NATIONAL COMMITTEES AND REPRESENTATIVES

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (l), 1992 i

NATIONAL COMMITTEES AND REPRESENTATIVES

Hong Kong Secretary

Australia National Committee

Chairman Vice Chairman Secretary Membership

State Representatives ACT

Chairman Secretary

Western Australia Chairman

South Australia Chairman Secretary

Victoria Chairman Secretary

Tasmania Chairman Secretary

New South Wales Chairman Secretary

Northern Territory Chairman

Queensland Chairman Secretary

Korthern Territory Chairman Secretary

T. 0. Chan

R. G. Florence I. S. Ferguson R. L. Newman B. N. Richards

India National Committee

Chairman Secretary Treasurer Review Liaison

State Representatives Karnataka

Chairman Secretary

S. Shyam Sunder S. N. Rai B. K. Chakrabarthi S. Parameshwarappa R. G. Florence

R. L. Newman

J. E. D. Fox

T. G. H. Bankes D. R. Page

I. S. Ferguson P. B. Lavery

I. N. Whyte A. J. Warner

B. N. Richards R. G. Bridges

R. J . Hooper

To be appointed J. D. Tadman

R. J. Hooper P. Fitzgerald

S. Shyam Sunder S. N. Rai

Jamaica Secretary H. M. Dunphy

Kenya Secretary J. Angweniy

Lesotho Secretary

Malaysia National Committee

Chairman Vice Chairman

T. J. Green

D. Darus S. M. Nor

Malawi Secretary G. P. Sakanda

New Zealand National Committee

Chairman Secretary Review Liaison

P. J. Berg D. Wije-wardana J. M. Valentine Barbados

Secretary W. S. Chalmers Solomon Islands

Chairman S. Givaro Belize

Secretary H. C. Flowers Sri Lanka National Committee

Chairman Vice Chairman SecretaryiTreasurer Membership Review Liaison

Botswana Secretary

K. P. Sri Bharathie K. J. T. Dayananda M. P. Sarath Fernando S. A. D. Kingsley N. S. K. Karunaratne

To be appointed

Canada National Committee

Chairman Vice Chairman Vice President1

Membership Secretary Review Liaison

G. L. Ainscough R. W. Roberts

Swaziland Secretary F. B. Knight

P. J. Murphy G. P. MacQuarrie R. J. Day Trinidad and Tobago

Secretary S. Dardaine Province Representatives British Columbia

Secretary F. L. C. Reed Alberta

Secretary P. J. Murphy Nova Scotia

Secretary G. P. MacQuarrie Ontario

Secretary R. J. Day New Brunswick

Secretary J. C. Lees Newfoundland

Secretary A. Robertson

Guyana Secretary D. Sawh

U S A Secretary R. L. Izlar

Vanuatu Secretary D. J . Wood

Zimbabwe National Committee

Chairman Secretary

D. Gwaze W. Bgoni

F A O Committee Chairman Secretary

C. H. Murray P. A. Wardle

The Institute is concerned with education, research and consulting in surueying, mapping and information management for the exploitation and conservation of natural resources, particularly in

developing countries. Extensive use is made of aerial photography, satellite imagery and digital techniques; GIS. The Institute invites applicants for the post of

PROFESSOR OF FOREST SURVEY I'he Department of Land Resource 3urveys and Urban Sciences is one )f the scientific Departments within ;he Institute. The emphasis of this Department's educational, research md consulting activities is on the :ollection of (natural) resource data, ;heir interpretation and processing md the transfer of the generated nformation to the users. The Department consists of 6 Divisions: - Forestry - Soils - Vegetation Science - Social Sciences - Agriculture - Urban Sciences.

rhe professor of Forest Survey will se responsible for the execution of [TC's mission in the field of forests and tree resources. ITC's core 3xpertise is the identification of :eo referenced information requirements and the acquisition snd use of geographical information such as remote sensing and GIS.

The responsibility comprises the Wowing tasks: - further develop ITC's policy for

its education, research and advise - regarding forest and tree resources

- evaluate, modify and expand ITC's pro amme regarding forest anfirtree resources

- manage and coordinate the implementation of this programme

- direct the Forestry division and be accountable for the ~erformance and develo~ment of the scientific and techni'cal staff assigned to hidher academic chair.

350 Boulevard 1945 7511 AI. Enschede

The Netherlands Telephone: ++.31.53874444

Telefax: ++.31.53874400

More specifically the professor will: - elaborate the programme ideas

for education, research and advise, as they are contained in the policy aper "ITC's Focus on Forest anll'rees"

- teach survey methodologies - based upon the application of aerial ~hotography/remote sensing and GIS to support forest policy and management, and to support the role of woody biomass in rural development

- stimulate (contract) research and the selection and the scientific guidance of Ph.D. students

- be prepared to serve periodically as chairman of the department for one or more terms of two years.

The candidate should: - have appropriate qualifications

in Forestry (Ph.D.) - have international experience in

the field of forest surveys, with ' an emphasis on the application of aerial photography and satellite imagery and GIS especially in developing countries

- have national and international recognition and contacts

- have research ability within the task area and a credible record of publications related to this

- have abilities that will promote (interdisciplinary) cooperation within the Department and the Institute as well as with outside institutions (national and international)

- have teaching abilities - be proficient in the English

language and have a good working knowledge of two other modern languages. Foreign applicants should be prepared to learn the Dutch language

- have general managerial capability and preferably experience.

Salary and conditions of employment will be according Dutch Governmental regulations. The gross salary depends on experience and qualifications and ranges from Dfl. 7.415 to Dfl. 10.902 per month (Professor A), excluding allowances.

In view of the ratio between men and women on the staff at ITC, in case of equal qualifications and abilities, preference will be given to a female candidate.

Written applications and a detailed curriculum vitae should be sent before September 25th, 1992, to drs. M.W. ten Kate, Head of the Personnel and Organization Department of ITC, P.O. Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, the Netherlands. Additional information about the position may be obtained from dr.ir. G.W.W. Elbersen, Chairman of the Department of Land Resource Surveys and Urban Sciences, tel. ++.31.53874313.

Information regarding suitable candidates will also be welcomed from third parties.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(1), 1992 iii

Membership

At 5 May 1992, the membership of the Commonwealth Forestry Association stood at 1,459.

New Subscriptions The Association is pleased to welcome the following new members: G. P. S. Allan, New Zealand Institute of Forestry, 42 Whit-

comb Terrace, Hokitika, T E Tai Poutini, New Zealand Miss C. Barden, 1 East Manor Cottages, High Street,

Bramley GU5 ORM P. Baylis, c10 International Relations Division. Forestry

Commission, 231 Corstorphine Road. Edinburgh EH12 7AT

Dr T. H. Booth. CSIRO Division Forestry, POB 4008 Queen Victory Terrace, Canberra. ACT 2600, Australia

J. Y. Campbell. The Ford Foundation, 55 Lodi Estate, New Delhi 11000 3 India

P. J . Francis, General Delivery. Bridgetown, Annapolis Co.. Nova Scotia. Canada BOS 1CO

R. J. Hooper, Conservation Commission of NT. P O Box 496, Palmerston, Northern Territory. Australia

J. A. Maghembe, SADCC-ICRAF Agro Forestry Project, PO Box 134, Zomba. Malawi

R. C. Metcalfe. Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick and Partners, Scott House, Basing View, Basingstoke, Hants

G. E. Opoka, Karamoja Development Agency. PO Box 3912, Kampala, Uganda

V. Reynolds, Institute of Biological Anthropology, Oxford J. D. Tadman, 12 Bateman Street, Strathpine, Queensland

4500. Australia Dr P. G. L. Wass, KIFCON, PO Box 71943, Nairobi, Kenya

The following institutions have taken out subscriptions for the Cornrnonwealth Forestry Review:

Institute of Rain and Moisture DecIJorhat, c10 Allied Pub. Sub. Agency, New Delhi. India

Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Project, P O Box 71943, Nairobi, Kenya

Overdue Subscrlpt~ons The non-appearance of the Review for several months may have caused some members to overlook payment of their subscriptions. However, it should by now be clear that we are making up for lost time on the production front. Chas- ing overdue subscriptions can consume a significant proportion of the subcription money, in terms of offlce staff time and postage. We therefore take this opportunity to ask members to check that they are up to date with their subscriptions.

Postage We would like to remind members that airmail postage is available at an additional charge of £5.00 pa.

TIMBER! If you're in Timber, you should be reading Timber Trades Journal. How else can you keep up-to-date with the developments within your industry? 'ITJ is the single source of information on timber trading which will bring you all the UK European and international trade news every week Whether it's reports on the markets, on prevailing trends or on which way prices are going, 'ITJ will be sure to keep you in the picture. All it will cost you to receive this news service is L77 (or L98 if you're outside the UK). Once you start to read it, we know you'll come to rely on it! If you're not quite convinced, we'd be happy to send you a free copy, so you can see for yourself. Simply return the coupon below or 'phone Jane Lancashire on 0732 364422. Make sure you stay ahead of your industry! Read 7TJ! l - - - - - - - - 3 I @/~lrase send me a FREE copy of TT

I Name:

I Job Title:

I Company:

PMtcode Post to: Jane Lancashire

Timber lhdes Journal Benn Publications Ltd Sowmign Way TONBRIDGE kent TN9 1RW

xur, Timber Trades Jd

! Please remember to quote your CFA reference number on ; all correspondence.

COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY REVIEW

Australian National University

Department of Forestry School of Resource and Environmental Management

THE DEPARTMENT The ANU Department of Forestry. has become a foundation department within the new School of Resource and Environmental Management. The Department retains its traditional strengths in forest management (including fire management, wood science and industrial technology), eucalypt silviculture and ecology, inventory and modern usage of computers in forestry. In addition students now have access to a wide range of resource subjects, including resource economics, soil conservation, landcare and rehabilitation, agroforesuy, agroecology, remote sensing and geographic information systems, human sciences, and others still in the process of development.

RELEVANCE TO DEVELOPMENT The Department maintains strong linkages with forestry programs in many countries. It is particularly well placed to offer graduate programs to students from these countries and to students wishing to pursue careers 'in developing countries. There are currently 51 graduate students enrolled of whom 27 aie from averseas.

Postgraduate Diploma (Grad Dip) Each Diploma program is individually designed to meet the student's needs. It may be a self contained course with a mix of coursework, directed reading and research to enable candidates to specialise in an area of interest or it may be preliminary work for later masters or PhD study. It is especially valuable for overseas students as it can be designed to provide an introduction to Australian forests and environmental conditions. 10 months full-time - 18 montas part time Entry Qualifications - Appropriate BA or BSc

Master of Forestry (W) A program of coursework in forest and environmental management. Can be directed to particular topics or countries. 1 year and six weeks full-time Entry Qualifications -Appropriate honours degree or postgraduate diploma

Master of Science (MSc) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) A program of intensive research in forestry or environmental science. Can be directed to particular topics or countries. MSC - 1-2 years full-time - 2-4 years part-time Entry (;tualifications - Appropriate honours degree or postgraduate diploma PhD - 3 years full-time Entry Qualifications -Appropriate honours degree, postgraduate diploma or MSc

INQUIRIES.. Department of Foresuy International Fax Australian National University + 61 6 249 0346 GPO Box 4 Canberra ACT 2601 International Telephone AU- + 61 6 249 25'79

When replying to this advertisement, please mention the Commonwealth Forestry Review.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(1), 1992 v

Contents

EDITORIAL

OBITUARIES Colyear Dawkins Lord Dulverton Wilfred Crane

NEWS O F MEMBERS

FORTHCOMING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

ARTICLES ROCHE, L. The profession of forestry now and in the year 2000 MACQUEEN, D. J. Calliandra calothyrsus: implications of plant taxonomy, ecology and biology for seed collection WEAVER, P. L. Tree biomass equations for the forests of the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico ARNOTT, J. T. Forest renewal by artificial regeneration: a review of research in Western Canada FIERROS-GONZALEZ, A. M., SMITH, D. M. and RAMIREZ-MALDONADO, H. Site index for Pinus caribaea var.

hondurensis in 'La Sabana', Oaxaca, Mexico MBAH, J. M. and RETALLICK, S. J. Vegetative propagation of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.

RESEARCH NOTE RETALLICK, S. J. and SINCLAIR, F. L. Primary observation of precocious flowering in Balanites aegytiaca (L.) Del.

BOOK REVIEWS ABRAMOVITZ, JANET N. Investing in Biological Diversity. US Research and Conservation Efforts in

Developing Countries NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL Forestry Research: A Mandate for Change NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL Managing Global Genetic Resources - Forest Trees DEJENE, ALEMNEH and OLIVARES, JOSE Integrating Environmental Issues into a Strategy for Sustainable

Agricultural Development The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia and the Pacific ILIC, J. CSIRO Atlas of Hardwoods JARVIS, P. G. (Ed.) Agroforestry: Principles and Practice CREMER, K. W . (Ed.) Trees for Rural Australia MACKINNON, J. and K., CHILD, G. and THORSELL, J. Managing Protected Areas in the Topics WORRELL, R. Trees and the Treasury: Valuing Forests for Society HOSLE, R. C. Native Trees of Canada and LAURIAULT, JEAN Identification ~ u i d e to the Trees of Canada COE, MALCOLM and BEENTJE, HENK A Field Guide to the Acacias of Kenya JANSSEN, JULES J. A. Mechanical properties of Bamboo MATTHECK, G. C. Trees - The Mechanical Design ADLARD, P. G. Procedures for Monitoring Tree Growth and Site Change KEPLER, ANGELA Trees of Hawai'i REMROD, JAN The Forest of Opportunity

INDEX T O ADVERTISERS Aberdeen University Australian National University Australian Seed Company Buckinghamshire College ITC Meyer International NELSPOT TRADA TTJ

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(1), 1992 1

EDITORIAL

R E P O R T S O F M E E T I N G S

The World Forestry Congress, Paris 17-26 September 1991

The World Forestry Congress is sponsored by FAO and is held every six years or so. It is regarded by many as the most important of the 'big three' international forestry con- ferences, of which the others are the IUFRO World Congress (last held in Montreal in 1990) and - restricted to the Commonwealth but none the less with global influence - the Commonwealth Forestry Conference.

The 1991 congress was the tenth so far held and had as its theme 'Forests - a heritage for the future.' A large number of the delegates were members of the Commonwealth Forestry Association. They included Bob Newman (Chair- man), Peter Wood (Vice Chairman), John Spears of the World BankICGIAR, and Frank Miller of OF1 (members of the Governing Council and Executive Committee), representatives from the CFA committee in FAO. Rome; S.N. Rai (Karnataka Forest Department and National Commit- tee, India), Jerry Vanclay (Royal Veterinary and Agricul- h ra l University, Denmark), Bernard Wonder (Department of Primary Industries and Energy, Australia), Trevor Booth (CSIRO Division of Forestry, Australia). John Valentine (Ministry of Forestry and National Committee, New Zealand), M.N. Salleh (FRIM, Malaysia). John Camp- bell OBE (UK), K.P. Sri Bharathie (Forest Department and National Committee. Sri Lanka). Arun Kashyap (CAB International, Malaysia), Hugh Miller (University of Aberdeen), Mike Garforth and Graham Gill (Forestry Commission, Edinburgh).

As might be expected, the Congress was continually looking over its shoulder at the forthcoming World Summit at Rio: to be held in June 1992. Yet even if overshadowed by this broader meeting of world leaders, it nevertheless set the forestry scene for much of what was to come.

One of the most valuable features of these large meetings is the opportunity they give for smaller satellite meetings. Some of the most significant included those discussing:

- IUFRO (tropical silviculture); - the Tropical Forestry Action Programmes (TFAP) of

many participating countries; - the International Timber Trade Organization (ITTO) - FAO, IUFRO, and the CGIAR (including ICRAF and

the new forestry research centre CIFOR), on the future of world forestry research

- the IUCNIIUFRO initiative on conservation of ecosystems

We reproduce below the Paris Declaration from the Congress.

