Native Target Language Speaking Teachers’ Role and Impact in a Non-Target Language Speaking Environment Dr. Yuanman Liu and Ms. Can Wang This paper was completed and submitted in partial fulfillment of the Master Teacher Program, a 2-year faculty professional development program conducted by the Center for Teaching Excellence, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY, 2012. Introduction Hidden curriculum, which was first proposed by Jackson (P. W. Jackson) in 1968, is a relative concept of formal curriculum, or office curriculum, which is usually planned and implemented in an organized way in school education. Many obstacles in the process of foreign language study, such as emotions, attitudes, cultural perspective, and values, which are usually affected most by the hidden curriculum, also have an impact on language learning. Zhang Hongyun (2006) studied the teacher-student relationship and its impact on foreign students’ Chinese learning based on qualitative and quantitative analysis. In this research, she considered the teacher-student relationship, which is the most important and most active interpersonal relationship in the teaching process, a major part of hidden curriculum. In her later research in 2009, she contrasted hidden curriculum and dominant curriculum based on eight key aspects. Hidden Curriculum Dominant Curriculum Implementer Teacher, course director, admin staff, and students Mostly teacher Content Thoughts, values, attitudes, social norms Systematic knowledge on certain subject Medium General teaching environment in school Classroom teaching Purpose Focus on developing non-rational aspects Focus on developing rational aspects Property of acquired Mostly non-academic, sometimes also Mostly academic
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Native Target Language Speaking Teachers’ Role and Impact in a Non-Target Language Speaking Environment
Dr. Yuanman Liu and Ms. Can Wang
This paper was completed and submitted in partial fulfillment of the Master Teacher Program, a 2-year faculty professional development program conducted by the Center for Teaching Excellence, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY, 2012.
Introduction
Hidden curriculum, which was first proposed by Jackson (P. W. Jackson) in 1968, is a relative concept of
formal curriculum, or office curriculum, which is usually planned and implemented in an organized way in school
education.
Many obstacles in the process of foreign language study, such as emotions, attitudes, cultural perspective,
and values, which are usually affected most by the hidden curriculum, also have an impact on language learning.
Zhang Hongyun (2006) studied the teacher-student relationship and its impact on foreign students’ Chinese learning
based on qualitative and quantitative analysis.
In this research, she considered the teacher-student relationship, which is the most important and most
active interpersonal relationship in the teaching process, a major part of hidden curriculum. In her later research in
2009, she contrasted hidden curriculum and dominant curriculum based on eight key aspects.
Hidden Curriculum Dominant Curriculum
Implementer Teacher, course director, admin staff, and
students
Mostly teacher
Content Thoughts, values, attitudes, social norms Systematic knowledge on certain
subject
Medium General teaching environment in school Classroom teaching
Purpose Focus on developing non-rational aspects Focus on developing rational
aspects
Property of acquired Mostly non-academic, sometimes also Mostly academic
experiences academic
Presenting-mode of
teaching
Not public, implicit, indirect, concealed Public, explicit, direct, obvious
Student’s acceptance
mechanism
Unconscious, non-specific psycho-
reaction
Intentional, specific psycho-reaction
Result and evaluation Not predictable, difficult to quantify,
more evaluated by quality
Predictable, measurable, and more
evaluated by tests
Sha Zongyuan (2009) expressed concern that the extra-curricular language environment plays an important
role in the students’ acquisition of Chinese. He divided the extra-curricular language environment into
communicative language environment and non-communicative language environment, with both positive factors
and negative factors for students’ language acquisition.
Teachers are the most important factor in teaching and learning activities. The interaction between teachers
and students is always the most active, whether it occurs in a target language environment or in a non-target
language environment. We also noticed that the teaching effect can be significantly different according to the
different language environment. Some methods, which are very effective in a target language environment, seem to
work less effectively in a non-target language environment.
In the official curriculum system, the requirements of courses are always identified in the syllabus and the
lesson list. The more mature the course is, the more rigorous the syllabus and lesson list usually are. The question
is, under the same syllabus and lesson list, why might the teaching effect between different teachers be so different?
Even the same teacher’s teaching effect can vary greatly during different periods, regardless of unchanging course
requirements. What causes these differences?
1. Analysis of the teacher-student relationship in different language environments
1.1 Standards for Language Teachers
In The Standards for Teachers of Chinese Language, there is a list of the requirements for teachers which
can be easily and accurately evaluated such as basic knowledge and skills, culture and communication, second
language acquisition and study strategies, and teaching methods. There are also some other requirements about
teachers’ comprehensive qualities in The Standards for Teachers of Chinese Language, including teachers'
mentality, knowledge, teaching philosophy, teaching ability, teaching style, etc. But the evaluation of these aspects
is much more variable, can only be performed in practical teaching activities, and is difficult to be judged
definitively as black or white. If we consider the previous several standards as teachers’ hard power, which are the
basic standards of a competent second language teacher, the comprehensive qualities can be regarded as soft power,
which play an important role in ensuring the quality of teaching.
As a vital part of hidden curriculum, although the teacher-student relationship does not affect the students’
academic results directly, it does affect the students’ psychological level such as learning attitude, emotion, etc. It
has even more positive influence on the learners in an elementary level. It is found that, the teacher-student
relationship has a significant, positive correlation with how willingly teachers would like to help their students, and
how comfortable students feel in seeking academic help. Conversely, a poor relationship between teachers and
students can have a significant negative correlation with the students’ classroom anxiety during a second language
course.
