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Nazi architecture 1
Nazi architectureNazi architecture was an architectural plan and
integral part of the Nazi party's plans to create a cultural
andspiritual rebirth in Germany as part of the Third Reich.
The tribune of the Zeppelinfeld stadium inNuremberg, where the
annual Party rally took
place
Adolf Hitler was an admirer of imperial Rome and aware that
someancient Germans had, over time, become part of the social
fabric andexerted influence on the Empire. On the other hand, the
Germanictribes were traditionally regarded by the Romans as enemies
of the PaxRomana. Nonetheless, he considered the Romans an early
Aryanempire, and emulated their architecture in an original style
inspired byboth neoclassicism and art deco, sometimes known as
"severe" deco,erecting edifices as cult sites for the Nazi party.
He also orderedconstruction of a type of Altar of Victory, borrowed
from the Greeks,who were, according to Nazi ideology, inseminated
with the seed ofthe Aryan peoples. At the same time, because of his
admiration for theClassical cultures of the ancient Mediterranean,
he could not isolateand politicize German antiquity, as Benito
Mussolini had done withrespect to Roman antiquity. Therefore he had
to import political symbols into Germany and justify their presence
onthe grounds of a spurious racial ancestry, the myth that ancient
Greeks were among the ancestors of the Germans -linked to the same
Aryan peoples.[1]
Hitler's fantasies about being the founder of a thousand-year
Reich were in harmony with the Colosseum beingassociated with
eternity. Hitler envisioned all future Olympic games to be held in
Germany in the Deutsches Stadion.It is clear that Hitler
anticipated that after winning the war, a subjected world would
have no choice but to send itsathletes to Germany every time the
Olympic games were held. Thus, this building foreshadowed Hitler's
craving forworld domination long before this aim was put into
words.[2] Hitler habitually derived satisfaction from
seeingworld-famous monuments being surpassed in size by German
equivalents.Most regimes, especially new ones, wish to make their
mark both physically and emotionally on the places they rule.The
most tangible way of doing so is by constructing buildings and
monuments. Architecture is considered to be theonly art form that
can actually physically meld with the world as well as influence
the people who inhabit it.Buildings, as autonomous things, must be
addressed by the inhabitants as they go about their lives. In this
sense,people are "forced" to move in certain ways, or to look at
specific things. In so doing, Architecture affects not onlythe
landscape, but also the mood of the populace who are served. The
Nazis believed architecture played a key rolein creating their new
order. Architecture had a special importance to the politicians,
who like most totalitarianleaders, sought to influence all aspects
of human life.[3]
Moreover, not only major cities but also small villages were to
express the achievement and the nature of theGerman people. The
very face of the land was to be transformed. It was not enough to
limit Marxist or liberalarchitecture. The new buildings must
proclaim to the world and to the unconverted German that the era of
thethousand-year Reich had dawned. Obviously, then, in seeking to
influence the foreign visitor with its overpoweringrepresentative
edifices, the Third Reich was didactic and theatrical.[3]
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Nazi architecture 2
Hitler the architectHitler was quite fond of the numerous
theatres built by Hermann and Ferdinand Fellner, who built in the
late baroquestyle. In addition, he appreciated the stricter
architects of the 19th century such as Gottfried Semper, who built
theDresden Opera House, the Picture Gallery in Dresden, the court
museums in Vienna and Theophil Freiherr vonHansen, who designed
several buildings in Athens in 1840. He raved about the Palais
Garnier, home of the ParisOpera, and the Law Courts of Brussels by
the architect Poelaert.Ultimately, he was always drawn back to
inflated neo-baroque such as Kaiser Wilhelm II had fostered,
through hiscourt architect Ernst von Ihne. Fundamentally, it was
decadent baroque comparable to the style that accompanied
thedecline of the Roman Empire. Thus, in the realm of architecture,
as in painting and sculpture, Hitler really remainedarrested in the
world of his youth: the world of 1880 to 1910, which stamped its
imprint on his artistic taste as on hispolitical and ideological
conceptions.[4]
The Führer did not have one particular style; there was no
official architecture of the Reich, only the neoclassicalbaseline
that was enlarged, multiplied, altered and exaggerated, sometimes
to the point of ludicrousness. Hitlerappreciated the permanent
qualities of the classical style as it had a relationship between
the Dorians and his ownGermanic world.
Three primary rolesNazi architecture has three primary roles in
the creation of its new order: (i) Theatrical; (ii) Symbolic; (iii)
Didactic.In addition, the Nazis saw architecture as a method of
producing buildings that had a function, but also served alarger
purpose. For example, the House of German Art had the function of
housing art, but through its form, styleand design it had the
purpose of being a community structure built using an Aryan style,
which acted as a kind oftemple to acceptable German art.
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Nazi architecture 3
StageMany Nazi buildings were stages for communal activity,
creations of space meant to embody the principles on whichNazi
ideology was based. From Albert Speer's seemingly iconoclastic use
of banners for the May Day celebrations inthe Lustgarten, to the
Nazi co-option of the Thing tradition, the Nazis wanted to link
themselves to a German past.
The Dietrich Eckart Theater during a scene fromHandel's
Herakles
The link could be direct; a Thingplatz (or Thingstätte) was a
meetingplace near or directly on a site of supposed special
historicalsignificance, used for the holding of festivals
associated with aGermanic past. This was an attempt to link the
German people back toboth their history and their land. The use of
'Thing' places was closelyassociated with the 'blood and soil' part
of Nazi ideology, whichinvolved the perceived right of those of
German blood to occupyGerman land. The Thingplatz would contain
structures, which oftenincluded natural objects like stones and
were built in the most naturalsetting possible. These structures
would be built following the patternof an ancient Greek theatre,
following a structure of a historical cultureconsidered to be
Aryan. This stressing of a physical link between thepast and Nazism
aided to legitimatize the Nazi view of history, or eventhe Nazi
regime itself. Still, the 'Thing' movement was not successful.
The link could be indirect; the May Day celebrations of 1936 in
Berlintook place in a Lustgarten that had been transformed into a
stage. Thistransformation was not the standard dressing of a
specific place but acreation of a new anonymous, pure, cubic space
that freed itself fromthe immediate history of Berlin, the church
and the monarchy, yet wasstill associated with the distant aura of
a Hellenic past. This was simply
the creation of a new ceremonial place in direct competition
with the former Royal Palace and Altes Museum, botheven in the
1930s, still symbols of a royal Berlin. The symbolism was clear;
any speaker at the event would bestanding in front of the Altes
Museum, which housed Germany's classical collection that could be
seen by theaudience only through Nazi banners. There was a link
between the new order and the classical past, but the neworder was
paramount.
The Nazis would bring the community together using architecture,
creating a stage for the community experience.These buildings were
also solely for the German people, the great hall in Berlin was not
a supranational People'sHouse like those being built in the Soviet
Union, but the stage where tens of thousands of recharged citizens
wouldenter into a solemn mystic union with the Supreme Leader of
the German Nation. The sheer size of the stage itselfwould magnify
the importance of what was being said.How these stages were set was
also an issue, from the most mundane building to the grandest, the
form and styleused in their construction tell a great deal about
and are symbols of those who created them, when they were
createdand why they were created. Designs of this kind occasionally
occur by accident; however, the architectural stylesspeak to the
tastes of those who constructed the building or paid for its
construction. It also speaks to the tastes of thegeneral
architectural movements of the time and the regional variants that
influenced them. Nazi buildings were anexpression of the essence of
the movement, built as a National Socialist building should be,
regardless of the styleused.