T H E T E N T H W O R L D F O R E S T R Y C O N G R E S S

having assembled more than 2.500 participants from 136 countries from 17 to 26 September 1991,

considering the theme of the eighth World Forestry Congress, held in Jakarta in 1978, 'Forests for People';

considering the theme of the ninth World Forestry Congress. held in Mexico City in 1985, 'Forest Resources in the Integral Development of Society', and its manifesto which urges 'all human beings of all nations and their gov- ernments, within the framework of their own sovereigntjl to recognize the importance of forest resources for the biosphere and the survival of humanity';

considering the International Conference 'SILVA', held in 1986, which concluded with the 'Proclamation of Paris on Trees and Forests':

considering its own general theme 'Forests, a Heritage for the Future' and all its detailed conclusions and recommendations that it has adopted on each theme discussed:

considering the general concern about deforestation and degradation of the world's forest caused by competition for land, inadequate management and the emission of pollu- tants generated by human activities, all of which have caused, in various regions of the world, at different times, and to varying degrees of irreversibility, the deterioration of the forest heritage;

considering that, rather than forest exploitation, the real causes of deforestation in developing countries are poverty, debt. underdevelopment, and the requirement to meet the basic needs of rapidly growing populations;

considering that forest resoures are an important factor of socio-economic development, and more especially of rural development;

considering the responsibility of our generation to future generations for the world's natural heritage;

ADDRESSES public opinion, political leaders, international. intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. from the whole.

R E M I N D S T H E M

the importance of the renewable goods and services provided by trees and forests, in the face of growing demand for building materials, fuel, wildlife. food. fodder, recreation areas,. . . ;

the wealth and diversity of world forests, and their positive role in water and carbon cycles, in the protection of soils and the conservation of biodiversity;

the availability, often ignored, of methods of management of trees and forests which can sustain and even increase the amount of goods and services they provide;

the need to avoid irreversible damage to the biosphere; and thus the need for long-term planning in the management of natural resources:

2 Editorial

A F F I R M S

that the real challenge is to reconcile the economic use of natural resources with the protection of the environment through an integrated and sustainable development approach;

that the solution to forest problems requires combined efforts to reduce poverty. increase agricultural productivity, ensure food security and energy supplies, and promote development;

that the very concept of forest management consitutes a real tool to manage their economic, ecological, social and cultural functions, thus broadening the notion of sustained yield;

that the integral conservation of particular forests for the protection of biodiversity constitutes a management objective;

A N D R E C O M M E N D S

that communities be involved in the integrated management of their land and that they be provided with the necessary institutional, technical and financial means;

that the long-term use of land be planned on the basis of their potentialities to determine those which are suitable for forestry; and, in so doing, that attention be paid to the needs of people concerned, particularly those who depend on forests for their livelihood;

that the continuity of tree and forest management policies be ensured, given the length of forest cycles;

that the designation of certain representative or endan- gered forests as protected areas be pursued and that they be organized in national or international networks;

that appropriate silvicultural techniques. increased planting and the perennial use of wood be developed to contribute to the absorption of carbon dioxide;

that development of agroforestry systems, afforestation and reforestation be intensified.

Reproduced from the Proceedings of the Tenth World Forestry Congress, published In the Revue forestiPre frangalse hors serie No. 9 (1991).

The day before the Congress, the CFA had given a lun- cheon at the Canadian High Commission and heard an address on Canadian perceptions of world forestry (reported in Volume 71 (4), December 1991). which formed an excellent background against which to view the papers presented at the Congress. On 18 September, members of the CFA at the Paris Congress held a special meeting to discuss the setting up of country committees and how these should relate to the Association in general. The meeting was chaired by Bob Newman and was attended by 33 members and 66 non-members. The unique status of the CFA as the

only professional organ~zatlon for forestry covering the whole of the Commonwealth was stressed. As a leading Engllsh-language forestry network, ~ t s influence withln the Commonwealth and outs~de it was expected to lncrease The Charman reported on the success of his init~attves tc Increase the number of nat~onal branches of the CFA i n

Commonwealth countries. as well as in FAO Recognizing that the CFA could support national forestry associations and would not be In competition with them, those present fully endorsed the chairman's actions

Evecutwe Cornrn~ttee Meetmg, Malaw H ~ g h Cornrnrssion London, 24 January I992

The Malawi High Comm~ssion graciously hosted the 180th Executive Committee Meeting of the CFA on 24 Januarj 1992, whlch was followed by lunch at Canada House Among those present were Peter Wood (Vice-Chairman) Philip Adlard (Treasurer), Richard Barnes. Roger Bradley Jeff Burley, Curt Copeland, Tom Hall, Jlm McBride, and Erika Rutherford (Adm~nistrator) T h ~ s was the first Exec- utive Meetlng attended by the Bangor Student Representa- tive, Gilbert J Anlm-K~apong Members of the Executive were gwen a tour of Canada House and duly admired the wood panelling and antlque furn~ture of this h~storic building

The Oxford Conference on Tropical Forests, 30 March - I April 1992

The Oxford Conference on Tropical Forests was held at the University Museum, Parks Road, Oxford from 30 March - 1 April 1992, and organized by the Oxford Forestry Institute.

A mixture of 300 foresters, ecologists, sociologists. anthropologists, timber traders and environmentalists from nearly 20 countries attended the Conference. The diversity of participants' professions, organizations and interests was representative of the wide cross section of society who are involved in the future of the world's tropical forests. The papers presented covered the entire gamut of management issues which were then discussed in a focused fashion in a series of participatory workshops. The papers supported the premises that; a) the most effective way to maintain long term conserva-

tion values is by wise management of production forests: production forestry in the tropics, if wisely managed. does not lead to wanton destruction of the resource.

b) adoption of ecologically sound silvicultural techniques is a vital ingredient for wise management but is only part of the whole. Engendering the appropriate social. economic and political conditions is fundamental to lasting success.

Below is part of the concluding statement by Dr Jeff Sayer'. Chairman of the plenary session. summarizing briefly the conference findings:

Clearly there is no simple solution to the problem of tropical deforestation, . . . the whole environment, the

Senlor Programme Advnor, Forest Conservat~on, Internat~onal Unmn for the Conservat~on of Nature, Avenue du Mont Blanc, CH-1196 Gland. Sw~tzerland

6 Editorial

forestry organization. not compete with them. The meeting was addressed by the immediate Past President of the New Zealand Institute of Forestry. Dr Wink Sutton. who gave a presentation on the global significance of the New Zealand plantation experience.

A W A R D S

The Duke of Cornwall's Award for Forestry and Conservation

Run by the Royal Forestry Society for England, Wales & Northern Ireland, the Duke of Cornwall's Award for Forestry and Conservation was the first of its type in mainland Britain. Launched in 1985, its objectives included dem- strating how wildlife and landscape considerations were compatible with commercial woodland management. Over the period 1985-92, 85 woodlands entered the competition which was run in a different region of England. Wales or Northern Ireland each year.

With the end of the first rotation, a National Competi- tion was run in 1992 to compare the winning entries in each of the previous seven years. Judging took place in Aprit. May and June. The Judges were Mr. Roderic Hewitt (ex Forestry Commission Conservator) and Mr. Philip Cole- bourn (Ecological Consultant). Their deliberations are now complete and they decided to award a joint first prize to Stenigot Estate. near Louth, Lincolnshire and the St. Giles Estate. Wimborne St. Giles. Wiltshire.

These are owned by Mr. Dennis and the Earl of Shaftes- bury, respectively.

Joint second prizes were awarded to the Forestry Enter- prises' entry at Low Fell, Grizedale Forest and the Dinam Estate, near Builth Wells, owned by the Lord Davis.

It is hoped that the prizes will be presented by H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, later this year.

Centres of Excellence Awards

The new Forestry Authority for England has challenged woodland owners and managers to create Centres of Excel- lence. Awards will be made for trees, woods and forests throughout the country which demonstrate the highest management standards by:

-improving the quality of the landscape - creating benefits for wildlife - providing access for people - growing timber in environmentally sound ways Regional awards will be made four times a year, and

each year a national award will go to the site which demon- strates the widest possible range of benefits - true multipurpose forestry. Award-winning woodland owners will be entitled to display the Centres of Excellence logo on site and in relevant stationery and publications.

One of the first regional awards was made on 28 July 1992 to the Corporation of London for its outstanding management work at Seven Ways Plain in Burnham Beeches, Buckinghamshire. Burnham Beeches was acquired by the Corporation of London in 1880 in direct response to its threatened purchase by residential develop- ers. It is now highly regarded as one of the best examples of

ancient woodland in Britain. containing a rich diversity of ecosystems and habitats within its relativley small size of 540 acres.

Further information about the award scheme may be obtained from: Chief Conserbator, Forestry Authority, Great Eastern House. Tenison Road, Cambridge CB1 2DU.

A U S T R A L I A N B R A N C H

The Annual General Meeting will be held at the Embassy Motel, corner of Adelaide Avenue and Hopetown Circuit, Deakin, Canberra ACT on Thursday 8 October at 6 p.m. The AGM will be followed by a dinner hosted jointly by the Canberra Forest Industries Club and the Common- wealth Forestry Association, commencing at 7.30 p.m. The Guest Speaker will be the recent IUFRO award winner. Mr Alan Brown of the CSIRO Division of Forestry, Canberra.

WORLD LEADER I N FORESTRY MARKING PAINTS AND PAINT MARKING EQUIPMENT

Write, phone or fax THE NELSON PAINT COMPANY for information: P.O. BOX 2040 TEL: 906-774-5566 KINGSFORD, MICHIGAN 49802 FAX: 906-774-4264 U.S.A.

Conzmonwealth Forestry Review Vo lume 71(1), 1992 7

OBITUARIES HENRY COLYEAR DAWKINS

Henry Colyear Dawkins came from a family of foresters on both his father's and his mother's side. He read Botany at Oxford and after his Botany degree, went on to take a degree in Forestry at the same university. During the Second World War the shortage of forest officers in the Colonial Service in Africa was such that his war service was interrupted and he was sent to Uganda as an Assistant Conservator of Forests.

On arrival in Uganda in 1942 he was posted as a District Forest Officer to the Northern district of Acholi where he set about learning not only the fundamentals of tropical forestry but also the local language. By the time this writer first met him some considerable time later, he had gained a reputation not only for being able to identify more tree species than anyone else in the country, except possibly his Ugandan assistant. Tony Katende, but also for knowing more unrepeatable Acholi words than any other European. He was a very good linguist.

The care he took to collect and dispatch botanical material for identification. as attested by Dr. Brian Styles at Oxford. was such that the latter. on his first appointment to work at the Forestry Institute, was told to emulate Colyear. He developed methods of identifying trees using such things as slash and bark exudates, not involving the use of flowers or fruit which are often difficult to find. He had a major hand in Dale's revision of the Iniiigenous Trees o f Uganda. In particular he contributed to the sorting out of the complex genera Ekehergin, Tr~chil ia (Melicaceae), Fagara, Ochna (Rutaceae) and others in Sapotaceae.

After moving round several districts, he was given the newly created post of Forest Ecologist, in 1949, to carry out research into the silviculture and management of natural tropical forest, which he held until 1962. During this time he used his already deep knowledge of the ecology of the forest to attempt to develop sustainable methods of managing it: he developed techniques similar to those used in West Africa and Malaysia of poisoning 'Weed Trees' after logging. but using the newly developed 2-4D and 2-4-5T chemicals, to achieve sufficient canopy opening to obtain adequate regeneration of desirable species at a time when the volume removed per hectare by commercial logging was too low. H e also gradually came to the conclusion that a 'Uniform' silvicultural system, with a rotation of about 70 years, was necessary in order to reduce damage to regeneration caused by the more frequent fellings necessary if a tropical shelterwood system were used. Considerable numbers of long term research and sample plots were established to test different degrees of canopy opening and other silvicultural treatments. One is currently being re-assessed 40 years later but there is a need to re-assess many of the others which could yield unique and invaluable information on the long term effects of the treatments and contribute very substantially to the knowledge of how to manage forest 'sustainably' - a much more universally popular thing to do now than it was then! In 1958 he wrote an Imperial Forestry Institute Paper on 'The Management of Tropical High Forest with Special Reference to Uganda' which remains one of the classic documents on the subject. This

was followed by his doctoral thesis at Oxford on the same subject.

He was awarded the MBE for services to Uganda. Colyear could, of course, occasionally get things slightly

wrong but usually with humour and aplomb; electric fences to keep elephants out of certain areas of forest had little effect on elephants. rather more on buffalo which broke through the fence and then became an enclosed herd when the fence was mended behind them, considerably more on a lion which was doing no harm to the trees and a dramatic effect on the dog passing by his Land Rover wired to the fencing unit to discourage thieves.

After being appointed a Senior Research Officer at the then Commonwealth Forestry Institute (now Oxford Forestry Institute) he developed an interest in the use of statistics in forestry research and methods of teaching this subject to biologists with only a limited mathematical background.

In 1971 he was appointed a lecturer in Statistical Method at the Department of Forestry at Oxford and became a Fel- low of St. John's College. He continued to teach statistics, achieving the almost impossible task of making it fun for biologists. Generations of Oxford biologists remember him as one of the best teachers they ever encountered. At the same time he continued developing. in collaboration with his wife. Barbara, various computer programs and statistical packages suitable for solving biological problems which now form the basis for much of the design of modern biological research.

His colleagues and friends will remember Colyear as a man of huge originality of thought. almost eccentricity when it suited the occasion. great energy and capacity for hard work and. at the same time. humility, generosity and kindness. Nothing, or very little, was too much trouble whether it was for the most junior employee in Africa or the least bright student in Britain. He specialised in being a peacemaker between cantankerous academics.

The old Scout belt was something of a tradition. worn. it is reported. even with a dinner jacket on at least one occasion: it demonstrated a certain disdain of the pretentious as well as the durability of the belt.

He was involved in various other activities too numerous to list in full. which included the reclamation of coal slag heaps for the Coal Board. and sitting on the management committees of Bagley and Wytham woods near Oxford: at Wytham he contributed substantially to the planning and the layout of research. both zoological and botanical. and to the development of statistically valid methods of analysing the results. He was. for a long time. Vice Presi- dent of the Lundy Field Society, making many visits to the island, and President of the forestry section of the British Association: he was on the Editorial Board of the Commonwealth Forestry Review and contributed greatly to the quality of the articles and other contents of the Review. He also took 'Meals on Wheels' to those who needed them.

He refused offers of promotion both in Uganda and at Oxford, preferring to 'do something useful' rather than

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71( l ) , 1992 9

Dulverton Trust and his membership of many land use bodies and committees, as well as in the House of Lords.

The list of his voluntary service is enormous, but early on he became a devoted forester and silviculturist. H e became Chairman of the Forestry Committee of Great Britain in 1976 and a member of the Home Grown Timber Advisory Committee, and so was at the centre of private forestry representation at a time of great change. H e was also Chairman of the British Deer Society, a member of the Red Deer Commission and of the Scottish Committee of the Nature Conservancy Council as well as a trustee of the World Wildlife Fund and the Wildfowl Trust, and later on

Honorary President of Timber Growers UK. Tony Dulverton travelled as far afield as China and Alas-

ka. He had a special knowledge of the Middle East and close contacts with East Africa where he was anxious to improve the education and training of young people. He gave gener- ously and supported many but talked not at all about that aspect of his life. H e realised that the tasks he set himself were beyond the abilities of anyone. But that did not deter him and there is no doubt that by his efforts he left this world a rather better place. H e himself suggested once that his epitaph might perhaps be the two words 'He tried'.

JAMES GALBRAIW

D R WILFRED J. B. CRANE A scientist with energy, conviction.