Teaching activities are mainly implemented in classrooms in either target or non-target language
environments. The interaction between teachers and students occurs consistently throughout the entire teaching
process, usually independent of third party involvement; therefore, supervision of the quality of classroom teaching
is more difficult to conduct than with many other more open activities.
Zhang Hongyun (2008) identified a widely existing phenomenon – that many teachers only emphasize the classroom
communication. She proposed six ways to establish a good relationship between teachers and students:
communication, empathy, paying attention to the students' needs, expectations and experience, democracy and
authority, and an emphasis on cross-cultural communication.
1.2. The Categories of Language Teachers
In a target language environment, teachers use their native language as the language of instruction. They
can usually identify students’ expressional mistakes immediately, not only because of their theoretical understanding
and research on the language, but also because of their natural intuition. Most teachers who teach their native
language as a second language tend to follow this principle, which is to teach as much as possible in their native
language, and to rarely use the students’ native language. This is, first, because the teachers’ foreign language skills
are limited – they are not necessarily experts in the foreign language. Secondly, it is because the students come
from different countries. Although English is the most commonly used language around the world, still, not
everyone speaks English. That’s why students can have a comprehensive target language environment.
Most foreign language learners, however, study in their own countries, a completely mother tongue
environment. Teachers there are generally local teachers, including teachers who had learned the target language as
a foreign language, and also teachers who are native target language speakers but have mastered the students' native
language as well. Some of them grew up in a local bilingual environment; some started teaching after they
graduated in this country, and they are also familiar with the students' native language. Without a conscious control
of the classroom communication, these teachers usually tend to communicate in the students’ native language when
it is difficult to communicate with the students in the target language.
In many universities within the United States, there are also some visiting language teachers from the target
language speaking country, who teach their native language as a second language abroad. Recently, the number of
these foreign language teachers is increasing in a non-target language-speaking environment, especially in countries
with a developed educational system. They may understand the students' native language to a certain extent, but the
extent is usually very limited. Because these teachers mainly teach in their own country, facing language learners
from multiple countries with different language backgrounds, they are accustomed to communicate with students in
only their own language, the target language.
1.3 The Communicators in a Target Language Environment In a target language environment, the language learners can have at least four types of communicators:
language teachers, school managers, other language learners, and members of community. Students have different
levels of communication with all these communicators. The relationships between them can be described as follow:
The teacher-student relationship and other relationships supplement each other. Teachers are the main
knowledge instructors and communicators, but they are not the only communicators. Students can also
communicate with other teachers in different courses. Students’ dependence on their teachers gradually decreases as
their language level rises. The higher their language level gets, the more resources of language they can make use of,
and the less important the teachers are as communicators.
In a target language environment, there are usually plenty of classes and courses for students in different
language levels to choose. According to over 1000 students' feedback, we found that when students evaluate
teachers, the factors they consider most often include the following several aspects: control of the class, teaching
methods, communication skill with students, teaching style and personal charm, and extensive and multidimensional
knowledge. Some students would even rather make some sacrifices for the sake of a favorite teacher, such as going
to a class in a lower level or with more students.
1.4 The teacher-student relationship in a non-target language-speaking environment
In a non-target language environment, there are much fewer communicators with whom the learners can
communicate in the target language. Students communicate with school managers and other language learners only
in their native language. Other communications between the students and other members of community are also
usually in their native language, unless there is a special language learning purpose. Teachers become almost the
only target language communicators. Students rely on their teachers much more than in a target language
environment. Other communicators become more and more personalized.
In the target language environment, most students do not only study the target language full time, every
day. There are also many fewer parallel classes for the each language level. With limited time and limited classes,
students have very little choice in the selection of teachers or classes.
Teachers become the interactive subject with students during the process of language teaching. Teachers are like
counselors; not only do they need to answer questions about the target language itself, but also other questions about
the target language countries’ culture, politics, history, contemporary social life, etc.
According to our research, the interpersonal trust level is proportional to the contact time, as is classroom
pleasure related to contact time. The deeper people understand each other, the more relaxed their communication
will be. Because the contact time between teachers and students is very limited in a non-target language
environment, it is very important to make full use of the classroom time, and meanwhile try to increase other
opportunities for contact after class, including both dominant and hidden contact. In addition to the role of guide
and instructor, the teachers’ role as a communicator is highlighted in a non-target language environment.
2. Teachers’ initiative role in a non-target language environment
2.1. Change the Teaching Philosophy According to Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese believe that teachers are the people who preach the
truth, teach knowledge, and answer questions. Historically, teachers have always had considerable authority and
have had the upper hand in the teacher-student relationship, especially in past generations. But in the teaching of a
second language, especially in a target language environment, this teaching philosophy needs to be updated.
Learning is a very constructive process of which every participator in the course should be a developer and a creator.
The teachers can be the authority of the language knowledge and skills, but it is getting harder for teachers to be the
authority of everything academically. The teacher-student relationship becomes more interactive and generative in
this information age, by which the teachers and students can share their knowledge, wisdom, and sentiments.
2.2 Course design
Teachers must prepare sufficiently for their teaching, and the course must be designed before the teaching
is implemented. Several factors are listed in Teaching Tips (Marilla Svinicki and Wilbert J. McKeachie), such as
writing objectives, goals, or outcomes; ordering textbooks, lab supplies, or other resources students may need;
choosing a textbook or other reading materials; drafting a syllabus for the course; preparing class session plans;