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Nazi architecture 4
SymbolicDetermining what National Socialists saw as the concept
of Nazi Architecture is problematic. Various members ofthe
leadership had differing views and tastes and commentators see the
same style in different ways. Roger Eatwellsees the format used at
the Nuremberg rallies as a mixture of Catholic ceremony and
left-wing Expressionist formand lighting, while Sir Nevile
Henderson saw a cathedral of ice. Still, if a building was designed
and built using theNazi version of what was German, it was
considered Nazi Architecture.In general, there were two primary
National Socialist styles of architecture. Nazi Architecture in its
crudest sensewas either a squared-off version of neoclassical
architecture, or a mimicry of völkisch and national romanticism
inbuildings and structures. The most notable example of this is the
Wewelsburg castle complex redesigned in a verymythological way as a
cult site for the SS. Especially in the North Tower of the castle
medieval Romanesque andGothic architecture was imitated. The
Wewelsburg was to become "centre of the world".The neoclassical
style was primarily used for urban state buildings or party
buildings such as the Zeppelin Field inNuremberg, the planned
Volkshalle for Berlin and the Dietrich Eckart Stage in Berlin. This
style was not just usedfor physical construction, but on the
ordered columns of searchlights that formed Speer's 'cathedral of
light' used atthe Nuremberg Party Rallies.The völkish style was
primarily used in rural settings for accommodation or community
structures like theOrdensburg in Krössinsee, the walls and
watchtowers of KL Flossenbürg and KL Mauthausen. It was also to
beapplied to rural new towns as it represented a mythical medieval
time when Germany was free of foreign andcosmopolitan influences.
This style was also used in a limited way for buildings with modern
uses like weatherservice broadcasting and the administration
building for the federal post office.Most Nazi Architecture was
novel neither in style nor concept; it was not supposed to be. Even
a cursory inspectionof what was intended for Berlin finds analogies
all over the world. Long boulevards with important buildings
alongthem can be found in the grid pattern road structures of
Washington and New York, the Mall and Whitehall inLondon, and the
boulevards of Paris. Large domes can be found on the buildings of
the Mughal Empire of India, theCapitol in Washington, the Pantheon
and Basilica di San Pietro in Rome. Even the 'Kraft durch Freude'
"Strengththrough Joy" resort at Prora is not wholly unlike the
buildings envisaged by Le Corbusier in his 'City of ThreeMillion
Inhabitants'. The building of a formal governmental zone outside
the centre of an old city or totally on itsown had become
commonplace by the 1930s. This is not to say their plans were
simply an attempt to copy others,but that they were following a
pattern already established in human society. The forms used may
have been inspiredby other city redevelopment plans like Edwin
Lutyens' Delhi, Burnham's Chicago or even Walter Burley
Griffin'sCanberra.National Socialism is often viewed as anti-modern
and romantic or having a pragmatic willingness to use modernmeans
in pursuit of anti-modern purposes. This confuses the Nazi dislike
of certain styles like the Bauhaus with ablanket dislike of all
modern styles. This was based mainly on what the Bauhaus and others
were seen asrepresenting, like foreign influences or the decadence
of the Weimar Republic. The lack of any human scale detailsor plain
exteriors may have produced an overwhelming effect, but this style
was common from the 1910s onwards.This modern approach was not
limited to the neo-classical buildings for city centres, but was
also used for völkischbuildings like Ordensburgs and Autobahn
garages.The neo-classical style used was not novel for the time; it
was firmly anchored in time. Speer's style was assimilating the
international 1930s style of public architecture, which was then
being pursued as a modernising classicism. This is in direct
contrast to Peter Adams's attempts to separate Nazi art from the
Zeitgeist and present it as something that can be looked at through
only the lens of Auschwitz. This is trying to establish by default
a thesis that ugly regimes must produce ugly buildings and such
regimes are so evil that everything they produce must be evil or
third-rate. The reality was that destroying to build anew was a
standard polemical gesture of the Modernist movement and the styles
chosen were not unlike the ones being used at the time. To
criticize Speer's architectural style is to criticise buildings
being built at the same time all over the world. Ultimately, Nazi
Architecture was not supposed to be pleasing; its
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Nazi architecture 5
purpose was to fulfil its task.Hitler saw the buildings of the
past as direct representations of the culture that created them and
how they werecreated. Hitler believed they could be used by man to
transmit his time and its spirit to posterity and that in his
time,ultimately, all that remained to remind men of the great
epochs of history was their monumental architecture.
NaziArchitecture should speak to the conscience of a future Germany
centuries from now. As Hitler said in a speech, 'Thepurpose of Nazi
architecture and technology should be to create ruins that would
last a thousand years and therebyovercome the transience of the
market.'[5]
Central to this was Albert Speer's [[#Theory of Ruin
Value|Theory of Ruin Value]], in which the Nazis would
buildstructures which even in a state of decay, after hundreds or
thousands of years would more or less resemble Romanmodels. Speer
intended to produce this result by avoiding elements of modern
construction such as steel girders andreinforced concrete which are
subject to weathering and by designing his buildings to withstand
the impact of thewind even if the roofs and ceilings were so
neglected that they no longer braced the walls. In this respect, it
can beseen that by going back to the materials of the past and by
the proper engineering of buildings it was possible tocreate a
permanence that was impossible with contemporary building materials
and styles. It has been suggested thatthe use of stone was more a
result of economic necessity or the product of an attempt by the SS
to build up a stableposition within the German economy, but both
are at most secondary to the desire for the permanence stone
gives.To Hitler, only the great cultural documents of humanity made
of granite and marble could symbolize his new order.The theory of
ruin value could be seen as a backward looking concept; however,
what it actually does is look at thetypes of buildings that survive
from the past, understand why they survived, and attempt to build
the new buildingsof the Reich based on such understanding. In
addition, the infrastructure and organization behind the provision
ofbuilding material was purely of the time. Hitler was not like
Shelley's Ozymandias, a leader boasting about his powerto the
future, but rather a builder of symbolic expressions of the Nazi
movement and of the new Germany they wouldcreate.Nazi buildings
were not to be like the Reichstag, seen as a grandiose monument
conjuring up historicalreminiscences, but as symbols of a new
Germany. The buildings had to be suitable for their intended role.
Anexample of this is the rebuilt Reichskanzlei that was planned as
a symbol of the Greater German Reich, whichincluded Austria even
though at the time of planning the Anschluss was still three years
away. So important was thesymbolism of the buildings that their
form was decided on long before their construction and in some
cases, evenbefore the events they were to symbolize. Speer himself
remarked that many of the buildings Hitler asked him toconstruct
were glorifying the victories he didn't yet have in his pocket.
Hitler drew sketches of buildings he hoped tobuild as early as the
1920s, when there was not a shred of hope that they could ever be
built. The buildings had tolook the part: the Reichskanzlei must
look like the centre of the Reich, not the headquarters of a soap
company. Nazibuildings would be the great cultural documents that
the new order would create in their stronger,
protectedcommunity.Symbolic architecture need not be built as it
often already existed. In 1941 the SS newspaper Das Schwarze
Korpspublished an essay by Heinrich Himmler entitled "German
Castles in the East", in which he wrote, "When people aresilent,
stones speak. By means of the stone, great epochs speak to the
present so that fellow citizens; are able to upliftthemselves
through the beauty of self-made buildings. Proud and self-assured,
they should be able to look upon theseworks erected by their own
community." Himmler continues by creating a cyclical process
linking the people, theirblood and their buildings, "Buildings are
always erected by people. People are children of their blood, are
membersor their race. As blood speaks, so the people build."Where
buildings held important cultural items, they would either be
remodelled like Brunswick Cathedral, whichwas the burial place of
Henry the Lion, co-opted like Strasbourg Cathedral as the monument
to Germany's unknownsoldier, or moved to a more appropriate
position, like the Victory Column in Berlin.Like the Sacré-Coeur
basilica in Montmartre or the Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, the new
buildings of the National Socialists would replace the commercial
buildings that were signs of the cultural decay and general
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Nazi architecture 6
break-up of the Berlin of the 1930s. To express their true Aryan
nature, the Nazis had to destroy the creations ofnon-Germans and
the decadent past and accept Hitler's judgment as to which way
German art must go in order tofulfil its task as the expression of
German character. The new Berlin, like the new National Socialist
Germany,would superimpose itself onto the decadence of the old. The
Nazi vision of a city would replace the visions of thepast, they
would replace the twilight, or the past, with clarity, cleanliness,
and pure, distinct lines.Symbols were not just limited to permanent
buildings; familiar symbols of the north European past were
usedregularly in the decorations for Nazi festivals. An example of
this is the use of the Maypole at the May Daycelebrations. It is
the traditional symbol throughout northern Europe of the end of
winter and of the reawakening ofnature and the focus of community
events.