Wilf Crane died on 7 March piloting his light aircraft from his farm at Tallaganda, NSW, to Canberra, where he was scheduled to take part in the annual air pageant.

Dr Crane was educated at Launceston Boys' Grammar and the University of Tasmania, where he studied forestry. He completed his Bachelor of Science at the Australian Forestry School Canberra in 1962 and gained a Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Washington in 1972.

His death brought to an end the life and career of a remarkable man, a scientist of passionate conviction, imagi- nation. energy and dedication.

As a research scientist, Dr Crane worked in s~lviculture and forest nutrition in Tasmania before joining the CSIRO Division of Forestry in 1974. Here he continued pioneer- ing work on the nutrition of plantations. His interest in later years had been with the pauc~ty of Australian soils. and how to preserve and enhance them through agroforestry.

Dr Crane worked tirelessly with a deep conviction that trees in combination with pastures were essential for better land-management practices. He told the story of Australian soils and the need to plant trees through his scientific papers, through the book he edited, Think Trees Grow Trees, and through the Bicentennial Sylvaspade project launched by the then Governor-General. Sir Ninian Stephen, and through countless articles, lectures and field days.

In pursuit of an ideal he was a great organiser of people. His own energy was infectious.

His most recent project with CSIRO was the use of efflu- ent to irrigate plantations. It was a project that appealed to Dr Crane in its simplicity, its integration of ancient practice with modern needs and science. and its ability to preserve and recycle. Dr Crane's instinct was to use resources but never to waste them.

H e published widely and was an active member of many professional and related societies: The Institute of

Foresters of Australia (fellow and past chairman), Soil Science of Australia (past president), International Soil Science Society, International Union of Forest Research Organisations. International Tree Crops Institute. Aus- tralian Forest Growers. and NSW Nut Growers (president). H e also belonged to Greening Australia, whose work for the revegetation of Australia he strongly and vocally supported. H e was never just a member of an organisation. He was a devotee and an enthusiast.

He was. by nature. a teacher, that rare breed of man who could at once bring alive his science and make it plain. H e had a mind bursting with ideas. He could motivate people to think across the conventional divisions.

Dr Crane provided the inspiration and drive for the development of several agroforestry properties in the Can- berra district. Of these, Sassafras held a special spot in his heart, and he used it as a showplace for his many ideas and innovations.

Beyond his professional career, Dr Crane pursued an astounding diversity of interests with the same energy. He was a founding member of the Clancy Alpine Club. The Australia Day weekend at Clancy around Dr Crane's spit roast was an occasion that symbolised all his special ease and warmth. He was. of course, a member of the Canberra Aero Club. His love of flying was bound up in its freedom and its power. He was fascinated by the machine.

In his spare time he enjoyed the company of family and friends and music. particularly the piano which he played with gusto. In friendship he showed gentleness, generosity and fellowship. He had a natural ease and self-assurance which charmed all he met.

With Dr Crane's death. Australia has lost a visionary forester and environmentalist. His wife. Colleen, and sons. Andrew and Jonathon, have lost a dedicated and proud husband and father. His many friends and colleagues have lost a true mate. Reproduced from the Canberra Times of 13 March, 1992 by kind

NEWS OF MEMBERS AND FRIENDS Roger Bradley has been appointed Head of the new Forest the woodland grant system, carry out forestry research and Authority, following the separation of functions within the monitor standards in both the private sector and the Enter- Forestry Commission between the Forest Authority and prise. It will have three national offices, in Glasgow, Cam- the Forest Enterprise. The Forest Authority will administer bridge, and Aberystwyth, and 20 local Conservancy offices.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 7111), 1992 11

FORTHCOMING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

AUGUST 92 02109192 - 07109192

MALAYSIA, Sarawak. International Symposium on Rehabilitation of Tropical Rainforest Ecosystems: research and development priorities. Further information from the Secretariat, Symposium on Rehabili- tation of TRF Ecosystems. Centre of Applied Sciences. UPM Bintulu Campus, PO Box 396. 97008 Bintulu. Sarawak, Malaysia: Attention Mr Abas bin Said.

14109192 - 16109192; l7109192 - 25109192 CANADA. British Columbia. Woodlands operation with a Soft Footprint. Penticton, British Columbia and DEMO '92. Demonstration of Forest Manage- ment and Wood Harvesting Technology. Wood Expo 92, Kelowna. British Columbia. Contact: A. Rotherham. Director, Woodlands Sec- tion, Canadian Pulp and Paper Association. 1155. Rue Metcalfe. Montreal, Quebec. Canada, H3B 4T6. Tel. 514 866-6621: Fax 514 866-3035. Also Southex Exhibitions, 4285 Canada Way, Burnaby. BC. V5G 1H2 Canada. Tel. 1-604-433 9549: Fax 1-604-433 49649.

15109192 - 18109192 UK. Cambridge. BCPC (British Crop Protection Council) Symposium. This Symposium will address the current issues and aspects of set-aside particularly in the European Community. The symposium is being held when many research projects have run for up to 3 or 4 years. Information derived from these will help quantify the political, economic and social aspects of set-aside as well as the scientific and technical effects. This information will be relevant in determining the future of the schemes. Also included in the programme will be the opportunity to visit either actual set-aside sites or research and monitoring sites. Ref: General Manager, BCPC. 49 Downing St.. Farnham, Surrey GU9 7PH. Tel. 0252 733072: Fax 0252 727194.

15109192 - 25/09/92 AUSTRALIA. Queensland. Second International Symposium on Integrated Land Use Management for Tropical Agriculture: planning and managing for sustainable land use. Details from the Director General, Attn. Stuart Mac- nish, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, GPO Box 46, Brisbane, Queensland 4001 Australia. Tel. 61-7-239 3243; Fax 61-7-221-3896; Telex AA 142149.

17109192 - 25109192 FINLAND, IUFRO Workshop. Information can be obtained from Dr Simo Poso. Dept of Forest Mensuration and Management, Uni- versity of Helsinki, Unioninkatu 40B, SF-00170 Helsinki 17. Finland; Fax 358-0-191 7619.

27109192 - 30109192 USA, Washington. Third International Inorganic Bonded-Wood and Fiber Composite Materials Con- ference. Presented by the University of Idaho at

Cavanaugh's Inn, the Park, Spokane, Washington. Ref: Professor A. A. Moslemi, Conference Chairman, Department of Forest Products. University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83843. USA. Tel. 208-885-6126; Fax 208-885-5738.

05110192 - 09110192 USA, Montana. Grouse Mountain Lodge. Whitefish. Ecology and Management of L a r k Forests: A Look Ahead. The programme is designed for natural resource managers; research scientists: educators: specialists in wildlife habitat, soils. fire, insects and disease; geneticists, silviculturists. Programmes with invited and volunteered papers. informal discussions and tours are available. Contact: Centre for Continuing Education. The Uni- versity of Montana. Missoula. MT 59812-1900. USA. Tel. (406) 243-4623. Fax (406) 243-2047.

10110197 - 17110192 COLOMBIA, Cartagena and Cali. Resolving Tropi- cal Forests Resource Concerns Through Tree Improvement, Gene Conservation and Domestica- tion of New Species. IUFRO Section S2.02-08 Breed- ing Tropical Trees. Further information from CAMCORE. North Carolina State University, Box 7626. Raleigh. North Carolina 27695-7626 USA.

20110192 - 24110192 INDONESIA, Jakarta. 6th Int. Timber Trade Fair. Ref: 0 E S Ltd, 11 Manchester Sq., London WIM 5AB. UK.

261 10192 - 28110192 TAIWAN. Kaohsiung International Symposium on Bacterial Wilt (Pse~rdomonas solanidicarum). A symposium to discuss research results: to standardize breeding and screening strategies for developing host plant resistance; to standardize methods for detect- ing. classifying and assessing strains of the bacterium: and to coordinate future work. Contact: D r Glen L. Hartman. Bacterial Wilt International Symposium. AVRDC. P.O. Box 42. Shanhua. Tainan 74199. Taiwan.

06111192 - 09111192 INDIA. Calcutta. international Conference on Cur- rent Progress in Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Research, followed by a field trip in Santiniketan on 10-11 Dec 1992. IUFRO; Indian Society for Promo- tion of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISMAP): International Institute of Advanced Homoeopathy (IIAH). Dr Santawana Mukharjee (Ms.). Secretary General, 1311a, S.P. Mukherjee Road. Calcutta 700 026. India. Tel. 740030,411732.

1711 1192 - 2411 1192 JAPAN, Yokohama. International Tropical Timber Organisation Meeting. Thirteenth Session.

2311 1/92 - 2611 1192 UK, Brighton. British Crop Protection Council (BCPC) Conference on Pests and Diseases. Ref: General Manager, BCPC, 49 Downing Street, Farn- ham, Surrey GU9 7PH. Tel. 0252 733072; Fax 0252 727194.

12 Forthcoming International Events

23/11/92 - 2711 1/92 BURKINA FASO. Ouagadougou. IUFRO Sympo- sium on Tree Seeds. Post-Symposium Field Tour 28/11 - 3/12; Workshop on seed viability control and storage 4/12 - 8/12. Details from Directeur du Centre National de Semences Forestibres, 01 B. P. 2682 Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso. Tel. (226) 300857 or 301233; Fax (226) 301232; Telex 5345 bf.

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1992 AUSTRALIA, Queensland. Second International Course on Fodder Tree Legumes: Multipurpose Species for Agriculture. Six-week short course of lectures and field visits to commercial properties and experiment stations in tropical and subtropical Australia. Objectives are to inform participants of the range of fodder tree species available to agriculture. review their environmental adaptations, and examine their role in animal control. Cost: A$12,000. For further information, contact Fodder Tree Legumes Course Secretariat, Uniquest Limited, Uni- versity of Queensland, St. Lucia. Queensland, Aus- tralia. Tel. 61-7-365-4037; Fax 61-7-365-4433; Telex AA 40315.

1993 INDIA, Palampur Himacmal Pradesh. Resource inventory techniques to support agroforestry activities. Sponsored by IUFRO S4.02.01. Ref: Dr Atul, Dept of Horticulture and Forestry, H P Agriculture University. Palampur-17606, (H P), India.

SPRING 1993 TAIWAN, Taipei. Forest Operations Research for Tropical Countries. Contact: Shuen Chao Wu, Department of Forestry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10764 Taiwan.

30/03/93 - 01/04/93 UK, Royal Holloway College, Egham. British Crop Protection Council Conference on Plant Health and the European Single Market. Ref: General Manager, BCPC, 49 Downing Street, Farnham, Surrey GU9 7PH. Tel. 0252 733072; Fax 0252 727194.

19/04/93 - 22/04/93 USA, Dallas, Texas. First International Symposium on Biology of Adventitious Root Formation. US Depart- ment of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service. Edit Franson, Executive Secretary, Rooting Symposium, USDA Forestry Sciences Lab. Box 898 Rhinelander, Wisconsin 54501, USA. Tel. 1-715-362 1112; Fax 1- 715-362 7816.

19/05/93 - 25/05/93 UK, South Croydon. LIGNA Hanover '93. Ref: Hanover Fairs Information Centre, 25 Hurst Way, South Croydon, Surrey CR2 7AP, UK.

18/07/93 - 23/07/93 UK, Edinburgh. Wind Related Damage to Trees. Hercot-Watt University Edinburgh. C. P. Quine, Forestry Commission Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian, Scotland, EH25 9SY.

19/07/93 - 23/07/93 UK, Richmond. An International Symposium, 'Monocotyledons: Classification and Evolution'. The purposes of this meeting to analyse critical characters in monocotyledon systematics, and to review and revise the existing classification of the monocotyledons by Dahlgren and his co-workers. By bringing together experts from around the world and combining their studies into an integrated framework, it is hoped to produce a relatively complete classification based on modern principles. Key topics will include the original and relationships of monocotyledons. and the relationships of such well-known groups as the palms, aroids. orchids, lilies. gingers and grasses. The conference will include workshop sessions, using a comprehensive range of currently available software for phylogenetic analysis. Contact: Paul Rudall (Sec- retary), Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Richmond. Surrey TW9 3DS, UK.

28/08/93 - 03/09/93 JAPAN, Tokyo, XV International botanical congress, Congress Centre of Pacifico. Ref: Secretariat. XV International botanical congress, d o Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo, 7-3- 1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan. Fax (81)-3- 814-0139 (to K. Iwatsuki XV 1BC).

13/09/93 - 18/09/93 MALAYSIA. Kuala Lumpur. 14th Commonwealth Forestry Conference: 'People, the Environment and Forestry - Conflict or Harmony?' The Secretary Gen- eral CFC-14, Forestry Department Headquarters, peninsular Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel. 60-3-2988244: Fax 60- 3-2925657.

19/09/93 - 24/09/93 MALAYSIA (Tours following the above). Ref: P. Baylis, FIC, 231 Corstorphine Rd., Edinburgh. EH12 7AT, Scotland.

AUTUMN 1993 USA, Boston. The Tropical Forest History Group of IUFRO will sponsor several sessions on the history of land use in Africa at the annual meeting of the African Studies Association. Proposals for papers should deal with long-term rather than strictly present interactions between human beings and land or other natural resources. Ref: Dr. Alice E. Ingerson, IUFRO Africa Conference, Forest History Society, 701 Vickers Avenue, Durham, N. Carolina 27701, USA. Fax +l-617-661-7235.

22/11/93 - 26/11/93 AUSTRALIA, Canberra. Water issues in Forests Today. Australian Forestry Council; CSIRO Division of Water Resources; International Association for Hydrological Sciences; IUFRO. International Sympo- sium on Forest Hydrology. c10 ACTS. GPO Box 2200. Canberra ACT 2601, Australia. Tel. +61-6-257 3299; Fax +61-6-257-3256.

07/08/95 - 12/08/93 FINLAND, Tampere. 20th World IUFRO Congress. Ref: Prof. R. Seppala, Forest Dept., Unioninkatu 40A, 00170 Helsinki, Finland.


The Profession of Forestry Now and in the Year 2000* LAURENCE ROCHE

School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, UK

SUMMARY

An attempt is made to answer two major questions: first. what constitutes the profession of forestry at the close of the twentieth century and secondly. how best is the subject taught at university level. Technical and vocational training are referred to in this context and with reference to other papers presented under this theme at the Tenth World Forestry Congress. The evolution of the concept of social forestry, and its attempted application in practice through the proliferation of donor sponsored projects and programmes. under a variety of names, is compared and contrasted with what has been referred to in recent years as production forestry. Since all aspects of classical production forestry have social value the dichotomy between social forestry and production forestry is considered to be false and seriously damaging to the profession of forestry and the interests of the sector generally. The similarity between forestry development, research, education and training in both the developed and developing worlds is emphasized, and in this regard it is suggested that the major elements of the Tropical Forestry Action Programme (TFAP) apply equally in temperate and tropical environments. The essential core subjects of a professional degree in forestry are identified. and a specimen curriculum is appended.

Une tentative est faite pour repondre a deux questions majeures: premibrement, en quoi consiste a l'aube du 21' sibcle la sylviculture et deuxihement , comment l'enseigne-t-on d e la meilleure manibre a l'universite. Dans ce contexte et a propos de communications diverses sur ce theme, presentees au 10' Congrbs Mondial de la sylviculture, il est fait mention d e la formation technique et professionnelle. L'Cvolution du concept de la sylviculture sociale, et les tentatives pour l'appliquer par le moyen d'une multitude de projets et de programmes parrainks par des donateurs, sont comparCes a ce qui a CtC appel.6 ces dernikres annCes la sylviculture de production. Puisque tous les aspects de la sylviculture classique de production ont une valeur sociale, la dichotomie entre sylviculture sociale et sylviculture de production est jugCe fausse et fort nuisible au mCtier de sylviculteur et aux inter& du secteur en gCnCral. La ressemblance entre le dCveloppement, la recherche, L'enseignement et la formation sylvicoles a la fois dans les pays dCveloppCs et en voie de developpement est soulignCe et il est suggire a ce propos que les 6lCments principaux du Programme d'Action pour la Sylviculture Tropicale (TFAP) s'appliquent aussi bien aux environnements tempCrCs qu'aux environnements tropicaux. Les mati2res essentielles a un grade en sylviculture sont enfin Cnumerees et un spCcimen de programme d'etudes est donne en annexe.

