A large number of sub-specialities have developed to serve in setting such as schools, mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers, colleges. APPROACHES OF COUNSELING 1. Psychoanalytic approach 2. Bahaviouristic approach 3. Humanistic approach PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH Psychoanalysis was originated by SIGMUND FREUD, who developed his theory from his past experiences as a therapist and wrote about his work. In this the client is ignorant And unaware of the reasons for his difficulties or suffering which are deeply embedded in the unconscious. The client is therefore helpless and it is the therapist who has to play the role of interpreting the material. This principle is known as psychological determinism. BEHAVIOURISTIC APPROACH Counseling and psychotherapy are concerned with behavior change. learning here is understood as changes in the behavior which are relatively long-lasting and which are not due to the psychological factors like fatigue etc. one such application is in the form of Bahaviouristic approach. Its purpose is to change the ineffective and self defeating behavior into the effective and self winning behavior. HUMANISTIC APPROACH The practical application of the humanistic Psychology made a great impact on the academic scene. According to ROGERS in any kind of psychotherapy the basic theme is the helping relationship. In all human Interactions such as mother-child, teacher-pupil, therapist-client The helping relationship is fundamental. This relationship is one in which the counselor seeks to bring about a better expression of the client’s inner resources. Thus the helping relationship helps in the growth of person.