The Ordensburg Sonthofen
At the doors of the German Pavilion at the 1937 Paris Exhibition
weretwo sets of seven meter high statues that symbolized family
andcommunity. The pavilion that was designed as a blatant symbol
ofNazi Germany was planned by a German, Albert Speer and built
solelyout of German materials shipped from within Germany.
Symbolism, graphic art and hortatory inscriptions were prominent
inall forms of Nazi-approved architecture. The eagle with the
wreathedswastikas, heroic friezes and free-standing sculpture were
common.Often mottoes or quotations from Mein Kampf or Hitler's
speecheswere placed over doorways or carved into walls. The Nazi
messagewas conveyed in friezes, which extolled labour, motherhood,
theagrarian life and other values. Muscular nudes, symbolic of
militaryand political strength, guarded the entrance to the Berlin
Chancellery[6]
The Ordensburgen are the schools at which the ideology
ofNational Socialism is taught to a picked group of youths
whodesire to dedicate their lives to political service.
TheOrdensburgen's architectural form derives from the
fortresslikecastles built by the Teutonic Knights whose mission it
was to civilise and colonise the lands east of the Elbe.Since it is
the mission of the Ordensburg to train and develop a new order of
leaders who are to take with theminto practical life the ideals of
the movement which they serve, this form represents an
appropriatearchitectural symbol.[7]
The three NSDAP-Ordensburgen were Ordensburg Krössinsee,
Ordensburg Sonthofen and Ordensburg Vogelsang.
DidacticHitler saw architecture as "The Word In Stone," a method
of imparting a message. This is not regime architectureprimarily
for general propaganda purposes as argued by Benton, but is work
meant to impart a specific message.This would be a message that all
decent Germans would understand, like the lessons of events at the
Degenerate Artexhibition staged in Munich in 1937. They would not
understand it because they were told to; they would understandit
simply because of who they were.
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Nazi architecture 7
A German autobahn in the 1930s
The Nazis chose new versions of past styles for most oftheir
architecture. This should not be viewed simply as anattempt to
reconstruct the past, but rather an effort to useaspects of the
past to create a new present. Most buildingsare copies in some form
or other, but for the Nazis, copyingthe past not only linked them
to the past in general but alsospecifically to an Aryan past.
Neo-classical architecture andRenaissance architecture were direct
representations ofAryan culture. Völkish architecture was also
Aryan but of aGermanic nature. Still, these analogues were not part
of anattempt to recreate an actual past, but were meant toemphasize
the importance of Aryan culture as a justificationfor the actions
of the present. Many other nations from theAustro Hungarian Empire
to the United States have constructed major government buildings in
historical styles toget across a specific message.
While Hitler saw the architecture of the Weimar Republic as an
object lesson in cultural decline, the new buildingshe would build
would teach a different lesson, that of national rebirth. The size
of the buildings proposed for Berlinwould be among the largest in
the world, meant to instill in each individual German citizen the
insignificance ofindividuals in relation to the community as a
whole. The distinct lack of any detailing at a human scale in the
urbanneo-classical building would have simply overawed, imparting
the message without any subtlety. If the message wasnot understood
it would be drummed in by making people go in straight lines to
predetermined positions. Themessage of community would even affect
holidays. Clemens Klotz's Prora would not only have a Festhalle in
whichpeople would hear speeches and get involved in communal events
but also give everyone the same view of the sea.Engineering could
be coupled with architecture to teach lessons too. It is clear that
the Autobahn was seen as a wayof creating a community, which was
both physically and symbolically linked. When Carl Theoder Protzen
entitledhis painting of the Autobahn bridge at Leipheim, "Clear the
forest - dynamite the rock; conquer the valley; overcomethe
distance; stretch the road through the German land," he was linking
clear connections between what should bedone and what it was to
accomplish. Building the Autobahn would not only teach the German
people that they werelinked together but also would show that it
had been accomplished by Germans working together. It would be
aninspiration for the construction of the community of the German
People. The effort that went into the styling ofAutobahn bridges
and garages shows plainly that it was more than just a motorway. In
some circumstances, thedesign used for the Autobahn actually
affects the functioning of its supposed purpose.The role the Nazis
hoped architecture would play in the creation of a new order was
like that of a book: to provide aplace to hold the message, the
symbols to impart it and a teacher to read it. Architecture, like
every other art form,would be produced to serve the new Nazi order.
For them, if this meant following existing architectural styles
orproviding analogues of other buildings, then so it is.
Cult of victoryBoth the Nazis and the Romans employed
architecture of colossal dimensions to overawe and intimidate.
Bothcultures were preoccupied with architectural monuments that
celebrated or glorified a victory ideology: triumphalarches (the
largest in the world on Berlin's north-south axis), columns,
trophies, and a cult of pageantry associatedwith the subjugation of
others. As Albert Speer remarked, when it was safe to do so: "The
Romans built arches oftriumph to celebrate the big victories won by
the Roman Empire, while Hitler built them to celebrate victories he
hadnot yet won."[8]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_Autobahn_1936_1939.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Austria-Hungaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clemens_Klotzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Festhallehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Theoder_Protzenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leipheimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazism
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Nazi architecture 8
The Nazis planned and built many military trophies and memorials
(Gr Mahnmäler), on the eastern borders of theReich. In the same
way, the Romans had built celebratory trophies on the borders of
their empire to commemoratevictories and warn off would-be
attackers. One of the most prominent memorial buildings intended to
commemorateGermany's past and anticipated military glory was
Wilhelm Kreis's Soldatenhalle. This was to be yet another
cultcentre to promote the regime's glorification of war, patriotic
self-sacrifice and virtutes militares. The mainarchitectural
features of this building were overtly Roman.[9] A groin-vaulted
crypt beneath the main barrel-vaultedhall was intended as a
pantheon of generals exhibited here in effigy. In addition, it
functioned as a herõon, since thebones of Frederick the Great were
to be placed in the building.[10]
Flags and insignia played an important part in Nazi ceremonial
and in the decoration of buildings. The eagle-toppedstandards
carried by the SA at Nuremberg rallies were reminiscent of Roman
legionary standards, the uniformity ofwhich Hitler admired.[11]
There can be little doubt that Hitler's state architecture, even
when seen today inphotographs of architectural models, conveys a
sense of "Power and Force" (Gr Macht und Gewalt), which of
courseHitler wanted it to embody.[12]
Inevitably, after Hitler's defeat, the colossal dimensions of
his buildings tended to be seen, as they were by Speer inhis
memoirs, as symbols of Hitler's megalomania. This is perhaps a
valid view point, but it is also something of anoversimplification,
since at the time the buildings were planned and erected, they were
valid symbols of Germany'srapidly rising power and expressed the
optimism generated by Hitler's spectacular initial victories. The
vast publicbuildings of ancient Rome have rarely been explained as
symptoms of imperial megalomania, except perhaps for theDomus
Aurea, since Roman imperialism, which generated money and labour
necessary for the erection of Rome'smonumental buildings, was
supremely successful and long-lived. Hitler's architecture is
sometimes misjudgedbecause he was building for the future in
anticipation of a greatly enlarged Reich. Here it is worth noting
thatVitruvius perceived that Augustus was building on a large scale
for future greatness. Hitler's optimistic expectationswere
frustrated and in the aftermath of catastrophe his architectural
plans seemed by many to be those of a madman.However difficult it
may be to view these plans objectively, it would be a mistake to
regard his buildings as eitherpsychologically ineffective or
symbolically impotent. This is certainly not the impression given
by Speer or Gieslerat the time they were articulating Hitler's
architectural plans.[13]
Had Hitler achieved all his political and military aims and had
his successors consolidated and perhaps evenexpanded his
territorial gains, the art and architecture of Germany would
undoubtedly have reflected the sentimentthat pervaded much of
Rome's art in the Augustan period, that is, a confidently assumed
right to dominate others,which Virgil elegantly, if brutally,
expressed in Aeneid 6.851-53: "Remember, Roman, to exercise
dominion overnations. These will be your skills: to impose culture
on peace, to spare the conquered and to war down the proud."This
passage, so much in tune with Nazi aspirations is repeatedly
referred to in the political literature of Germany atthe time.