RESUMEN

Se intenta responder a dos preguntas importantes: la primera, qu6 constituyc la Silvicultura como profesion a finales del siglo XX, y la segunda, q u i calidad de enseiianza tiene a nivel universitario. En este trabajo, y en otros articulos donde se expone el tema, se hace referen- cia a la preparacion ticnica y a la vocacion de silvicultor. La evolution del concept0 de Silvicultura Social, y el intento de aplicacion practica con la proliferation de proyectos y programas patrocinadores, bajo una gran variedad de denominaciones, se compara y contrasta con lo que en 10s ultimos aiios se ha dad0 en llamar produccion forestal. Ya que todos 10s aspectos de la producci6n forestal clasica tienen un valor social, la dicotomia entre silvicultura social y produccion forestal no se considera correcta, y se cree que daiia seriamente la profesion y, en general, 10s intereses del sector. Asimismo, se pone de manifiesto la similitud entre desarrollo, investigacion, educacion y preparacion forestal tanto en 10s paises en desarrollo como en 10s desarrollados. En este sentido. se sugiere que 10s elementos principales del Programa de Accion de Silvicultura Tropical (TFAP) pueden ser igualmente aplicables tanto en ambientes tropicales como en ambientes templados. Finalmente, se enumeran las asignaturas esenciales de una licenciatura en Silvicultura, y como muestra, se adjunta un curriculum.

Keywords: Professionalism, education. training, production-forestry. social-forestry.

INTRODUCTION conflicting signposts and the profession of forestry begins

Never before in the history of man has forestry, both in the developed and developing worlds, attracted so much public attention. Environmental degradation and the decline of forests in industrial countries, the continued destruction of forests in developing countries. and evidence of global climatic change have all combined to raise the awareness of politicians, planners and the media to the vital importance of forests in the well-being of nations, and to the knowledge that in our time the remnants of natural forest ecosystems, with their great diversity of habitats, are in danger of

to show at best a retreating defensiveness and at worst a loss of confidence. Therefore, great challenges and great opportunities now confront the profession generally and particularly those institutions responsible for education and training in the subject.

The world debate on the future of forests and the role of foresters has led to an extraordinary proliferation of new proposals, institutional arrangements, projects and programmes, and a whole new forestry nomenclature. During this period of flux and change the profession of forestry

destruction. ~ h : consequences of this upsurge in world interest in forestry have been profound and unsettling for *Position paper (F23), Tenth World Forestry Congress. Paris, September the forestry profession. The path ahead is cluttered with 1626.1991.

14 Laurence Roche

has, to some extent, been relegated to the sidelines and, though it has not been stated so baldly, it is often assumed that forestry in the years ahead may be too important a subject to be left exclusively in the hands of foresters.

These developments are not a justified and appropriate response on behalf of the public to inadequacies in the forestry profession. They stem primarily from the new- found environmental concerns of the developed world generally and the inadequacies of the political response to spiralling rates of deforestation, and the plundering of tropical forests in the interests of all except those who live in and near them. They also reflect, though not stated precisely in this way, the profound inadequacies of the developing world's approach - aided and abetted by the industrial world's advice and investment capital - t o economic growth and development (Roche, 1986). At a superficial, journalis- tic level the forester is an obvious target, and the real causes of deforestation and environmental degradation - greed, corruption, political instability, population pressures and the insatiable maw of consumerism in the industrial world - are less easily targeted.

The adverse pressures impinging on the forest resources of the world in modern times are driven by socio-economic forces generated at the centre of political power in both developed and developing countries. These forces are often so overwhelming in developing countries that the competence of professional foresters, and associated technical and vocational cadres, however well educated and trained, have little or no beneficial effect. Forest resources continue to regress and consequent environmental degradation continues to increase.

At present it is tropical deforestation, rather than what has happened and is happening to forests and woodlands in industrialized countries, that attracts the attention of conservationists and the media. This one-sided concentration on tropical deforestation is often misplaced, and it is an error to assume that environmental problems stemming from deforestation are serious only in the tropics, and are different in kind from those which prevail as a consequence of deforestation in the industrialized world.

The broad-leaved hedgerows and fragmented natural woodlands of the United Kingdom are the remains of once great forests, and even these remnants are subject to continued destruction. It is believed that there has been greater disruption to the ecology of rural England during the past forty years than during the preceding four centuries, sup- posedly in the interest of what is called efficient agriculture. Canada has undermined its primary forest resource in relatively recent times, as have the United States, Australia and New Zealand, all with adverse effects on the lives of indigenous people and the global environment. The regional forest vegetation of the Mediterranean basin continues under threat and its waters are increasingly polluted by the efflu- ent of industrial nations. The Alps, the source of four of Europe's major rivers, are threatened by pollution, over- development, farm abandonment, forest destruction, and the decline of their wildlife. These trends, together with the wholesale grubbing up of hedgerows in England and the ecologically - and also in the long run economically - unsound clear felling of Canada's primary forests, are and have been, in their different ways, as damaging to national and world conservation interests as anything that is hap-

pening in the tropics. It is not proposed, for this is not the place, to elaborate

further on the massively adverse socio-economic and political environments in which the profession of forestry in many countries, whatever their political persuasion, must now operate. Nor is any attempt made to propose solutions for the improvement of these environments. In any event a better source of informed, pungent analysis and comment on these matters is provided by the late Jack Westoby in his book entitled The Purpose of Forests: Follies of Develop- ment (Westoby, 1987a). This is a classic text with which not everyone can agree but which every young forester should read and treasure. It is also a text which should be manda- tory reading for all politicians, planners and environmentalists who seriously wish to bring to an end the plundering and destruction of the world's natural forest ecosystems in the name of development. However. as an antidote to some of Westoby's more trenchantly expressed ideological views (particularly in his paper (1987~) to the Eighth World Forestry Congress in Jakarta) it may be appropriate to refer to Roche (1974,1975, 1978,1986) who deals with similar problems, albeit in a somwhat different manner, and offers different solutions.

The objectives of the present paper are less ambitious. and are confined for the most part to an assessment, against the background outlined above, of the present and future role of the forester in our time and in the years ahead, and how best he or she can be educated to fulfil that role. Tech- nical and vocational training will be referred to in this context and in reference to the other papers presented under this theme.

As outlined by Giordano (1991). the issues and problems discussed are complex, of great diversity and world-wide in scope. The risk of over-simplification in the treatment of the subject is self-evident; Lesotho is not India nor the United Kingdom Canada. Yet if a set of general principles can be identified which, in regard to education and training in forestry, apply equally to these countries then it can be reasonably assumed that they have general application. This paper is offered as a contribution to that process. In the interests of coherence, and using the new vocabulary already referred to, the subject-matter is discussed under the broad inter-related categories of Social Forestry, Com- munity Forestry and Production Forestry.

S O C I A L F O R E S T R Y

Writing in the early seventies on trends and issues in forestry education in Africa, Roche (1975) quoted from one of Westoby's early publications.

There will be new machines: heavier machines, more complex machines. The forest. the trees, the wood material that the new generations of machines cannot handle will be left unutilized. More and more the organization of the management unit will come to focus on how the wood can most economically be felled and extracted. This invasion of the forest by the machine will not be halted, even though the machine brings with it damage to the standing stock and soil deterioration (Westoby, 1987b).

This, of course, is a graphic description of conventional logging practice in some countries, rather than a vision of the future. Certainly it conforms to logging practices in

The Profession of Forestry Now and in the Year 2000 15

Canada during the sixties and in tropical high forests at the present time where the use of massive, ecologically destructive logging machinery, imported from developed countries. is commonplace. Why did such a perceptive and knowledgeable commentator on world forestry write in such a vein? The reasons are not hard to find. In the first place he was committed ideologically to centrally planned economies and secondly, and as a consequence, he believed that what he called 'Social Forestry' and 'Production Forestry' were two quite separate fields of endeavour. Pro- duction forestry, characterized by the above quotation, is market driven and consequently 'mindless' in regard to such matters as logging damage to standing timber and ecological degradation. Social forestry, on the other hand, is ,. . . a social service which should be paid for out of public funds' (Westoby. 1987b). These are the conceptual begin- nings of all forms of what has come to be called collectively 'Participatory Forestry'. These concepts still persist, and find expression under a diversity of banners; for Westoby was speaking from the centre of international forestry, the Forestry Department of the Food and Agriculture Organi- zation (FAO), and with a voice that was both strong and influential. However, it is now clear that social forestry as defined by Westoby is sustainable only while donors provide the resources out of their public funds.

The dichotomy between what Westoby called social forestry and production forestry is wholly false and the distinction damaging in the extreme. What was required over the past years was not the proliferation of social forestry projects, but the application of modern professional forestry standards and practices to production forestry, particularly in the tropics, so that the sector more directly and adequately met the needs of local people and society generally while maintaining the highest respect for environmental quality. For example, modern professional forestry standards in logging, where foresters are allowed to apply them, e.g. in most countries of Europe and Scandinavia, would not tolerate the grossly exploitative logging practices which are commonplace in tropical countries at the present time.

In short, what was required was the reform of exploitative production forestry to make it socially acceptable, and the application in tropical environments of those principles, well known in an older forestry tradition, of sustainability, stability and equity. This has not been achieved, and is unlikely to happen, as long as the dichotomy between production forestry and social forestry is maintained. The worst possible exploitative forestry practices continue to exist on a massive scale in many developing countries, and often side by side with pitiful and ineffectual donor sponsored social forestry projects which bear little or no relation to the real needs of reform of the forestry sector and the long-term interests of people and nations. The nations who support these social forestry projects are often, of course, the same nations who export the massive logging equipment referred to above and import tropical timbers.

Funds continue to flow and even increase to support social forestry programmes while production forestry com- mands fewer and fewer resources, in relation to needs, for professional and technical education and training and for research. Only the smallest fraction of revenues earned are returned to production forestry in most developing coun-

tries, and not only is that fraction wholly inadequate but it is also uncertain from year to year.

Nevertheless, social forestry programmes, however mis- guided and unsustainable, will not disappear overnight nor should they. The vast majority are well intentioned efforts, not, however, to reform the exploitative production forestry which prevails in so many developing countries, but to redress the balance in the interests of people. They will continue to function on the margins of production forestry as they do now. Those that are successful, that is, those that produce goods, services and techniques that people wish to purchase or use will survive, complement and beneficially influence production forestry. Those that d o not, the majority, will in the end cease to be supported, and the experience of the last fifteen years confirms this, though it has not prevented the continued proliferation of others. The outstanding question, however, in relation to the objectives of this paper, is what elements of these social forestry programmes are teachable and researchable in forestry education and training institutes?

Not all forms of participatory forestry are forms of social welfare in the Westoby sense (see Aganval and Narain, 1989), and faced with this array of new participatory nomenclature many questions arise. What is the substance behind the epithets? What of lasting value do they contain in relation to the development of the national forestry sector? What is permanent and productive as distinct from what is ephemeral and fashionable? Answers to these questions will help to identify those elements of significance in forestry and land use which are common to all of these activities, which have permanent value, and which should be taught and researched.

C O M M U N I T Y F O R E S T R Y

In 1978 the Forestry Department of the F A O published Forestry Paper No. 7 entitled 'Forestry for Local Community Development'. It proved to be a study of some importance which has had considerable influence in subsequent years. Its origins go back to Westoby's distinction between production forestry and social forestry, and its basic tenets are stated firmly and with what might now be considered a rather uncritical certainty.

The F A O paper defines community forestry as 'any situation which ultimately involves local people in a forestry activity' but remarkably 'excludes large-scale industrial forestry and any other form of forestry which contributes to community development solely through employment and wages'. That being the definition, the justification for community forestry is stated as follows:

The case for community development projects and programmes essentially rests not on their profitability, nor usually on direct quantifiable estimates of their economic returns compared with competing users of public funds. This is an area comparable to health or education which require government commitment to providing the funding necessary for meeting basic needs (FAO. 1978).

Another banner of Westoby's social forestry - forestry as welfare provided by the state - has been presented, and with hindsight it is easy to see why community forestry thus defined and thus justified could not and did not succeed in practice. However, it should be pointed out that something

16 Laurence Roche

closely resembling community forestry has been considered a success in China and South Korea where very special political circumstances, now most unlikely to be extended elsewhere, prevailed.

Oguntala (1991) and Poschen (1991) have highlighted the inadequacies of the working environment in forestry for technicians and workers in developing countries and the extent to which their training is neglected. Poschen gives a figure of 500.000 workers in timber harvesting alone in 27 tropical countries. According to the definition of community forestry given above, all of these workers - never mind technicians and professionals - are not considered part of the community because they are paid wages. Therefore, their welfare and the welfare of their families, and the dignity of their work are not issues to be addressed by a community forestry programme. The false distinction between social forestry and production forestry is seen here at its most damaging, and since the question of the dignity and welfare of forest workers is too important a matter to be left at this point it will be necessary to come back to it again under the heading of production forestry. This definition of community forestry also, of course, excludes the concepts and practices of community forestry which prevail in the European tradition, as, for example, in France.

The laudable objective of community forestry as originally conceived was to ensure the maximum involvement of rural people, though not as wage earners, directly in forestry activity. It was, in principle, an objective worthy of pursuit and it has proved consistently attractive to donors. It has failed in practice because it was conceived as a form of social welfare and as a forestry activity distinctly different from production forestry. In short, it had no ekonomic basis. It is now tending to degenerate into an esoteric activity on the fringes of forest science, preoccupied with its own pseudo-scientific jargon while continuing to draw support from donors. A not unusual example of its current rhetoric, where the sound of words runs away with the sense, is as follows:

While the distinction between the top-down and bottom-up views may seem somewhat pedantic, it has important implications to both researchers and implementors, because both the starting point and the questions asked are different. The difference amounts to a paradigm shift in the way that forestry programs are perceived and implemented. The shift can be thought of as moving from focusing on the primacy of the forest and its development (the classical forestry approach) to the primacy of the people and their development (the people-centred approach). In other words, we are talking about the fundamentally new way of looking at the world (Fisher and Gilmour, 1990).

The authors go on to quote another of like mind:

. . . the new paradigm is by no means additive, i.e. it does not enable the scientist to explain more things as well as what he already knew. On the contrary, it involves a change of total world view: as such while hopefully it does better explain the particular anomaly which led to the demise of the old paradigm, it simultaneously also re-interprets previously 'known' phenomena, leading to a whole new set of puzzles (Foster-Carter, 1976).

Community forestry as a concept worthy of pursuit in practice, is here debased by mere sociological rhetoric - sociology without science ; made worse by the use of dis-

credited political slogans. Wholly false antitheses are posed, such as, the primacy of the people and the primacy of the forest, and words are used so loosely as to be devoid of all meaning in practice. What is meant in sustainable practice by such statements as 'the primacy of the people and their development'; a 'fundamentally new way of looking at the world'; and 'a change of total world view'? These statements have been made in relation to the profession of forestry. D o they apply equally to the developed and developing worlds, to the professions of law, medicine and engineering? Of course not, and for that, if for no other reason, they do not provide a basis for action in regard to education and training in forestry. They can with confidence be ignored.

In sharp and healthy contrast to rhetoric of this kind it is necessary to turn to studies such as that of Agarwal and Narain (1989); studies which emanate from direct knowledge of people's real needs for forest biomass and how these needs can be fulfilled. We must also turn to another, recent F A O study entitled Community Forestry: Ten Years in Review (Arnold 1991). This study is a factual, scientific statement of field experience to date in community forestry. Two of its major conclusions are worth quoting in full:

(i) One result of promoting tree growing as though it were outside the forces of the market system, has been failure to match project production to market possibilities or to link producers to markets. Similarly, projects have neglected to put producers in touch with sources of higher level inputs, such as credit, available to those seeking to produce for the market.

(ii) Clearly community forestry is most accurately and usefully understood as an umbrella term denoting a wide range of activities which link rural people with forests and trees, and the products and benefits to be derived from them. If there is one dimension to be stressed above all others it is the range and diversity of these linkages. and the span of different disciplines which are engaged in aspects of community forestry. Community forestry is. therefore, not a separate discipline, or even programme, but one dimension of forestry, agriculture, rural energy and other components of rural development.

Community forestry in this sense, shorn of glib sociological rhetoric, and now with an acknowledged technological and economic. as well as sociological basis, has an important role to play in modern forestry practice. Furthermore, with its strong emphasis on the needs and rights of local people, such as forest workers and their families, it could also do much to bring to heel the banditry which passes for forestry in some developing countries. Thus understood, it is, with agroforestry, an eminently teachable and researchable subject but does not warrant a postgraduate or undergraduate degree of its own. Its major elements can be incorporated in qualifications in forestry, agriculture and agroforestry at both professional and technical levels. How- ever, a word of caution is required here.

In recent years, and influenced by the concept of community forestry as a form of social welfare, a number of educational and training institutions in forestry in developing countries have initiated a diversity of extra courses in the social sciences, e.g. anthropology, sociology, psychology, into their forestry curriculum (see, for example, the curricu-


lum for the BSc. in forestry with social forestry major at Kasetsart University, Thailand, in F A O 1989). This can have two adverse effects and little or no positive advantage for community forestry in its real sense. First, already crowded curricula at both the technical and professional levels become even more crowded. Secondly. the view of community forestry as social welfare is given legitimacy and further propagated. The result is a general weakening of technical and professional competence in forestry.

On the assumption that community forestry is not a separate discipline but simply a particular dimension of forestry and agriculture practices, a more appropriate way forward is to ensure that traditional courses and associated research are shaped by the concept of community forestry. For example, rather than concentrating exclusively in tropical environments on the selection and breeding of industrial plantation tree species, e.g. pines, eucalyptus, rubber (Hevea) and palm oil (Elaeis), attention could also be directed in both research and teaching to those tree species traditionally of use to local communities, e.g. in sub- Saharan African countries the shea butter tree (Vitelleria paradoxa), the locust bean tree (Parkia biglobosa) and the acacias (Roche, 1986). High forest management courses and associated research (Johns, 1983: Thang, 1987: Jonsson and Lindgren, 1990: Malmer and Grip, 1990), can give greater emphasis to forest products other than wood, and to work practices and standards as they relate to the welfare and dignity of the local work force and the needs of local communities.

The honours degree in agroforestry outlined by Sinclair (1991) is thus shaped. As he describes it:

The approach is interdisciplinary and combines the study of people, trees, herbaceous plants, and livestock and their interactions with one another in farming and forest systems. It embraces an ecosystem focus considering the stability, sustainability and equitability of land-use systems, in addition to their productivity. Social aspects are considered as thoroughly as ecological and economic aspects.

The distinction between community forestry, in a meaningful social and economic sense, and agroforestry is negli- gible. Therefore, the principal thrust in education and research should be in agroforestry. Hence the recommen- dation that agroforestry is worthy of full degree status while the objectives of community forestry are best achieved by ensuring a social and environmental dimension to the core subjects of the professional forestry degree and by the development of a full agroforestry degree where appropriate.

P R O D U C T I O N FORESTRY

The ancient forest of Belleme in Normandy, France, is as noble and as aesthetically pleasing as one of France's great cathedrals, e.g. Chartres. It is a production forest. A percentage of its massive oak trees (Quercus petraea (Matt Liebe)) are felled and extracted annually; and because the forest has a normal distribution of age classes, and because logging is conducted according to well established and accepted standards, the ecological integrity of the forest is maintained, and employment is provided locally. As a consequence, a forest dependent and forest derived culture and lore prevail in the local community with beneficial

effects for the region and the nation. Forest workers are unequivocally an integral part of that community, and their social status and the dignity and safety of work practices are respected. As Poschen (1991) has pointed out, 'over the last 20-30 years, the forest worker and his training have gained enormously in status, recognition and inputs in many industrialized countries, particularly in Europe'.

In adddition to the annual flow of wood to meet industrial needs, the forest provides a great diversity of habitats for the natural flora and fauna of the region, and is a source of spiritual replenishment for urban-based and spiritually impoverished citizens. This is production forestry conducted by professional foresters and its standards and practices are no less appropriate in developing countries. It does not encompass the brutal exploitative logging visualized by Westoby in his paper quoted earlier. T o take a complemen- tary but contrasting case to Belleme, Austria, for example, which has some of the most spectacular and beautiful forest landscapes in the world, harvests on an annual sustained yield basis up to 14 millon m' (the 1989 figure) of industrial softwood while sustaining the ecological integrity of mountain landscapes and torrent control.

When tropical hardwoods are managed, felled and extracted with the same finesse and ecologically benign logging methods applied to the oaks of France and the spruces of Austria, much will have been done to ensure the regeneration of tropical high forest and its management in perpetuity. There is no scientific basis for the statement that natural forest ecosystems in the tropics are too complex to be managed (see Buschbacher. 1990 for an excellent analysis of this issue). The fact is that forest management even of relatively simple monocultures of pine and eucalyptus, is either not applied or is very weak in most developing countries.

Throughout Europe and the Nordic countries forests of great diversity prevail ranging from slow-growing, scattered trees near the tree-line close to the Arctic Circle to the splendid forests of Belleme where oak forests are managed for high quality veneers on rotations of more than 200 years. For industrial societies, and with few exceptions. the areas covered by forests and woodlands are enormous. France has more than 27% of its land mass under forests and woodlands. The average for Europe is 35%. The Nordic countries have on average more than 50% with Fin- land by far the highest with 76% of its land mass under forests. Sixty-two percent of the forest estate of the nine countries of the European Community is privately owned, and such owners have their special requirements for training and education in forestry (see Neveux, 1991). The value of the goods and services produced by this great resource, its extraordinary environmental values and its potential in the years ahead, are in effect incalculable.

The flow of benefits in perpetuity to society from this great resource has been assured only by the maintenance of the highest professional and technical standards in forestry. This does not mean that other disciplines have had no role to play; on the contrary. A very high percentage of the members of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) are not foresters, nor is there any strong reason why they should be. Ecologists, zoologists, botanists, plant physiologists, plant breeders, hydrologists, sociologists, anthropologists and economists, all have essen-

18 Laurence Roche

tial roles to play in the provision of scientific data allowing the improvement and diversification of forest management plans. But in the end, forest land must be managed, and decisions must be made on protection, production, and use of the resource. Here is a classic example of a management science, of professional competence in the same sense as that which prevails in medicine, law and engineering, and it is the professional forester and supporting technical cadres and work force who ensure the integration and application of scientific data in management plans for a multiple of purposes. These are the guiding principles in education and training in forestry.

The professional forester, therefore, cannot and need not be all things to all men, a jack of all trades and master of none. However, while retaining the integrity of the professional degree in forestry, the education and training of professional foresters can and ought to be such that they can work effectively and with understanding with a diversity of other disciples such as those mentioned above. There is, therefore, a minimum set of core subjects which are essential, whatever the country and whatever the clime, if the professionalism of the forestry degree is to be maintained. (See Annexe 1.)

The voice of forestry as a profession is not strong internationally. The voice of forestry research is, and it is a powerful one, through IUFRO, now more than 100 years old and strongly entrenched in the European forestry tradition from which it evolved. The international professional organization which runs parallel with IUFRO, and is concerned with all aspects of forestry other than research, including professional standards and education and training, is the International Union of Societies of1 Foresters (IUSF). Compared to IUFRO, IUSF is a young organization founded only in the sixties. Most developing countries d o not yet have professional forestry associations or if they do they are very weak and without influence. Therefore, IUSF, like national professional forestry associations in the tropics, is still in the process of growth and development and has not yet found its international voice. It will d o so in due course, and the sooner the better if professional forestry is to make a contribution nationally and on a world stage to the current debate on the future of forests and foresters. It is not too fanciful to anticipate the day when IUSF will play the major role with the host countries in the organization of the World Forestry Congresses.

C O N C L U D I N G C O M M E N T

It is the central thesis of this paper that the concepts and practices of forestry outlined in this section, and the core subjects for a professional forestry degree given in Annexe 1, are applicable in both temperate and tropical environments. The goods and services which could flow from tropical forest ecosystems are not different in principle from those which flow from the forests of Europe, and the objectives of IUFRO and IUSF have application wherever forestry is practised as a profession. Professional foresters, therefore, whether working in tropical or temperate environments, should hold their ground and not be pressured into spreading themselves across the entire agricultural landscape. During this period of flux and change they should be confident in their profession and build on, and not abandon the great traditions of classical

l

forestry. The onus is now on agriculturalists and agronomists to

take up the challenge of agroforestry and complement the work of the forester. The inclusion of agroforestry in the system of the Consultative Group for International Agri- cultural Research is an important and long overdue step in this direction. It signals a significant shift from massive emphasis on commodity research to research on sustainable agricultural systems and natural resources and it is in this context that agroforestry assumes its importance in agricultural research and development and in training and education, and forestry as a profession finds its limits.

R E F E R E N C E S

AGARWAL, A. and NARAIK, S., 1989. Towards Green Villages: a strategy for environmentally sound and participatory rural development. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India.

ARNOLD, J. E. M., 1991. Community Forestry: ten years in review. FAO, Rome. (in press).

BUSCHBACHER, R. J., 1990. Natural Forest Management in the Humid Tropics: ecological, social, and economic considerations. Ambio 19:253-258.

FAO, 1978. Forestry for Local Community Development. FAO Forestry Paper No. 7. FAO, Rome.

FAO, 1986. European Timber Trends and Prospects to the Year 2000 and Beyond. UNECEIFAO, Geneva and Rome.

FAO, 1989. Forestry Education in the Asia-Pacific Region. RAPA Publication: 1989112. FAO, Rome.

FISHER, R. J. and GILMOUR, D. A., 1990. Putting the Community at the Centre of Community Forestry Research. In: Research Policy for Com.munity Forestry, Asia Pacific Region. RECOFTC Report No. 5. Bangkok, Thailand. pp. 73-80.

FOSTER-CARTER, A., 1976. From Rostow to Gunder Frank: Conflicting Paradigms in the Analysis of Under Development. World Development 4:167-180.

GIORDANO, E., 1991. Forestry Education at University Level. Tenth World Forestry Congress, Paris, France.

JOHNS, A., 1983. Wildlife Can Live with Logging. New Scientist 99:20&212.

JONSSON, T. and LINDGREN, P., 1990. Logging Technology for Tropical Forests: for or against? The Forest Operations Institute, Sweden.

MALMER, A. and GRIP, H., 1990. Soil Disturbance and Loss of Infiltrability Caused by Mechanized and Manual Extraction of Tropical Rainforest in Sabah, Malaysia. Forest Ecology and Management 38:l-12.

NEVEUX, M,, 1991. La formation des propriktaires forestiers sylviculteurs. Tenth Forestry Congress, Paris, France.

OGUNTALA, A. B.. 1991. Forestry Education at Technical Level. Tenth World Forestry Congress, Paris.

POSCHEN, P., 1991. Forest Worker Training: a step-child no longer? Tenth World Forestry Congress, Paris.

ROCHE, L., 1974. Agri-silviculture in the Tropics with Special Reference to Nigeria. In: Shifting Cultivation and Soil Conservation in Africa. pp. 179-189. Soils Bulletin 24, FAO, Rome.

ROCHE, L., 1975. Major Trends and Issues in Forestry Education in Africa: a view from Ibadan. Commonwealth Forestry Review 54:16&175.

ROCHE, L., 1979. Forestry and the Conservation of Plants and Animals in the Tropics. Forest Ecology and Management 2:103-122.

ROCHE, L., 1986. Forestry and famine: arguments against growth without development. Commonweath Forestry Review 6599-108.

SINCLAIR, F. L., 1991. University Education in Agroforestry. Tenth World Forestry Congress. p. 14.

THANG, HOOI CHIEW, 1987. Forest Management for Tropical High Forest, with Special Reference to Peninsular Malaysia. Forest Ecology and Management 21:3-20.

WESTOBY, F., 1987a. The Purpose of Forests: Follies of development. Blackwell, Oxford.

WESTOBY, F., 1987b. The Changing Objectives of Forest Management. In: The purpose of Forests: Follies of development. Blackwell, Oxford.

WESTOBY, F., 1987c. Forest Industries for Socio-economic Development. In: The Purpose of Forests: Follies of development. Blackwell, Oxford.

ANNEXE l. Specimen Curriculum for the B.Sc. Degree in Professional Forestry offered by a University in a Developing Country with a major forest resource (5 year degree course)

FIRST YEAR Subjects HoursiWeek Subjects HoursiWeek 1st Semester Lect. Lab. 2nd Semester Lect. Lab.

Botany 3 2 Organic Plant Systematics 3 2 Chemistry 3 4 Plant Physiology 2 2 Zoology 3 4 Physics 3 2 Basic Genetics 2 2 Religion 2 0 Mineralogy and English 3 0 Petrography 2 4 Inorganic Introduction to

Chemistry 3 4 Forest Science 2 0 General English 3 0

Economics 2 0 Mathematics 3 0 Geology - 2 2 Military Science _2 Total 23 14 23 14

SECOND YEAR Subjects HoursiWeek Subjects HoursiWeek 1st Semester Lect. Lab. 2nd Semester Lect. Lab.

Statistics 2 2 Forest Products Rural Sociology 2 2 Technology 2 2 General Soil Forest Ecology 2 2

Science 2 4 Geodosy and Dendrology 2 2 Cartography 2 2 Forest Introduction

Mensuration 2 2 to Forest Climatology 2 2 Economics 2 0 Wood Basic Principles

Identification 2 2 of Harvesting 2 2 English 3 0 Silvics 2 2

Forest Administration 2 0

Survey and Timber

- - Cruising 2 - 2 Total 17 16 16 12


THIRD YEAR Subjects HoursiWeek Subjects HoursiWeek 1st Semester Lect. Lab. 2nd Semester Lect. Lab.

Forest Engineering 3 2

Forest Planning and Management 2 2

Silviculture 2 2 Photo-Interpr. 2 2 Forest Protection 2 2 Research

Methods 2 0

- Total 13 10

Inttroduction to Hygiene and Health 2 0

Politics and Forest Laws 2 0

Forest Influences and Watershed Management 2 0

Scientific Writing 2 2 Tropical

Silviculture 2 2 Wood Chemistry 2 2 Thesis - -

12 6

FOURTH YEAR Subjects HoursIWeek Subjects HoursiWeek 1st Semester Lect. Lab. 2nd Semester Lect. Lab.

Statistics 2 2 Wood Industries Forest Inventory 2 2 and

Technology 2 2 Silvics and Forest

Silviculture 2 2 Economics. 2 0 Dendrology and Survey and

Ecology 2 2 Timber Harvesting 2 2 Cruising 2 0

Tropical Silviculture 2 2

Forest Influences and Protection 2 2

Forest - - Management _2 3

Total 10 10 12 8

FI lTH YEAR Subjects HoursiWeek Subjects HoursiWeek 1st Semester Lect. Lab. 2nd Semester Lect. Lab.