Berlin's reshapingIn (Mein Kampf 1.10), Adolf Hitler states that
industrialized German cities of his day lacked dominating
publicmonuments and a central focus for community life. In fact,
criticism of the rapid industrialization of German citiesafter 1870
had already been voiced.[14]
The ideal Nazi city was not to be too large, since it was to
reflect pre-industrial values and its state monuments, theproducts
and symbols of collective effort (Gr.Gemeinschaftsarbeiten), were
to be given maximum prominence bybeing centrally situated in the
new and reshaped cities of the enlarged Reich.Hitler's comments in
(Mein Kampf 1.10) indicated that he saw buildings such as the
Colosseum and the Circus Maximus as symbols of the political might
and power of the Roman people. Hitler stated, "Architecture is not
only the spoken word in stone, but also is the expression of the
faith and conviction of a community, or else it signifies the
power, greatness and fame of a great man or ruler." In Hitler's
cultural address, "The Buildings of the Third Reich," delivered in
September 1937, in Nuremberg, he affirmed that the new buildings of
the Reich were to
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Nazi architecture 9
reinforce the authority of the Nazi party and the state and at
the same time provide "gigantic evidence of thecommunity" (Gr.
gigantischen Zeugen unserer Gemeinschaft). The architectural
evidence of this authority couldalready be seen in Nuremberg,
Munich and Berlin and would become still more evident when more
plans had beenput into effect.On September 19, 1933, Hitler told
the mayor of Berlin that his city was "unsystematic", but it was
not until January30, 1937, that Speer was officially put in charge
of plans for the reshaping of Berlin, although he had been
workingon them unofficially in 1936.
The masterplan model of reshaped Berlin.
The plan that Speer coordinated as 'Inspector General
ofConstruction' (GBI) for the centre of Berlin was based on
Roman,not Greek, planning principles, which might or might not
havebeen influenced by Roman-derived town plans in Fascist
Italy.Speer's plan was to create a central north-south axis, which
was tointersect the major east-west axis at right angles. On the
north sideof the junction a massive forum of about 350,000 square
metreswas planned, around which were to be situated buildings of
thegreatest political and physical dimensions: a vast
domedVolkshalle on the north side, Hitler's vast new palace
andchancellery on the west side and part of the south side, and on
theeast side the new High Command of the German armed forces andthe
now-dwarfed pre-Nazi Reichstag. These buildings were to beplaced in
strong axial relationship around the forum designed tocontain one
million people, and were collectively to represent the"maiestas
imperii" (The Majesty of the Empire) and make the newworld capital,
Germania, outshine its only avowed rival, Rome.
The plan for the centre of Berlin differed only in its
dimensionsfrom the plans drawn up for the reshaping of smaller
German cities and for the establishment of new towns inconquered
territories. The order for the reshaping of other German cities was
signed by Hitler on October 4, 1937.In each town, the new community
buildings were not to be sited randomly, but were to have prominent
(usuallycentral) positions within the town plan. The clarity, order
and objectivity that Hitler aimed at in the layout of histowns and
buildings were to be achieved in conquered territories in the East
by founding new colonies and inGermany itself by reshaping the
centres of already established towns and cities.[15] In order to
provide a town withcentrally located community centres, principles
of town planning reminiscent of Greek, but more especially
Roman,methods were revived.[16]
Nazi architecture was, both in appearance and symbolically,
intimidating, an instrument of conquest. Totalarchitecture was an
extension of total war.[17] Speer wrote in 1978 "My architecture
represented an intimidatingdisplay of power."The airport halls of
Tempelhof International Airport built by Nazi architect Ernst
Sagebiel are still known as thelargest built entities worldwide.
The colossal dimensions of Roman and Nazi buildings also served to
emphasize theinsignificance of the individual engulfed in the
architectural vastness of a state building. The
philosopherJean-Jacques Rousseau's reactions on visiting the Pont
du Gard in 1737 produced in him the response that Hitlerhoped for
Berlin, to impress with its grandeur.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welthauptstadt_Germaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146III-373,_Modell_der_Neugestaltung_Berlins_("Germania").jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volkshallehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welthauptstadt_Germaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tempelhof_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Sagebielhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pont_du_Gard
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Nazi architecture 10
Architecture as religionA major difference between the
neoclassical state architecture of Nazi Germany and neoclassical
architecture inother modern countries in Europe and America is that
in Germany it was but one facet of a severely authoritarianstate.
Its dictator aimed to establish architectural order; gridiron town
plans, axial symmetry, hierarchical placementof state structure
within urban space on a scale intended to reinforce the social and
political order desired by the Nazistate, which anticipated the
displacement of Christian religion and ethical values by a new kind
of worship based onthe cult of Nazi martyrs and leaders and with a
value system close to that of pre-Christian Rome.The first Nazi
forum, Königsplatz, in Munich was planned in 1931-32 by Hitler and
his architect Paul LudwigTroost, whom Speer says Hitler regarded as
the greatest German architect since Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Troost
hadalready redecorated the interior of the so-called Brown House on
Brienner Strasse in 1930 after its acquisition by theNazi party
([[#Books|Lehmann-Haupt 113]]). Troost, who like his successor,
Speer, aimed to revive an earlyclassical or Doric architecture,
could not have found a more encouraging context for his endeavours
than the neoclassical architectural setting of Königsplatz.
However, like Hitler, he found Bauhaus architecture distasteful,
theEhrentempel he designed was not uninfluenced by modernist
tendencies, in no respect were his templesconventionally Doric. In
the summer of 1931 Troost prepared drawings for four party
buildings that were to beerected at the east end of the forum,
symmetrically placed along Arcisstrasse. The Nazi literature of the
period leaveslittle doubt that this new forum was regarded as a
sacred cult centre, which was even referred to as
"AcropolisGermainiae."Priority was given to the erection of two
"martyrs" temples of identical shape named the Ehrentempel, placed
just toeither side of the square's long axis. The Ehrentempel were
demolished in 1947.In 1935, Hitler said the martyrs' bodies were
not to be buried out of sight in crypts, but should be placed in
the openair, to act as eternal sentinels for the German nation.
Hitler later insisted on this detail when Hermann Gieslerplanned
the Volkshalle for Weimar's forum. He asked his architect to ensure
that the two crypts, which were tocontain the bodies of Brown
Shirts SA killed in Thuringia, which were to placed at the entrance
to the Volksahlle, belit by open oculi.[18] It is interesting too
that later still 1940 Hitler asked Giesler to plan his own
mausoleum inMunich in such a way that his sarcophagus would be
exposed to sun and rain.[19] It is worth noting that in
Hitler'swill of May 2, 1938, written the day before he left Germany
for his state visit to Rome, Hitler instructed that hisbody was to
be put in a coffin similar to that of the other martyrs and placed
in the Ehrentempel next to theFührerbau.Troost's temples in
Königsplatz were thus regarded as guard posts, a notion reinforced
by the presence of SSsentinels who stood guard at the entrance of
each temple. A year earlier Hitler had said that the blood of the
martyrswas to be the baptismal water (Gr.Taufwasser) of the Third
Reich. Such imagery perhaps disturbed devoutChristians, yet it left
no doubt that the cult of Nazi heroes was to replace the worship of
Christian martyrs. Thisobjective was demonstrated in another way:
No Nazi forum planned for any German city was to incorporate a
newchurch. Indeed, a cathedral (Gr.Quedlinburg) was turned into a
shrine by the SS, who planned to treat the cathedralsof Brunswick
and Strasbourg in the same way; in Munich a church was demolished
to make way for new Nazibuildings.[20] Yet, overseas the impression
was created that the building of new churches was an integral part
of thenew Nazi building program. Temples for martyrs were given
pride of place, as at Königsplatz or, as at the Weimarforum,
martyrs' crypts at the entrance of the Volkshalle were given
prominence.[21]
On September 6, 1938, Hitler made his position clear about the
attitude of the Nazis toward religion. He said that in its purpose
National Socialism had no mystic cult, only the care and leadership
of a people defined by a common blood relationship. He continued
with the remark that Nazis had no rooms for worship but only halls
for the people (that is, no churches, but Volkshallen) no open
spaces for worship, but spaces for assemblies and parades
(Gr.Aufmarschplätze). Nazis had no religious retreats, only sports
arenas and playing fields (Gr.Stadia) and the characteristic
feature of Nazi places of assembly was not the mystical gloom of a
cathedral, but the brightness and light of a room or hall that
combined beauty with fitness for its purpose. Three days prior to
making this statement,
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Nazi architecture 11
which relates precisely to the functions of Nazi state building
plans and types, Hitler had stated that worship forNazis was
exclusively the cultivation of the natural (that is, the
Dionysiac). In addition, Alfred Rosenberg made itclear that Nazism
and the Christian Church were incompatible.However, Hitler's model
was that of a Roman Catholic Church. The mysticism of Christianity,
created buildings witha mysterious gloom which made men more ready
to submit to the renunciation of self.[22] Hitler was
deeplyimpressed by the organization, ritual and architecture of the
church. In writing of the spell which an orator can weaveover an
audience, Hitler stated:
The same purpose is served by the artificial and yet mysterious
twilight in Catholic churches.[23]
He might have envied the powerful influence, which the church
exerted on the masses, for on one occasion Hitlerdeclared:
the concluding meeting in Nuremberg must be exactly as solemnly
and ceremonially performed as a service ofthe Catholic
Church."[24]
Whereas the Nazi buildings should reflect the devout spirit of
the movement, there was no place for mysticism inthem. Nazism was
cool-headed and realistic. It mirrored scientific knowledge. It was
not a religious cult. Hitler notedthat the Nazi party had no
religious retreats and no rooms for worship with the mystical gloom
of the cathedral butrather halls for the Volk[25]
Thus, the huge Volkshalle was to dominate Berlin's new forum and
north-south axis, whereas at EUR the newChurch of the Saints Paul
and Peter dominated the new town's decumanus. Its dome is the
second largest in Romeafter that of St. Peter's Basilica, whereas
the dome of Saint Peter's would have fitted through the oculus in
the domeof the Berlin Volkshalle. No two buildings could better
illustrate the differences between Nazi Germany and FascistItaly
with respect to Christian worship. Fascist Italy incorporated Rome
of the Caesars and of the Popes. NaziGermany espoused only the
values of pagan Rome where Christians who flouted the cult of the
emperor werepenalized. The globe on the lantern of St. Peter's
Basilica is surmounted by a cross. The globe of the world, whichwas
to be placed on the lantern of the Berlin Volkshalle, was firmly
gripped in the talons of an imperial eagle, whichwere also
Reichsadler and the attribute of Zeus/Jupiter. The political theme
of a globe gripped by an eagle wasrendered in bronze by the
sculptor Ernst Andreas Rauch for the exhibition of art in the House
of German Art in1940.[21]
Not only were churches excluded from the new fora but also so
was the town hall (Gr.Rathaus) since the mayor(Gr.Bürgermeister)
yielded to the Führer as the representative of local community and
nation. This was an essentialfeature of the leader principle
(Gr.Füherprinzip).[26]
In the Nuremberg Party Rallies, leader and led met together and
everyone was filled with wonder at the event, in oneof Hitler's
Nuremberg speeches he stated, "Not every one of you sees me and I
do not see every one of you. But Ifeel you and you feel
me!."[27]
A notable feature of these rallies was that they were often held
at night with spectacular light effects, such aspowerful search
lights, creating pillars of white light many kilometres long around
the perimeter of an assemblyground. The effect of such a
contrivance was described as a "Cathedral of Light" (Gr. Lichtdom).
The term is mostappropriate, since Hitler had already stated in
Mein Kampf[28] that the Church in its wisdom had studied
thepsychological appeal made upon worshippers by their
surroundings: the use of artificially produced twilight castingits
secret spell upon the congregation, as well as incense and burning
candles. If the National Socialist speaker wereto study the
psychology of these effects, it would be beneficial. The lighting
effects in Nuremberg, particularly at theZeppelinfeld stadium, owed
nothing to chance. The congregationalizing of Nazi souls in
assembly buildings neededa suitable political framework to make it
possible.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Rosenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Peter%27s_Basilicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Peter%27s_Basilicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reichsadlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jupiter_%28god%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Andreas_Rauchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=F%C3%BChrerprinziphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Language
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Nazi architecture 12
Theory of Ruin ValueThe "Theory of Ruin Value" (Gr.
Ruinenwerttheorie) was conceived by Albert Speer, who recommended
that, inorder to provide a "bridge to tradition" to future
generations, modern "anonymous" materials such as steel girdersand
ferroconcrete should be avoided in the construction of monumental
party buildings wherever possible, sincesuch materials would not
produce aesthetically acceptable ruins. Thus the most politically
significant buildings of theReich would to some extent even after
falling into ruins after thousands of years, resemble their Roman
models. Thequarries of the Reich could not supply enough granite to
build Hitler's monuments for posterity. Consequently,
vastquantities of granite and marble were ordered from quarries in
Sweden, Finland, Denmark, France and Italy.[29] [30]
In Mein Kampf,[31] Hitler had stressed the need for increased
expenditure on public buildings that in terms ofdurability and
aesthetic appeal would match the opera publica of the ancient
world.After the total collapse of the Third Reich in 1945, one of
Speer's major state buildings, the new Chancellery inBerlin, did
not become an aesthetic ruin but was treated like the monuments of
ancient Rome, after its politicalcollapse. For example the Russians
in 1947 demolished the hated Machtzentrum of the Führer, the marble
that hadonce decorated the representative rooms of the palace was
reused to build a Russian war memorial in East Berlin'sTreptower
Park and to construct the Thälmann-Platz[32] and the Mohrenstraße
[33] U-Bahn stations .
Hitler's mausoleumDuring Hitler's tour of Paris in June 1940 he
visited Les Invalides, where he stood silently gazing upon
Napoleon'stomb. In late 1940, Hitler advised Giesler about the
Pantheon and the mausoleum he wanted to build."Imagine to yourself,
Giesler, if Napoleon's sarcophagus were placed beneath a large
oculus, like that of thePantheon."[34] He goes on to express an
almost mystical delight in the thought that the sarcophagus would
beexposed to darkness and light, rain and snow and thus be linked
directly to the universe.Thus, Hitler decided on a mausoleum the
design of which was based on that of the Pantheon, not in its
originalfunction as a temple but in its later function as a tomb of
the famous: the artist Raphael and the kings VictorEmannuel II and
Umberto I.[35]
The mausoleum was to be connected to the Halle der Partei at
Munich by a bridge over Gabelsbergerstrasse, tobecome a
party-political cult centre in the city regarded by Hitler as the
home of the Nazi party. The dimensionswere slightly smaller than
the Pantheon. The oculus in the centre of the dome was to be one
metre wider in diameterthan that of the Pantheon (8.92 metres) to
admit more light on Hitler's sarcophagus, placed immediately under
it onthe floor of the rotunda. The modest dimensions of the
structure and its lack of rich decoration are at first
sightpuzzling in light of Hitler's predilection for gigantic
dimensions, but in this case the focal point of the building wasthe
Führer's sarcophagus, which was not to be dwarfed by dimension out
of all proportion to the size of thesarcophagus itself. Likewise,
rich interior decoration would have distracted the attention of
"pilgrims." Giesler'sscale model of the building apparently pleased
Hitler, but the model and plans, kept by Hitler in the
Reichskanzlei,are now probably in the hands of the Russians or have
been destroyed.[36] It was perhaps because Hitler was sopleased
with the design of his own mausoleum that in late autumn 1940 he
asked Giesler to design a mausoleum forhis parents in Linz. Giesler
gives no details of the structure, but it is clear from the
photograph of his model that oncemore Hadrian's Pantheon was the
model.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mein_Kampfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Opera_publicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chancelleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machtzentrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Berlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Treptower_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Th%C3%A4lmann-Platzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mohrenstra%C3%9Fe_%28Berlin_U-Bahn%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berlin_U-Bahnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Les_Invalideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Napoleonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantheon%2C_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raphaelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Umberto_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Halle_der_Parteihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gabelsbergerstrassehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reichskanzleihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linz
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Nazi architecture 13
SculptureSculpture was used as part of, and in conjunction with,
Nazi architecture to embody the "German Spirit" of divinedestiny.