Experimental Thesis Design 2 2

Modern Harvesting 2 2

Research Methods 2 0

Community Service - -

Seminar - - Forest Industry 2 3 Total 8 4

20 Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(1), 1992

Calliandra calothyrsus: Implications of Plant Taxonomy, Ecology and Biology for Seed Collection D. J . MACQUEEN

Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK

S U M M A R Y

The Oxford Forestry Institute has recently begun seed collections of Calliandra calothyrsus for eventual inclusion in international provenance trials. The importance of the species in agroforestry throughout the tropics is described. Information on the species taxonomy. habit, ecological amplitude, and reproductive biology is presented and its implications for the seed collection strategy are discussed. Guidelines for sampling are included and the process of provenance delimitation is described. Specific details including topographical, political, climatic. edaphic, and ecological maps of the provenance sites are given. The ability to achieve real improvement in species performance is discussed in relation to the perceived potential and limitations of the species in agroforestry systems.

L'Institut de Foresterie d'Oxford a commencC rCcemment a rassembler des graines de Calliandra calothyrsus destinCes finalement a etre utilisCes dans des tests de provenance internationaux. On dCcrit l'irnportance de I'essence dans l'agroforesterie partout sous les tropiques. On prCsente des renseignements sur la taxonomie. le port, I'amplitude Ccologique et la biologie de reproduction de l'essence et l'on considkre les consCquences de ces renseignements pour la stratCgie de rassembler des graines. On prCsente des lignes directrices pour I'echantillonage et l'on dCcrit le processus de delimitation des provenances. Parmi les dCtails prCcis fournis sont des cartes topographiques, politiques, climatiques. Cdaphiques et Ccologiques des sites de provenance. On considere la capacitC d'obtenir une ckritable amClioration de la performance de I'essence par rapport h ce que l'on tient pour les possibilitCs et les limites de l'essence dans les s y s t h e s agroforestiers.

R E S U M E N

Calliandra calothyrsus: Implicaciones de la Taxonomia, Ecologia y Biologia en la coleccion de semillas de esta especie. El Instituto de Sil- vicultura de Oxford ha iniciado recientemente colecciones de semillas de Calliandra calothyrsus para incluirlas, de manera definitiva, en estudios internacionales de variedades de esta especie. En este trabajo se describe la importancia de C. calothyrms en agronomia forestal en todas las zonas tropicales. Se presentan datos de tsxonomia, habitat. amplitud ecologica y biologia reproductiva de la especie, y se dis- cuten las consecuencias que de ellas se derivan para la coleccion de semillas. Se incluyen ademis, algunas instrucciones para llevar a cabo el muestreo y se describe el proceso completo d e delimitaci6n de variedades. Asimismo. se muestran detalles especificos que incluyen mapas topogrificos, politicos, climiticos. edificos y ecol6gicos. Finalmente, se discute la posibilidad de lograr una mejora real de la especie, en relacion con el potential observado y las limitaciones de los sistemas de agronomia forestal.

Key words: Calliandra Calothyrsus, biology, provenance, seed collection

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. (Leguminosae -

Mimosoideae) is a small, thornless tree native to Central America and Mexico. Although rarely used within its native range, C. calothyrsus was introduced in 1936 to Java from Southern Guatemala as a possible substitute for Leu- caena leucocephala (Verhoef, 1939). At several sites in Indonesia since 1939 C. calothyrsus has been evaluated in comparison with C. tetragona primarily for use as a shade plant or intercrop hedgerow (Satjaprada and Sukandi, 1981). The promising growth rate, disease resistance and drought tolerance of C. calothyrsus prompted further trials of the species in plantation in 1950 (Soerjono and Suhaendi 1981), although the first extensive reforestation project was not initiated until 1965. In 1974 village-based trial plots were set up to assess C. calothyrsus and other fast growing species for their suitability in the reforestation of eroded, poor quality land around villages (NAS, 1983). C. calothyrsus was ranked first among the species tested which resulted in co-operative planting by village chiefs and forest guards and later in spontaneous planting and seed distribution.

The species has received much favourable publicity

within Indonesia as a source of fuelwood (FPRI, 1977), pulp and paper (Kasmudjo, 1982), forage (Panjaitan, 1988), honey (Nadiar, 1979), shellac (Kasmudjo, 1978) and as an ornamental. Moreover, it is prized as a source of green manure (Baggio and Heuveldop. 1984) and as a means by which soil can be protected and rehabilitated (Hadipoer- nomo, 1979). By 1983 an estimated 170.000 hectares had been planted in Indonesia alone.

With an increasing international emphasis on the use of nitrogen fixing trees to support rural needs in developing countries (Westoby 1985), C. calothyrsus has been the subject of much attention. Although included in various lists such as 'economically important nitrogen fixing tree species' (Brewbaker and Styles, 1982), C. calothyrsus was not included for testing with a group of 25 Central Ameri- can dry zone trees chosen by the Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI) (Hughes and Styles. 1984) since it is an insignificant shrub in its native habitat and local people disregard it (Hughes*, pers. comm.). Nevertheless, the spread of this

* C. E. Hughes. Research Officer, Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB. U K.

22 D. J. Macqueen

calothyrsus by the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Differences between the two are slight, C. calothyrsus having more robust peduncles and rachi (the rachis arguably longer and pinnae numbers greater, Hernandez, in press). Population- based studies are being carried out to examine the significance of these differences.

C. calothyrsus CO-exists in certain areas with both C. houstoniana and C, juzepczukii Standley. Hernandez (in press) presents evidence from various herbarium specimens that hybridization between C. houstoniana and C. calothyrsus can occur. Recent field observations, based on inflorescence characteristics rather than unreliable pod pubescence, support this (Macqueen, unpublished). Field trials within the whole group are being conducted at Siguatepeque, Hon- duras to resolve questions on hybridization.

The complications of possible hybridization and taxonomic confusion create difficulties in seed collection. Clearly, it is necessary to avoid making collections from populations of possible hybrid origin if traits of a particular species are to be captured. Fortunately, most of such sites are in areas of artificial disturbance in which the species have entered as colonizers. Such sites are not natural in terms of ecology and potentially contain very narrow 'colonizer' genetic bases. If hybridization is a possibility, then it follows that it must be prevented in the species' natural distribution by geographical, ecological, seasonal, diurnal, or pollinator behavioural barriers. If this were not the case continued intercrossing would eventually eliminate species differences. Consequently, it might be considered advisable that collections be made only from sites epitomising a species' natural habitat (discussed for C. calothyrsus in the following section). This strategy would avoid bbth the collection of hybrid seed and collection of potentially narrow genetic resources.

An alternative viewpoint lies in the speculation that the very large differences between the provenances of other MPTs, such as those of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp., are largely a reflection of the inclusion of narrow colonizer genetic bases (Attah-Krah, 1987). For G. sepium one provenance (Retalhuleu, 14184) is proving to be superior at many sites in the tropics (Simons, in press), yet this population is suspected to be based on escapes from planted trees in nearby fields (Simons" pers. comm.). While most collections should, therefore, come from the species' natural habitat it would be wise also to sample extensive secondary populations, taking care to state their genetic position by appropriate qualifying documentation. Some populations in bush fallows, or under cultivation, may have suffered considerable artificial selection which could also be capitalized on. These too could be sampled as secondary populations.

The elucidation of the taxonomic difficulties in the group is a priority in making accurate collections for future distribution. Close relatives of C. calothyrsus, such as C. acapulcensis, while displaying similar morphology may have vast differences in agroforestry potential. There appears to be no rational reason why C. calothyrsus was selected above some of the other close relative species. Therefore, it will prove instructive to test C. acapulcensis also in the forthcoming trials. Similarly, testing the performance of certain

* A . J. Simons, Research Officer, Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 JRB, UK.

hybrids might prove interesting. The ability to distinguish accurately between the species is important in providing predictable trial results.

H A B I T AND H A B I T A T

C. calothyrsus can be classified as a small tree or a large, often multiple stemmed shrub, 1.5-10m tall. Bark colour varies from white to dark red-brown and is normally glabrous, but occasionally can be finely pubescent. Shoots may be ridged and coloured with anthocyanin. The canopy is dense with mid-green, alternate, petiolate. bipinnately compound leaves, 10-28cm long and without an upper waxy sheen. Pinnae vary in number from 5-20 pairs and possess 25-65 pairs of linear, acute or obtuse. 5-10mm leaflets. The 8-30cm floral racemes are held vertically above the foliage in an erect position with few or numerous flower heads. The raceme axis has 13-19 nodes at which an average of four umbelliform sub-inflorescences are clustered, each with an average of 6 floral buds. The buds may or may not be tinged with anthocyanin. The calyx is 1.5-2mm long, and the corolla 5-6mm long, both glabrous yellow-green with subacute lobes. The 30-45 stamina1 filaments project 48- 65mm from the flower base where they are formed into a short tube. They are generally basally white and apically pink, though more rarely completely scarlet or apically white. The single pale pink or scarlet style projects 60- 77mm above the flower base. The legume pods are 8-13cm long, 11-16mm wide, long attenuate to the base and sharply acute at the apex. They are thick margined and brown in coloration, glabrous or with fine white or red pubescence, and held in upright clusters at various stages of maturity.

C. calothvrsus is found in its natural habitat as a colonist of river margins and alluvial or shingle deposits. Initially, it may occur in dense stands, but is normally distributed at a low density over many kilometres. In later successional stages it is quickly outcompeted, and it seems only to exist in areas of recurrent disturbance. In areas of artificial disturbance such as roadside verges or rotational cultivation C. calothyrsus may invade as a temporary colonist.

D I S T R I B U T I O N

Despite the wide use of C. calothyrsus in other parts of the tropics, the natural range of the species in the Central American isthmus is still well defined. This stems primarily from the fact that. in its native environment, C. calothyrsus is not perceived as having any practical value. Such is the disdain for this small tree that it has various nicknames such as 'camaron' (the shrimp) and 'gran hierba' (the big weed). Consequently, the species' native range is not obscured by human disturbance as is the case for Gliricidia sepium (Hughes, 1987). Nevertheless, exploring and mapping the range of this species is complicated by: (i) the taxonomic confusion, which renders precise definition of C. calothyrsus difficult. In particular, the extension of the range to the north and west of the Tehuantepec isthmus in Mexico is in doubt because of the confusion between C. calothyrsus and C. acapulcensis; (ii) the extensive forest clearance, which renders any precise delimitation of the original range hazardous. Fortunately, C. calothyrsus is almost entirely riverine in habitat. Most native sites are

thus sufficiently inaccessible (or agriculturally unsuitable) to avoid destruction; (iii) destruction of parts of the range and colonization into newly disturbed areas. New areas of colonization suffer from the additional problem of containing an uncertain parentage of a possibly very narrow genetic base. Once again, it is fortunate that for C. calothyrsus such situations are very rare since the species is a poor competitor in later successional stages. Nevertheless, traits such as early flowering (after one year in some cases). and early seed set, do present the possibility of expansion into areas which are periodically disturbed. This has been documented for sites such as roadside populations or rotational cultivation; (iv) areas of deliberate introduction such as the site at Hojancha, Costa Rica (Campos, 1986) and San Juan de Flores (Kowal*, pers. comm.). As has been stated earlier, however, such sites of deliberate introduction are extremely rare in Central America due to the low percep- tion of the species' usefulness.

In spite of the above restrictions, it can be seen that it is indeed possible to delineate accurately the natural distribution of C, calothyrsus. Meticulous exploration and the use of Herbarium data from Mexico City, Mexico (MEXU): Forest Herbarium Oxford, UK (FHO); Kew Botanic Gardens, UK (K); British Museum, UK (BM); Missouri Botanic Garden, USA (MO); New York, USA (NY): Chicago, USA (F); Tegucigalpa, Honduras (EAP): and San Jose, Costa Rica (CR); has allowed the construction of a distribution map (Figure. 1) which follows those of Hernan- dez (in press) and Macqueen (in press). From this map it is clear that C. calothyrsus extends from 19"20'N to 9'20'N and 96'40'W to 79"50tW. The most northerly population at Veracruz is unusual in that it bridges the otherwise restric- tive barrier of the Tehuantepec isthmus. The high morphological variation observed over the species wide distribution suggests that significant variation between provenances will be found and justifies their collection and separation during testing.

A L T I T U D E

In addition to the wide latitudinal variation and longitudi- nal bariation, C. calothyrsus also tolerates a broad variety of edaphic and climatic environments. It inhabits an altitudinal range from sea level to an upper limit of 1860m (see Table 1). In terms of temperature within its native range C. calothyrsus occupies areas with an annual mean of (20) 22- 28°C with a mean maximum temperature of 24-30°C and a mean minimum temperature of 18-24°C (Wiersum. 1989). The areas in which it grows are frost free.

SOILS

The species exists on a wide range of soils throughout Central America. The bulk of the herbarium acquisitions

*T. Kowal. CIIR. British Technical Programme of Honduras. c10 Br~tish Embassy, Apartado 290. Tegucigalpa D. C., Honduras.

Calliandra calothyrsus 23

come from areas of three principal soil types: (i) Cambisols (a widespread, reasonably fertile group of soils in the early stages of soil development with an ochric A horizon and a cambic B horizon) are found under 37.4% of recorded specimens. These soils tend to have slightly acid to mildly alkaline pH values; (ii) Acrisols (extremely weathered, leached, and relatively infertile soils of old landscapes with an argillic B horizon and base saturation less than 50%) are found under 19.6% of all recorded specimens. The soils are often mildly acidic; (iii) Nitosols (deep, clayey, red, fertile soils with an argillic B horizon) occur under 18.8% of specimens. They have variable pH values.

Other soil types on which recorded specimens occur include volcanically formed andosols (9%), luvisols with high base saturation (8%). shallow calcareous rendzinas with pH close to neutrality (3.6%). recent, fertile. alluvial deposit fluvisols (2.7%), and wet mineral gleysols (0.9%). Such figures, based on examination of map locations, probably underestimate the number of specimens on fluvisols since observations in the field have demonstrated that almost all natural populations occur by rivers. Many of the soils on which C. calothyrsus occurs have relatively high pH values (e.g. Georgesville, Belize). Collection from populations with acid tolerance will be important for testing in tropical areas facing acidity related problems with other MPTs such as Leucaena leucocephala (Tilo et al. 1981; Blair et al., 1988).

C L I M A T E

The range of climates occupied by C. calorhyrsus is wide. but there is a tendency to find field and herbarium specimens in areas with 2-4 months dry season (less than 50mm rainfall (Table 2 ) ) . and 1000-4000mm rainfall (Table 3).

TABLE 2. Percentage of C. calothyrsus herbarium specimen records ,from geographical zones with known dry season lengths

Dry season (months) 0-2 2-4 4-6 >6 % of specimens 15% 53% 20% 1 2%

TABLE 3. Percentage of C. calothyrsus herbarium specimen records from geographical zones with known annual rainfall

Ann. rainfall (mm) <l000 1-2000 2-3000 3-4000 >4000 % of specimens 8.6% 37.5% 21.0% 31.3% 1.6%

pp

V E G E T A T I O N

The majority (60.2%) of the recorded specimens of C. calothyrsus are found in what is classified by Holdridge as 'wet' and 'very wet premontane forest' (CATIE, 1986).

C. calothyrsus occupies the very early stages of succession, often being replaced by other colonist species such as

TABLE 1. Percentage of C. calothyrsus herbarium specimens wirhin chosen altirude bands

Altitude (m) 1-200 201-400 401-600 601-800 801-1000 1001-1200 1201-1400 1401-1600 1601-1800 % of specimens 13.7 11.2 8.7 14.8 18.9 16.3 9.2 4.6 2.6

24 D. J. Macqueen

Acacia farnesiana, Mimosa pigra, Leucaena shannonii, L. leucocephala, and Trema micrantha. Several other species commonly CO-occur with C. calothyrsus, Acacia angustissi- rna being the most notable. These two species occupy almost identical habitats in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras, and the latter is also an excellent MPT used for fuelwood, fodder, and green manure on similar soils to that of C. calothyrsus. Additional CO-occurring trees are Mimosa alba, M. pigra, Acacia farnesiana, A . pennatula, Lysiloma divaricata, Leucaena shannonii, L . leucocephala, and non- legumes such as Trema micrantha, Cecropia sp. and Alvaradoa amorphoides.