Sculpture expressed the National Socialist obsession with the ideal
body and espoused nationalistic, stateapproved values like loyalty,
work, and family. Josef Thorak and Arno Breker were the most famous
sculptors of theNazi regime.Arno Breker was in a certain sense both
the best and the worst of the Nazi artists. Nominated as official
statesculptor on Hitler's birthday in 1937, his technique was
excellent, and his choice of subject, poses, theme wereoutstanding.
Breker uses his numerous "naked men with swords" to unite the
notions of health, strength, competition,collective action and
willingness to sacrifice the self for the common good seen in many
other Nazi works withexplicit glorification of militarism.
Labour and plunderThe number of skilled and unskilled workers
required to erect Hitler's increasingly gigantic buildings created
alabour problem. When he assumed power in 1933, there were still
many unemployed workers in Germany, some ofwhom were given work on
public building schemes that Hitler thought would stimulate a
sluggish German economyand at the same time provided him with
popular propaganda "Hitler Creates Jobs" (Gr Hitler Schafft
Arbeit). Themajority of the unemployed were quickly absorbed by the
armaments factories and not by the construction industry,as Nazi
propaganda suggested.[37]
However, the unemployed did not always thank Hitler for their
employment; German workers employed on thebuilding of the autobahns
repeatedly went on strike from 1934 onward because of their
atrocious working conditions,which led to graffiti such as "Adolf
Hitler's roads are built with the blood of German workers." The
Gestapo wasruthlessly used for strike-breaking and recalcitrant
workers were sent to concentration camps on the assumption thatthey
were communists.[38]
As preparations for war and later as the demands of war absorbed
increasingly larger quantities of steel, concrete andmanpower, the
state building program slowed down to the point where in 1943 all
work virtually came to a halt atthe Nuremberg rally
grounds.[39]
New quarries within Germany and Austria were established by the
SS, who set up concentration camps such asMauthausen, Flossenbürg,
Natzweiler and Gross-Rosen,[29] where inmates were forced to quarry
stone for Hitler'sbuildings. The inmates were to be given minimal,
low-cost diets, in which Himmler took a special interest. OnMarch
23, 1942, Himmler asked Oswald Pohl "to gradually develop a diet
which, like that of Roman soldiers orEgyptian slaves, contains all
the vitamins and is simple and cheap."Plans were also made to
import three million slavic peoples into Germany to work for twenty
years on the Reich'sbuilding sites.[40] By May 1941 more than three
million people were being forced to work in Germany and of these
athird were prisoners of war and the rest of the people forcibly
removed from conquered territories.[41]
This use of forced slave labour and the massive expenditure of
funds on buildings commissioned by an autocratunder no constraint
to disclose or justify such an expenditure, invites comparison with
Roman methods of paying forand erecting the opera publica.[42]
Rome's vast state buildings, admired and envied by Hitler, could
be built only because Roman imperialism over a period of centuries
generated the wealth and made available the manpower to pay for and
erect the structures that enhanced the "sovereign power of the
Roman people or the emperor" (Lt Maiestas) and spread the
propaganda of the emperor. In Rome public buildings were
customarily paid for out of plunder (Lt Manubiae) derived from
foreign wars. For example, Trajan's vast forum was financed from
booty derived from his Dacian wars. Julius Caesar's grandiose
building plans, partly put into effect after his death by Augustus,
were made possible thanks to the plunder he had gained from his
wars in Gaul. The acquisition of works of art for the embellishment
of private and public buildings was also frequently based on
plunder. Here one can point to the aftermath of the sack of Corinth
by Lucius
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Josef_Thorakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arno_Brekerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Militarismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gestapohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mauthausen-Gusen_concentration_camphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flossenb%C3%BCrghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natzweilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gross-Rosen_concentration_camphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oswald_Pohlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Opera_Publicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trajanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dacianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Caesarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corinthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Mummius_Achaicus
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Nazi architecture 14
Mummius Achaicus in 146 B.C., when shiploads of art treasures
were sent to Rome. So too Hitler "collected" worksof art from all
conquered territories for eventual exhibition in the vast gallery
that was to have been built in Linz.[43]
The use of forced labour on building sites both in Rome and in
the provinces was a normal Roman practice. Thus,buildings like the
Congress Hall in Nuremberg and the Volkshalle in Berlin, inspired
by the Colosseum and thePantheon, respectively, were not merely
symbols of tradition, order and reliability, but signaled a far
more sinisterintention on the part of the autocrat who commissioned
them: a return to Roman ethics, which recognized the naturalright
of a conqueror to enslave conquered peoples in the most literal
sense of the word, a right already made manifesteven within the
sphere of architecture by the creation of concentration camps,
whose inmates were forced to quarrythe stone for the Reich's
buildings.[44]
Thus, it seems clear that Hitler's grandiose plans for the
architectural embellishment of Berlin and Germany'sregional
capitals could have been achieved only by using the same methods as
those employed by the Romans:forcible acquisition of funds and
forced labour.[42] This would have caused two distinct
socio-demographic classes;those that are slave owners and those
that are slaves.
See also
General• Fascist architecture• Nazi Germany• Volk• Völkisch
movement• Welthauptstadt Germania
Nazi construction
• Atlantic Wall or Atlantikwall • Gaubunker • Ordensburg
Krössinsee• Autobahn • Gauhaus • Ordensburg Sonthofen• Berghof •
German Air Ministry • Ordensburg Vogelsang• Brown House or Braunes
Haus • Hall of Models • Prora• Carinhall • House of German Art or
Haus der Kunst • Reich Chancellery or
Reichskanzlei• Congress Hall • Hitler Youth Clubhouse or
Hitler-Jugend
Heim• Riese
• Deutsches Stadion • Jena Brücke • Soldatenhalle• Ehrentempel •
Königsplatz in Munich • Tempelhof International Airport• Flak Tower
or Flakturm • Eagles Nest or Kehlsteinhaus • Thingplatz or
Thingstätte• Fränkischer Hof • Nazi War Memorials • Triumphal Arch•
Führerbau • Nazi party rally grounds • Volkshalle• Führerbunker •
Obersalzberg • Winkeltürme
• Olympic Stadium, Berlin • Zeppelin Field or Zeppelinfeld
Hitler's builders
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Mummius_Achaicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fascist_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazi_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%B6lkisch_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welthauptstadt_Germaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_Wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantikwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaubunkerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ordensburg_Kr%C3%B6ssinseehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autobahnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gauhaushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ordensburg_Sonthofenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berghof_%28Hitler%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Air_Ministryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ordensburg_Vogelsanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brown_House%2C_Munich%2C_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brown_House%2C_Munich%2C_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hall_of_Modelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carinhallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haus_der_Kunsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haus_der_Kunsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reich_Chancelleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reichskanzleihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Congress_Hall_%28Nuremberg%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hitler_Youth_Clubhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hitler-Jugend_Heimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hitler-Jugend_Heimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project_Riesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deutsches_Stadionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jena_Br%C3%BCckehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soldatenhallehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ehrentempelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K%C3%B6nigsplatz_in_Munichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tempelhof_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flak_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flakturmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kehlsteinhaushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kehlsteinhaushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thingplatzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thingst%C3%A4ttehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fr%C3%A4nkischer_Hofhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazi_War_Memorialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triumphal_Arch_%28Hitler%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hochschule_f%C3%BCr_Musik_und_Theater_M%C3%BCnchenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazi_party_rally_groundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volkshallehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=F%C3%BChrerbunkerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obersalzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Winkelt%C3%BCrmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympic_Stadium%2C_Berlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zeppelin_Fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zeppelin_Field
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Nazi architecture 15
• Bestelmeyer, German • Giesler, Hermann • Nonn, Konrad •
Schultze-Naumburg, Paul• Bonatz, Paul • Grebe, Wilhelm • Rosenberg,
Alfred • Senger, Alexander von• Behrens, Peter • Höger, Fritz •
Ruff, Ludwig • Speer, Albert• Brinkmann,
Woldemar• Hönig, Eugen • Ruff, Franz • Todt, Fritz
• Fick, Roderich • Klotz, Clemens • Sagebiel, Ernst • Troost,
Paul Ludwig• Fischer, Theodor • Kreis, Wilhelm • Schmitthenner,
Paul • Wolters, Rudolf• Gall, Leonhard • March, Werner •
Schulte-Frohlinde, Julius
Further reading
Books• Baynes, Norman H. The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April
1922-August 1939, V1 & V2. London: Oxford
University Press, 1942. V1 - ISBN 0-598-75893-3 V2 - ISBN
0-598-75894-1• Cowdery, Ray and Josephine. The New German
Reichschancellery in Berlin 1938-1945• De Jaeger, Charles. The Linz
File, New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1982. ISBN 0-03-061463-5.•
Giesler, Hermann. Ein Anderer Hitler: Bericht Seines Architekten
Erlebnisse, Gesprache, Reflexionen, 2nd
Edition (Illustrated), Druffel, 1977. ISBN 3-8061-0820-X.•
Helmer, Stephen. Hitler's Berlin: The Speer Plans for Reshaping the
Central City (Illustrated). Ann Arbor: UMI
Research Press, 1985. ISBN 0-8357-1682-1.• Hitler, Adolf.