In any seed collection programme it is essential to encompass as much of the geographic, altitudinal, edaphic, climatic, and ecological variation as possible (Hughes, 1987). The underlying presumption is that areas which differ in any of the above factors will subject populations of a species to different selection pressures over time. It must, therefore, be considered likely that such different areas will contain populations with differing genetic composition, provided that there is no gene flow between them. It is consequently a fundamental prerequisite of any seed collection strategy that ample exploration of the range (and variation with* the range) be completed prior to the initiation of collection so as to outline areas of potentially interesting adaptation. In many instances time constraints imposed by recipients of seed, or more often by the funding bodies of seed collection, curtail adequate exploration and reduce the chance of interesting adaptive complexes being picked up. The current project endeavours to postpone seed dispatch until seed collections from the entire range have been completed.

I

P H E N O L O G Y

Calliandra calothyrsus exhibits the typical syndrome of sea- sonally dry forest species, losing its leaves during the dry season and flushing with the onset of the rain, though in its particular case the flowering and fruiting process occurs just prior to leaf fall.

The actual dates of flowering and fruiting are extremely variable both within and between populations. Precocious flower opening begins as early as July throughout the native range. Peak flowering occurs between September and December in more northerly latitudes. and between late July and November in Nicaragua, lowland Costa Rica and Panama. The end of the flowering season is late March, although there remains a residual low level of flowering throughout the year in areas of high rainfall and reduced dry season. There appear to be slight correlations between the following: long dry season or low rainfall and early flowering; low altitude and early flowering; and low latitude and early flowering. Despite such general trends, however, for the purposes of seed collection, flower and fruit ripening are sufficiently irregular as to demand individual pre-emptive observation at each site. Furthermore, within-population irregularity is such that repeated visits to any one site are needed to collect seed from all the desired trees.

Within a single tree, the period of flowering may last as long three months. though it is usually somewhat shorter. Long flowering racemes open basipetally, and in C. calothyrsus during a single,night 4-26 (mean of 11) flowers

open simultaneously to give an almost circular floral display. The sequential nature of flowering in C. calothyrsus, and the small numbers of flowers open at any one time. is most probably an evolutionary strategy based on a number of component selective forces: firstly, it forces vector movement between trees without which they could not obtain sufficient nutrition thus stimulating outcrossing; secondly. it maintains the opportunity for pollination events over several months in the case of irregular pollinators or irregular climatic conditions suitable for pollination: thirdly, it allows a long sequence of fruit maturation and seed dispersal max- imizing the chances of some seed escaping bruchid predators and ripening in favourable climatic conditions; lastly. it offers the option of floral abortion in some of the fruit maturation period so as to conserve vital reserves in times of climatic irregularity.

The time between flowering and fruit maturity ranges from 55 to 90 days and is dependant on environmental conditions during the ripening phase thus making the exact timing of seed collection unpredictable. Within any one tree., fruit ripening is sequential following the basipetal flowering pattern. At any one time, it is common for only a small proportion of the fruit to be ripe. Nevertheless, there is a tendency for relatively concise areas of the raceme rachis to develop fruit. Boland and Owour (in press) suggest that this may either be due to the episodic nature of good pollination, or to an abortion strategy of the plant to maximize seed produced for resources available. A period of 3-7 days elapses during which the seed is sufficiently ripe to be collected, and before the tension in the pod due to desiccation causes- explosive apical dehiscence. No studies have been carried out on the viability of seed picked in an unripe state and artificially ripened. Fruit ripening begins in November, with the peak almost entirely between January and March in most populations.

Several instances of unusually low seed production have been observed. Zygote abortion was found throughout one population in Cofradia, CortCs, Honduras, in 1991 despite ample pod production. Abnormally high rainfall in Decem- ber 1990 and January 1991 may have prevented pod drying, allowing an observed fungal infestation to proliferate perhaps causing zygote abortion. Calliandra houstoniana, however, in the close vicinity did show normal pod development and seed production. In another population at San Francisco de la Paz, Olancho. Honduras, no pod production occurred during 1991, perhaps due to similar climatic irregularity. In the non-native tropical plantations of C. calothyrsus in Africa poor seed set has also been recorded (Boland and Owour, in press).

The combined effects of: ripening failure; variable ripening time across, and within, sites; the small quantities of seed per tree; the small numbers of trees in certain popula- t i o n ~ ; rapid ripening; and explosive fruit dehiscence impose difficulties on the seed collector. It is difficult to obtain good collections of C. calothyrsus and the quantities of seed tend to be limited in comparison with other MPT species such as Leucaena and Gliricidia.

B R E E D I N G SYSTEMS

An understanding of the breeding systems of MPTs is essential to the process of devising a rational collection

26 D. J. Macqueen

collected should be sufficiently far apart as to avoid being directly related to one another. A distance of 1OOm has been suggested arbitrarily by Callaham (1964). The long distance gene flow in C. calothyrsus indicates that individuals may be directly related to one another over greater than 100rn. Sampled populations should therefore consist of 50 individuals spaced at greater than 100m apart. The confines of real observed populations has, however, imposed com- promise on such theoretical ideals. Where individual tree collections have been made the guidelines have been rigidly followed, but bulk collection has had to involve all available individuals so as to achieve the required quantities of seed. All individuals from which seed is collected are chosen at random due to the inability to differentiate between genetically and environmentally caused variation in the field.

BASIS F O R A G E N E T I C I M P R O V E M E N T S T R A T E G Y

The genetic improvement of C. calothyrsus is in its initial stages. The high morphological variation observed and wide ecological amplitude of the species suggest significant variation will be found between different geographic areas. It is generally acknowledged that the geographical area from which genetic material is collected has great significance with respect to the subsequent performance in comparative trials (Turnbdl, 1983). Striking examples of differences in 'provenance' performance are frequent in the literature (FAO, 1979; Atta-Krah, 1987) and are acknowledged to be highly repeatable (Boyle and Yeh, 1987). In species with broad natural distributions over a rich variety of environments the differences are ~ommonly 5-15% (Willan, 1988) but may exceed 200% (Simons, in press). When compared to the expected 10-30% in subsequent tree breeding programmes (Carlisle and Teich, 1978) the importance of the initial sampling strategy becomes apparent. A dilemma consequently arises in the species selection phase in that it is not worth collecting provenances unless a species is worthwhile, yet often worthwhile species cannot be identified unless all the provenance variation is included in the assessment. Given that C. calothyrsus is highly regarded, however, it is necessary to define the location and extent of the 'provenances' to be used. The confusion surrounding the definition of 'provenance' has been amply discussed (Jones and Burley, 1973; Turnbull and Griffin, 1986) with the latter authors concluding that 'it is incum- bent upon the user to provide the appropriate definition'. Consequently, for C. calothyrsus the following definition has been adopted:

A clearly delimited geographical area in which the species grows and is native, which contains, through similarity of past and present natural selection pressures and gene flow within its boundaries, individuals more broadly genetically and phenotypically similar to each other, than to individuals in neighbouring areas.

P R A C T I C A L S T A G E S I N P R O V E N A N C E D E L I M I T A T I O N F O R C . C A L O T H Y R S U S

Having elected the above provenance concept as the rational basic unit with which we ought t o sample the genetic

variation of C. calothyrsus over its range, it would be prof- itable to discuss the practical steps needed for provenance elucidation. Such steps may be used as a framework for the pragmatic delimitation of provenance in other species.

1. An accurate map of the distribution of the species should be drawn as far as can be gleaned from herbarium records and field exploration. (Previous literature is often inaccurate and incomplete for the precise definition required). Areas of taxonomic confusion should be clearly marked or omitted. This distribution map will form the basic scaffolding from which accurate 'available provenances' can be delimited (see Fig. 1). Units within which gene flow is a distinct possibility should be marked (for example populations spread along a single river valley).

2. Key topographic figures should be added to a map of the geographic area used in the distribution map. In particular, all features which are likely to impede or prevent gene flow (such as mountain ranges above 1500m for C. calothyrsus) should be included: These additions will identify prob- able units between which there will be no gene flow. It is important to emphasize, however, that there is no immediate reason why gene flow within the unit may not also be impeded by distance or ecological factors (see Fig. 2).

3. In addition to geographical features which may act as confines t o a subsection of the species range, it must also be remembered that for collecting purposes, political barriers also act as boundaries to possible collecting. These boundaries should be drawn on the maps and may divide acceptable single biological provenance units into two political provenance halves. Where rivers form borders in the range of C. calothyrsus access to one side of a population may be denied. Major rivers have also been included in Figure 3.

4. Soils are likely to play a major role as selective forces moulding the genetic constitution of populations over an evolutionary timescale. For C. calothy&us the populations adapted to acidic soils will be particularly interesting in trials at planting sites with high acidity. A soil map should be drawn which will allow the subdivision of geographical units should a single unit contain two markedly different soil types. The soil map shown in Figure 4 was based on the F A O UNESCO world soil map series.

5. Ecological pressures on survival are affected by the prevailing vegetation type and individual species with which the chosen species is competing. While it is impossible to map precise species competitors, a vegetation map based on climate can be drawn and may serve to further subdivide geographical units within which there are grave vegetational dichotomies. While several climatic classifica- tions are available, including those of Koppen, Thornth- waite, Gaussen, and Holdridge (Robbins and Hughes, 1983), the latter has been chosen for use in this particular study (Fig. 5).

6. Rainfall within provenance regions also has an important impact as a factor controlling plant growth and development. Where areas with marked differences in total rainfall occur adjacent to one another it is likely that the existing populations will display some degree of adaptation to their particular rainfall regime. Consequently, it would seem prudent to use annual precipitation to further subdivide geographical areas of otherwise similar status. Figure 6 depicts the annual rainfall pattern for Central America.

7. In addition to the impact of the total annual rainfall,


the seasonal distribution of rainfall is also an important force acting on plant survival. Areas with longer dry sea- sons will contain plants that are more adapted to that particular climatic regime (Fig. 7). Therefore, length of dry season can also be used to subdivide areas of otherwise similar status.

8. Having delineated areas covering sources of genetic material it should be decided which of these areas will furnish sufficient seed to meet the current demand. Areas with the required sufficiency are the current available provenances. Provenances with only a few individuals should either be eliminated from trials or used to establish seed production orchards from which seed demands can be met. The narrow genetic base of such orchards should generate caution and is only advisable in proven exceptional provenances.

9. It is important in the acquisition of genetic material and its incorporation in trials that material is kept to a man- ageable quantity. This prevents unnecessary expense and minimises technical confusion in the fragile network of world provenance trials. In view of this, the original total number of available provenances should be reduced to an* arbitrary acceptable number between 10-20. These provenances should cover the entire geographical range of the species and as much of the edaphic, biotic, and climatic range as possible. Such provenances will then form the core of subsequent research into improvement. A map of the research provenances for Calliandra calothyrsus is included (fig. 8) and a brief description of the 14 chosen for initial trials is given in Appendix A.

DISCUSSION

Any single MPT introduced as an exotic to solve problems of soil erosion, soil impoverishment, shortages of fodder, fuelwood, food or construction material faces the risk of failure. Failure may result from incompatibility with the soil or climate, the impact of a pest or disease, or rejection by the local populace due to the new plant's ecological, social and political implications (for example with regard to such factors as weediness or land tenure). The introduction of MPTs over large areas, as a single option, in an extremely short time scale is likely to amplify the risk considerably. C. calothyrsus is a fast growing species with potential for soil stabilization and improvement, and the production of fuelwood, pulp and paper, fodder, honey and lac. While it does exhibit astonishing growth in some farming systems (FPRI, 1977) and is widely regarded as an excellent small dimension fuelwood, it is neither the only fuelwood species, nor the most suitable for growth in all environments (Gut- teridge and Akkasaeng, 1985). With regard to fodder, reports of poor digestibility have been widely published (Baggio and Hueveldop, 1984; Blair et al., 1988; Panjaitan, 1988). The value of C. calothyrsus as a source of nitrogen- rich manure has also been called into question (Gutteridge, 1990). While major pests on the scale of the Leucaena psyl- lid infestation have not been documented, several pests may cause problems. Among these a stemborer, similar to Hypsipyla robusta which attacks Mahogany, has devastated 40% of a population in the Philippines (Luego, 1989). In Kenya, a coleopteran, Pachnoda ephippiata, feeds on the flowers, fruits and foliage of C, calothyrsus causing floral

abortion and the lack of seed production (Kaudia, 1990). Within its native range bruchid seed predators and various defoliators have also been rewrded though not formally identified.

In the light of the above points, attempts to introduce and improve C. calothyrsus should proceed only after several important prerequisites. These include: (i) a clear analysis of the complex problems in each individual ecosystem where the plant is to be used; (ii) an assessment of locally native species which might provide the desired solutions (in view of the advantages of local species listed in Von May- dell, 1986); (iii) detailed genecological studies of the species in its natural range to provide information necessary to evaluate the likely outcome of an introduction; (iv) the inclusion of several alternative species, such as Acacia angustissima, so as to minimize the risks associated with any one component.

Only after these steps have been taken is the testing of provenances a logical strategy. It is important in that it facilitates the introduction of the provenances suited to a suite of local environmental factors and of proven high performance within them. It fosters a systematic approach to species introduction which minimizes risk to potential users. It also acts as a firm foundation for future breeding work should that be appropriate.

The acquisition of germplasm, currently progressing under ODA research project R. 4485, will make available different germplasm sources for testing in a range of exotic environments. International cooperation at trial sites throughout the tropics will ensure that the most suitable source of germplasm is introduced at each region. In addition the systematic and comprehensive nature of the initial collections will provide a firm base for future breeding and selection. ~ a r l ~ and abundant production of seed, ease of vegetative reproduction, and short rotation lengths for production assessment will enable rapid selection and improvement. In the context of C. calothyrsus, therefore, it is clear that improvement is possible in the near future, but that careful consideration needs to be paid both to the uses for which it is suitable and to the need for diversity within agricultural systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work on Calliandra has been carried out in collaboration with: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM) in Mexico; Banco de Semillas Forestales (BANSEFOR) in Guatemala; Corporation Hondurena de Desarrollo Forestal (COHDEFOR) in Honduras; Instituto de Recursos Naturales (IRENA) in Nicaragua; and Centro Agronomic0 Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza (CATIE) in Costa Rica. Thanks are due to all concerned, as also to those at Missouri Botanic Gardens and the Nitro- gen Fixing Tree Association (NFTA). Special thanks are due to Dr H.M. Hernandez, UNAM; Mr D. Brunner, Mis- souri; Mr 0 . Ochoa, COHDEFOR; and Mr E. Viquez (CATIE) for their expertise and support.

Thanks to C.E. Hughes, Dr B.T. Styles, A.J. Pottinger, and Dr A.J. Simons of OF1 for invaluable help and wn- structive criticism. Thanks also to D.L. Filer for support with computer information systems; D. Boshier, S. Forum, P. Elgaard for accommodation and sustenance; all at Alice

Holt Lodge who managed seed storage; and the secretarial support staff at OFI.

The dedicated work and excellent company of tree d imber Don Modesto contributed greatly to the success of early work.

T h e work was financed by the ODA under research scheme R.4485 at OFI, University of Oxford.

REFERENCES ARROYO, M. T. K., 1981. Bteeding systems and pollination biolo-

gy in Leguminosae. In POLHILL, R. M. and RAVEN, P. H., 1981. Advances in legume systematics Part 2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK. pp. 723-769.

ATTAH-KRAH, A. N., 1987. Research on Gliricidia germplasm evaluation and improvement in West Africa. In WITHINGTON, D., GLOVER, N. and BREWBAKER, J. (ed.) Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp: Management and improvement. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association (NFTA) Special Publication, 146-161. Waimanaio, Hawaii.

BAGGIO, A. and HEUVELDOP, J., 1984. Initial performance of Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. in live fences for the production of biomass. Agroforestry System 2,19-29.