Hitler's Table Talk 1941-1944: His Private Conversations, 3rd
Edition. New York: Enigma Books,
2000. ISBN 1-929631-05-7.• Homze, Edward L. Foreign Labor in
Nazi Germany. New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1967.
ISBN
0-691-05118-6.• Jaskot, Paul. The Architecture of Oppression:
The SS, Forced Labor and the Nazi Monumental Building
Economy. New York: Routledge, 2000.• Krier, Leon. Albert Speer
Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989. ISBN
2-87143-006-3.• Lärmer, Karl. Autobahnbau in Deutschland 1933 bis
1945. Berlin: 1975.• Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut. Art under a
Dictatorship (Illustrated). New York: Octagon Books, 1973. ISBN
0-374-94896-8.• Lehrer, Steven. The Reich Chancellery and
Fuhrerbunker Complex• Petsch, Joachim. Baukunst Und Stadtplanung Im
Dritten Reich: Herleitung, Bestandsaufnahme, Entwicklung,
Nachfolge (Illustrated). C. Hanser, 1976. ISBN 3-446-12279-6.•
Rittich, Werner, Architektur und Bauplastik der Gegenwart,
published by Rembrandt-Verlag G.M.B.H., Berlin,
1938• Schönberger, Angela. Die Neue Reichskanzlei Von Albert
Speer, Berlin: Mann, 1981. ISBN 3-7861-1263-0.• Scobie, Alexander.
Hitler's State Architecture: The Impact of Classical Antiquity.
University Park: Pennsylvania
State University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-271-00691-9.• Schmitz,
Matthias. A Nation Builds: Contemporary German Architecture. New
York: German Library of
Information, 1940.• Speer, Albert. Inside The Third Reich. New
York: The Macmillan Company, 1970. ISBN 0-02-037500-X.• Spotts,
Frederic. Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics. Woodstock, NY:
Overlook Press, 2002. ISBN
1-58567-345-5• Taylor, Robert. Word in Stone: The Role of
Architecture in the National Socialist Ideology. Berkeley:
University
of California Press, 1974. ISBN 0-520-02193-2.• Thies, Jochen.
Hitlers Stadte: Baupolitik Im Dritten Reich E. Dokumentation
(Illustrated). Wird verschickt aus,
Germany: Böhlau Köln, 1978. ISBN 3-412-03477-0.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Bestelmeyerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hermann_Gieslerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konrad_Nonnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_Schultze-Naumburghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_Bonatzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilhelm_Grebehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Rosenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_von_Sengerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Behrenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fritz_Hogerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Ruffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albert_Speerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Woldemar_Brinkmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Woldemar_Brinkmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugen_Honighttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franz_Ruffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fritz_Todthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roderich_Fickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clemens_Klotzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Sagebielhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_Troosthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodor_Fischerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilhelm_Kreishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_Schmitthennerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Woltershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leonhard_Gallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Werner_Marchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Schulte-Frohlinde
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Nazi architecture 16
• Thies, Jochen. Architekt der Weltherrschaft. Die Endziele
Hitlers. 1982. ISBN 3-7700-0425-6.• Zoller, Albert von. Hitler
privat, 1949. ISBN B0000BPY63.
Documentaries• Adams,R.J. Ruins of the Reich, History Quest
Video 2006.
This film takes viewers on a then and now tour of the various
Nazi sites such as Tannenberg Memorial,Hindenburg's Neudeck
Estate,Maginot Line, big guns batteries of The Atlantic Wall,
U-boat Submarine pens,Hitler's campaign headquarters of
Wolfsschanze and Wolfsschlucht 2, Obersalzberg, Nazi party rally
grounds,D-Day landing beaches of the Normandy campaign, Ardennes,
scene of the infamous battle of the Bulge.Archival film is 1st
generation 35mm film from the Nazi Ministry of Public Enlightenment
and Propaganda, aswell as current footage of each site as they
appear today. English, DVD, 4 discs, 232 minutes.
• Adams,R.J.. Order Castles of the Third Reich, History Quest
Video, 2006.this production captures the mystic Teutonic fortresses
of Nazi Germany. The inside look at the Third Reich'ssecretive
Order Castles of Hitler's political soldiers, Hitler Youth and SS.
DVD, English, 60 minutes
• Goebbels, Joseph. Hitler's Constructions/Die Bauten von Adolf
Hitler (propaganda film), International HistoricFilms, 1938.
This propaganda film shows the varieties of National Socialist
constructions: youth hostels and party schools,bridge projects and
the Autobahn, ministries and party buildings, as well as the famous
monumental works,such as the Zeppelinfeld at Nuremberg. German
language, English subtitles; , 17 minutes.
• Cohen, Peter. The Architecture of Doom, First Run Features,
1991.This film analyzes the aesthetic's created and evisioned by
Adolf Hitler and the top echelon of the Third Reich.Using
never-before-seen footage, the film attempts to shed light on the
Nazis obsession with concepts of orderand stability borrowed from
ancient Greece and Rome. The film also attempts to show how the
Nazi aestheticled to the banning of such modern artists as Picasso.
This disturbing film documents the Nazi philosophy ofbeauty through
violence, highlighting Hitler's views on culture, art and
architecture. Includes exclusivearchival footage of the last days
of the Third Reich, with film shot inside Hitler's bunker.
• Kiefer, Kent. Ruins of the Third Reich, Kiefer Entertainment,
2005.This film was shot in 1947 by an American industrialist and
covers the destruction of the Third Reich in WorldWar II. Many of
the Nazi Party's most sacred and important sites appear in this
film in total ruins. Included israre and never before seen footage
of Hitler's bunker, the Reich Chancellery, Hitler's office,
Nuremberg rallysites and much more. Included is footage of Goebbels
residence after being partially destroyed by Russiangunfire,
Luftwaffe Administrative Headquarters (Post War American Military
Government H.Q.), theReichstag and the 1870 Victory Column that
Hitler had raised by 30 feet (9 meters). Also seen is the
OlympicStadium where the 1936 Summer Olympics took place, the Krupp
Steelworks in Essen, the former KruppEstate (British Administrative
H.Q.), the ruins of Cologne, a trip up the Rhine, the Nuremberg
Palace ofJustice and the Munich beer garden Burger Brau Keller
where Hitler's career began. This film is a fascinatinghistorical
document and time capsule depicting the aftermath of Germany's
destruction in World War II.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=R._J._Adamshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ruins_of_the_Reichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tannenberg_Memorialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maginot_Linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Atlantic_Wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Submarine_penhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wolfsschanzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wolfsschlucht_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obersalzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazi_party_rally_groundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Normandy_Landingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardenneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DVDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=R._J._Adamshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Order_Castles_of_the_Third_Reichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teutonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazi_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hitler_Youthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zeppelinfeldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Cohenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Architecture_of_Doomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adolf_Hitlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Third_Reichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hitler%27s_bunkerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reich_Chancelleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuremburg_Party_Rallieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuremburg_Party_Rallieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Goebbelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luftwaffe_Administrative_Headquartershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1870_Victory_Columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympic_Stadium%2C_Berlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympic_Stadium%2C_Berlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1936_Summer_Olympicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krupp_Steelworkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krupp_Estatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krupp_Estatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colognehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_Palace_of_Justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_Palace_of_Justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burger_Brau_Keller
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Nazi architecture 17
External links
Articles• A Theory of Ruin-value [45], Cornelius Holtorf, last
updated on 21 December 2004.
Graphics• Graphics [46]
• Graphics1 [47]
• Graphics2 [48]
• Graphics3 [49]
• Graphics4 [50]
Misc• Discussion forum [51]
• Leonding [52]
• Third Reich In Ruins [53]
• Flaktuerme [54]
• NS-Architektur [55] at Lebendiges Museum Online. (German)
References[1] [[#Books|Scobie 92]][2] [[#Books|Scobie 80]][3]
[[#Books|Taylor 11]][4] [[#Books|Speer, Third Reich, 75-76]][5]
Speer, pp. 93-4[6] [[#Books|Taylor 13]][7] [[#Books|Schmitz]][8]
[[#Books|Scobie 133-134]][9] [[#Books|Petsch 112]][10]
[[#Books|Scobie 134]][11] [[#Books|Hitler, Table Talk, 146]][12]
[[#Books|Taylor]][13] [[#Books|Scobie 136]][14] [[#books|Krier
219]][15] [[#Books|Taylor 250-269]][16] [[#Books|Scobie 41]][17]
[[#Books|Lehmann-Haupt 111]][18] [[#Books|Giesler 121]][19]
[[#Books|Giesler 116-117]][20] [[#Books|Thies, Hitlers Stadte,
60]][21] [[#Books|Scobie 65]][22] [[#Books|Baynes 577]][23] Mein
Kampf p. 475[24] [[#Books|Zoller 193]][25] [[#Books|Taylor 33]][26]
[[#Books|Petsch 82]][27] [[#Books|Baynes 197]][28] Mein Kampf pg.
532[29] [[#Books|Thies, Weltherrschaft, 100]][30] [[#Books|Scobie
94]][31] Mein Kampf 1.10[32] [[#Books|Scobie 95-96]]
https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/holtorf/7.4.htmlhttp://www.stanford.edu/dept/german/berlin_class/archives/speer_gallery.htmlhttp://www.dataphone.se/~ms/speer/welcom2.htmhttp://fcit.coedu.usf.edu/holocaust/resource/gallery/BERBLD.HTMhttp://fcit.coedu.usf.edu/holocaust/resource/gallery/MUNBLD.htmhttp://faculty-web.at.northwestern.edu/art-history/werckmeister/April_29_1999/index.htmlhttp://forum.axishistory.com/viewforum.php?f=44&sid=31b19e3eefff2a860e22cae679a11d49http://www.fpp.co.uk/Hitler/house/SouthBend0702.htmlhttp://www.thirdreichruins.com/contents.htmhttp://www.hojobeck.de/http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/kunst/architektur/index.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mein_Kampfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mein_Kampfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mein_Kampf
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Nazi architecture 18
[33] Roland Harder: Reichskanzlei (http:/ / www. roland-harder.
de/ relikte_drittes_reich/ reichskanzlei. html)[34]
[[#Books|Giesler 31]][35] [[#Books|Scobie 116]][36]
[[#Books|Giesler 35]][37] [[#Books|Lärmer 52-55]][38]
[[#Books|Lärmer 54]][39] [[#Books|Schönberger 164-166]][40]
[[#Books|Thies, Nazi Architecture, 58]][41] [[#Books|Homze 68]][42]
[[#Books|Scobie 131]][43] [[#Books|De Jaeger 52-56]][44]
[[#Books|Scobie 137]][45] https:/ / tspace. library. utoronto. ca/
citd/ holtorf/ 7. 4. html[46] http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ dept/
german/ berlin_class/ archives/ speer_gallery. html[47] http:/ /
www. dataphone. se/ ~ms/ speer/ welcom2. htm[48] http:/ / fcit.
coedu. usf. edu/ holocaust/ resource/ gallery/ BERBLD. HTM[49]
http:/ / fcit. coedu. usf. edu/ holocaust/ resource/ gallery/
MUNBLD. htm[50] http:/ / faculty-web. at. northwestern. edu/
art-history/ werckmeister/ April_29_1999/ index. html[51] http:/ /
forum. axishistory. com/ viewforum. php?f=44&
sid=31b19e3eefff2a860e22cae679a11d49[52] http:/ / www. fpp. co. uk/
Hitler/ house/ SouthBend0702. html[53] http:/ / www.
thirdreichruins. com/ contents. htm[54] http:/ / www. hojobeck.
de/[55] http:/ / www. dhm. de/ lemo/ html/ nazi/ kunst/
architektur/ index. html
http://www.roland-harder.de/relikte_drittes_reich/reichskanzlei.htmlhttps://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/holtorf/7.4.htmlhttp://www.stanford.edu/dept/german/berlin_class/archives/speer_gallery.htmlhttp://www.dataphone.se/~ms/speer/welcom2.htmhttp://fcit.coedu.usf.edu/holocaust/resource/gallery/BERBLD.HTMhttp://fcit.coedu.usf.edu/holocaust/resource/gallery/MUNBLD.htmhttp://faculty-web.at.northwestern.edu/art-history/werckmeister/April_29_1999/index.htmlhttp://forum.axishistory.com/viewforum.php?f=44&sid=31b19e3eefff2a860e22cae679a11d49http://www.fpp.co.uk/Hitler/house/SouthBend0702.htmlhttp://www.thirdreichruins.com/contents.htmhttp://www.hojobeck.de/http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/kunst/architektur/index.html
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Article Sources and Contributors 19
Article Sources and ContributorsNazi architecture Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=331746868
Contributors: AI, Alangstone, Alarix, Aldis90, Aleenf1,
Alex1011, Alsandro, Andreasmperu,AnonymousPrivateIndividual,
Asknine, Attilios, Ave Caesar, BD2412, BYF, Balcer, Battlefield,
Bhoesicol, BillC, BlGene, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bronks,
Bumhoolery, Bytwerk,CALR, CLW, Cahier, Carptrash, Chessy999, Chris
the speller, Cmdrjameson, Cohesion, Craigy144, Da Vynci, DanielCD,
DavidCane, Dedachan, Delirium, Detrius77, Deville, Dgies,
Dogears,Dreadstar, Droll, Editor2020, EdwinHJ, Elsty 01, Endurance,
EriFr, Error, Evil Byrd, Ewlyahoocom, Faigl.ladislav,
Faithlessthewonderboy, Fawcett5, Freekfeast, GCarty, Gabbe, Gareth
E Kegg,Geevee, Ghirlandajo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Green Squares,
GregAsche, Gregory Shantz, Ground Zero, Gryffindor, Halibutt,
Headphonos, HeartofaDog, Hellbus, Heyitspeter, Hongooi, Hut
8.5,Ich, Icitonpere, Igiffin, Incnis Mrsi, Ingolfson, Itai, J
Heath, JamesAM, Jarkeld, Jengod, Jkatzen, Jnc, John, JonHarder,
Joseph Solis in Australia, JoshuaGarton, Jpbowen, Keesiewonder,
KellyMartin, Ken Gallager, Kendelarosa5357, Keraunos, Knightflyte,
Knyf, LaLa, LachlanA, Lambiam, Legaleagle86, Leonard G., Les7007,
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