BARNER, H . , 1975. Classification of sources for procuremeat of forest reproductive material. In FAOIDANIDA Training course on forest seed collection and handling. Vol. 2, 110-138. FAO, Rome.

BENTHAM, G., 1844. Notes on Mimoseae, with a synopsis of the species. London Journal of Botany 3,82-112.

BENTHAM, G., 1875. Revision of the suborder Mimoseae. Tran- scriptions of the Linnean Society of London 30,335664.

BLAIR, G. J., PANJAITAN, M., IVORY, D. A., PALMER, B. and SUDJAD, M,, 1988. An evaluation of tree legumes on an acid ultisol in South Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Agricultural Sci- ence, Cambridge, 111,435-441.

BOLAND, D. J. and OwouR, B. (in press). ~ f o r a l biology and seed production in exotic Calliandra calothyrsus at Maseno, Kenya. 1 8 ~ ~ .

BOYLE, T. J. B. and YEH, F. C., 1987. Within population genetic variation -implications for selection and breeding. In MORGEN- STERN, E. K. and BOYLE,T. J. B. (eds.) The proceedings of the 21st meeting of the Canadian Tree Improvement Association. Part 2: Tree Improvement - Progressing Together. Truro, NS. pp. 20-42.

BRAY, R., PALMER, B. and IBRAHIM, T., 1988. Some nutritional constraints for the growth of shrub legumes on acid infertile soils in the tropics. In WITHINGTON, D., MACDICKEN, K. G., SASTRY, C. B. and ADAMs, N. R., 1988. Multipurpose tree species for small-farm use. Proceedings of an international workshop held November 2-5, 1987 in Pattaya, Thailand. pp. 100-104. CO-published with the International Development Research Centre, Canada; Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Arlington, Virginia, USA.

BRETELER, F. J., 1989. The origin and identity of Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. and its synonym C. confusa Sprague and Riley (Mimos). Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 38,1,79-80.

BREWBAKER, J. and STYLES, B. T., 1982. Economically important nitrogen-fixing tree species 'A' list. In BURLEY, J. and VON CARLOWITZ, P., 1984. ?dultipurpose tree germplasm. Proceed- ings of a planning workshop to discuss international cooperation. International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya.

BRllrrON, N. L. d ROSE, J. N., 1928. Anneslia. North American Horn, 23,48-76.

B W G , 6. S., 1%7. The conserved type of Calliandra Taxon, 16,46%4?29-472.

CANLPI)S, 3. J., 1986. Oanetie variation and environment-genotype l

i

interaction in provenances of Calliandra sp. in Costa Rica. MSc. thesis at the Centro Agronomic0 Tropical de Investigation y Ensenanza (CATIE), Turrialba, Costa Rica.

CALLAHAM, R. Z., 1964. Provenance research: Investigation of genetic diversity associated with geography. Unasylva, 18,40-50.

CARLISLE, A. and TEICHE, A. H., 1978. Analysing benefits and costs of tree breeding programs. In PASCA, T. M., 1978. Selected papers from the third world consultation on forest tree breeding. Unasylva, 30,1191120.

CATINOT, R., 1984. In French-speaking Africa, the future of the tropical forest will depend on the rural communities. The forest cannot be dissociated from its natural environment and its inhabitants. Bois et For& des Tropiques, 203,7113.

CENTRO AGRONOMICO TROPICAL DE INVESTIGACION Y ENSE- NANZA, 1986. Silviculture of promising species for the production of firewood in Central America. Serie tecnica: informe tecnico, 8 6 , 2 1 8 ~ ~ .

CHANG, B. and MARTINEZ, H., 1984. Germplasm resources of Calliandra caiofhyrsus Meissn. in Central America and Panama. Forest Genetic Resources Information, 13,5458.

CHANTRASIRI, S., 1987. Fast growing nitrogen fixing trees as MPTs for fuelwood and charcoal on small farms. In WITHING- TON, D., MACDICKEN, K. G., SASTRY, C. B. and ADAMS, N. R., 1988. Multipurpose tree species for small-farm use. Proceedings of an international workshop held November 2-5, 1987 in Pat- taya, Thailand. pp. 272. CO-published with the International Development Research Centre, Canada; Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Arlington, Virginia, USA.

CHAVANGI, N. A., ENGELHARD, R. J. and JPNES, V., 1985. Cul- ture as the basis for implementing self-sustaining woodfuel development programmes. Beijer Institute, Centre for Energy and Development in Africa. Nairobi, Kenya. 24pp.

DOBAT, K. and PEIKERT-HOLLE. T., 1985. Bliiten und Fleder- mause: Bestaubung durch Fledermause und Flughunde (Chi- ropterophile). Seckenberg - Buch, 60. Kramer, Frankfurt, Germany.

DURST, P. B., 1987. Energy plantations in the Republic of the Philippines. Research Paper, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service. SE-265. 17pp.

EGGER, K., 1986. Ecological intensification. Soil conservation and improvement of tropical soils by pastoral agroforestry systems. Collection Documents SystZmes Agraires, 6,129-135.

ELIAS, T. S., 1978. Mimosoideae. In POLHILL, R. M. and RAVEN, P. H.. 1978. Advances in Legume Systematics Part I . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey. 425pp.

FAEGRI, K. and VAN DER PIJL, L., 1979. Principles of Pollination Biology. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK. 291pp.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS. (FAO), 1979. Seed collections of Eucalyptus microtheca. Forest Genetic Resources Information, 19. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FOREST PRODUCTS RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 1977. The possibility of Kaliandra wood as a source of energy. Special report of the Forest Products Research Institute Bogor in co-operation with the state forest enterprise (Perum Perhutan). Bogor, Indonesia. 2 4 ~ ~ .

GRAF, W., 1987. Agrosilviculture in research on beans. Hojas-de- Frijol, 9, I , 5-7.

G ~ E R I D G E , R. C., 1990. The use of the leaf of nitrogen fixing trees as a source of nitrogen for maize. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 8,27-28.

GUTTERIDGE, R. C. and AKKASAENG, R., 1985. Evaluation of nitrogen fixing trees in Northeast Thailand. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 3,46-47.

HADIPOE~NOMO., 1979. Critical land rehabilitation with air seeding. Dutii Rimba, S , 31,9-12.

HEWNANDEZ, H. M., 1986. Zapoteca: a new genus of neotropical


Mimosoideae. Annals of the Missouri Botanic Garden, 73, 755-763.

HERNANDEZ, H. M,, 1989. Systematics of Zapoteca (Legumi- nosae. Annals of the Missouri Botanic Garden, 76,781-862.

HERNANDEZ, H . M. (in press). Taxonomy, geographic distribution and reproductive biology of Calliandra calothyrsus (Legu- minosae, Mlmosoideae), a species with agroforestry potential.

HERNANDEZ, H. M. and NICOLSON, D. H., 1986. Proposal to amend the conservation of 3444 Calliandra (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae). Taxon, 35,747-748.

Hu, T. W., CHENG, W. E. and SHEN, T. S., 1983. Effect of soil pH on the growth and nutrient levels of seedlings of four leguminous tree species. Bulletin of the Taiwan Forestry Research Insti- tute. 409. 14 pp.

HUGHES, C. E., 1987. Biological considerations in designing a seed collection strategy for Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp., (Leguminosae). Commonwealth Forestry Review, 66,3148.

HUGHES, C. E. and STYLES, B. T., 1984. The benefits and potential risks of woody legume introductions. The International Tree Crops Journal, 4,209-248.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURE., 1986. Resource and crop management program. IITA Annual Report and Research Highlights. pp. 2343.

JONES, N. and BURLEY, J., 1973. Seed certification. provenance nomenclature and genetic history in forestry. Silva Genetica, 22, 3, 53-58.

KASMUDJO, I., 1978. Calliandra calothyrsus. Duta Rimba, 4, 28, 17-22.

KASMUDJO. I., 1982. Chemical elements in several quick yielding crop species as material for pulp and paper. Duta Rimba, 8, 51, 3942.

KAUDIA, A., 1990. Report of an insect pest on Calliandra calothyrsus (Meissn.) in Kenya. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports. 8, 126.

KIDD, T. J. and TAOGAGA, T.. 1984. Survival and herbage yield of six nitrogen-fixing trees intercropped with tar0 in Western Samoa. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 2,22-23.

LIYANAGE, L. V. K., JAYASUNDARA, H. P. S. and GUNASEKARA, T. G. L. G., 1988. Potential uses of nitrogen-fixing trees on small coconut plantations in Sri Lanka. In WITH- INGTON. D., MACDICKEN, K. G., SASTRY, C. B. and ADAMS, N.R., 1988. Multipurpose tree species for small-farm use. Pro- ceedings of an international workshop held November 2-5,1987 in Pattaya, Thailand. pp. 251-253. CO-published with the Inter- national Development Research Centre, Canada; Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Develppment, Arling- ton, Virginia, USA.

LUEGO. J. N., 1989. Calliandra stemborer infestation at a seed orchard in Cebu, Philippines. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 7, 76.

MAASDORP, B. V. and GUTTERIDGE, R. C., 1986. Effect of fertilizer and weed control on the emergence and early growth of five leguminous fodder shrubs. Tropical Grasslands, 20, 3, 127-134.

MACDICKEN, K. G. and BREWBAKER, J. L., 1983. Wood volume prediction equations for the early growth of selected nitrogen fixing fuelwood species. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 1,4647.

MACQUEEN, D. J.. in press. Exploration and collection of Callian- dra calothyrsus as a foundation for future genetic improvement. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports.

MCVAUGH, R., 1987. Flora Nova-Galiciana Volume 5. University of Michigan Press, USA. 786pp.

NADIAR, S., 1979. Knowing the 'land of honey' Gunung Arca. Duta Rimba 5,33,15-19.

NAMKOONG, G., BARNES, R. D. and BURLEY, J., 1980. A philosophy of breeding strategy for tropical forest trees. Tropical Forestry Papers, 16. Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford.

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES., 1983. Calliandra: A Versa- tile Small Tree for the Humid Tropics. National Academy Press, Washington D.C. USA.

NIELSEN, I., 1978. Ingeae. In POLHILL, R. M. and RAVEN, P. H., 1978. Advances in Legume Systematics Part 1. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey.

PANJAITAN, M., 1988. Nutritive value of tree legumes introduced in Indonesia. IARD Journal, 10,3,73-80.

ROBBINS, A. M. J. and HUGHES, C. E., 1983. Provenance regions for Pinus caribaea and Pinus oocarpa within the republic of Honduras. Tropical Forestry Paper, 18. Oxford Forestry Insti- tute, Oxford, UK.

SAROA, K.M., 1988. Multipurpose, nitrogen-fixing trees for small- farm use in Papua New Guinea. In WITHINGTON, D., MACDICKEN, K. G., SASTRY, C. B. and ADAMS, N. R., 1988. Multipurpose tree species for small-farm use. Proceedings of an international workshop held November 2-5, 1987 in Pattaya, Thailand. pp. 124. CO-published with the International Development Research Centre, Canada; Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Arlington, Virginia, USA.

SATJAPRADA, 0. and SUKANDI, T., 1981. Agroforestry with red Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus). Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development 3,85-88.

SIMONS, A. J., in press. Genetic variation in Gliricidia sepium and its relevance to the Miombo ecozone. Forest Ecology and Man- agement.

SOERJONO, R. and SUHAENDI, H., 1981. The prospect of Callian- dra plantation in Indonesia. Unpublished paper, Forest Research Institute, Bogor, Indonesia.

SPRAGUE, T. A. and RILEY, L. A.. 1923. XL Decades Kewensis. Kew Bulletin, 371-372.

STANDLEY, P. C. and STEYERMARK, J. A., 1946. Flora of Guatemala. Leguminosae. Fieldiana: Botany, 2,5,22.

SWAMINATH, M. H. and VADIRAJ, B. A., 1988. Nursery studies on the influence of Azospirillum bio-fertilizer on the growth and dry matter of forestry species. Myforest, 24,4,289-294.

TILO, S. M,, SHEARD, R. W., LALES, E. H. and PATERNO, E. S., 1981. Plant nutrition studies on Ipil-Ipil (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam). De Wit). National In-house Review on Leucaena Research. Forest Research Institute UBLB, Philippines.

TURNBULL, J. W., 1983. Tree seed supply - A critical factor for the success of agroforestry projects. Proceedings of ICRAFl IBPGRIOFIiNAS workshop on multipurpose tree germplasm, Washington D.C., USA.

TURNBULL, J. W. and GRIFFIN, A. R., 1986. The concept of provenance and its relationship to infraspecific classification in forest trees. In STYLES, B. T., 1986. Systematics Association Special Volume, 29. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.

VERHOEF, L., 1939. Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. Korte Med- edeelingen 79, Boschbouwproefstation, Bogor, Java, Indonesia.

VON MAYDELL, H. J., 1986. Trees and shrubs of the Sahel- Their characteristics and uses. Eschborn, Germany. 525pp.

WESTOBY, J., 1985. Foresters and Politics. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 64,2,105-116. In WESTOBY, J., 1987. Thepur- pose of forests. Basil Blackwell, Oxford. 343pp.

WIERSUM, K. F., 1989. Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. In WEST- PHAL, E. and JANSEN, P. C. M., 1989. Plant Resources of South East Aria: A selection. Pudoc, Wageningen, Netherlands.

WILLAN, R. L., 1988. Economic returns from tree improvement in tropical and sub-tropical conditions. Technical Note, 36, DANI- DA Forest Seed Centre, Denmark.

ZHOU, X. Q. and HAN, S. F., 1984. Studies on symbiotic systems of nodule bacteria and tree legumes. Nodulation, isolation and reciprocal cross inoculation. Journal of Nanjing Institute of Forestry, 2,32-42.

ZOBEL, B. and TALBERT, J., 1984. Applied Forest Tree Improve- ment. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA.

APPENDIX A. Table of provenances for Calliandra calothyrsus.

Provennnce State Country Grid ref. Altitude

1. Agua Azul Chiapas Mexico 18O00' N 91°48' W 200m Along the waterfalls of the Rio A d , in disturbed forest 60km north of Palenque.

2. Sumidero Chiapas Mexico 16"50' N 9370' W 1300m At the canyon of the Sumidero National Park, in deciduous forest at km 14 above Tuxtla.

3. Santa Cruz Toledo Belize 16'16' N 89'00' W 500m On the road from San Antonio to Santa Cruz on roadside verges and field boundaries.

4. Flores Peten Guatemala 16'55' N 89'52' W 220m On the flat plain around the west of ~ a ~ o Peten Itzan on the road from San Benito to San Antonio.

5. Coban Alta Verapaz Guatemala 15'28' N 90'15' W 1300m To the west of Coban on the deviation to Guatemala City on the hill facing the military base.

6 . Santa Maria Quezaltenango Guatemala 14'45' N 91'32' W 1500m In secondary vegetation 23km from Retaluleu on the road to Quezaltenango, just before Santa Maria.

7. La Ceiba Atlantida Honduras 15"43' N 8690' W 80m On the banks of the Rio Cangrejal and Rio Danto, either side of La Ceiba, into the Pico Bonito National Park.

8. Meambar Comayagua Honduras 14"48' N 87'46' W 450m At km 10 to the north of Meambar on the road to Los Globos, in secondary regrowth of a bush fallow system.

9. San Ramon Matagalpa Nicaragua 12O54' N 85O48' W 850m On the road to Yucul, lOkm to the south of San Ramon, colonizing road verges and hillside fields.

10. La Puerta Chontales Nicaragua 12"12' N 85'17' W 600m On the riverbanks of a stream 12km from Juigalpa on the road past La Puerta to La Pradera.

11. Fortuna Alajuela Costa Rica 10°30' N 84'49' W 85m On the road to Palma, 2km from Fortuna along moist ditches and adjacent fields.

12. Salitrales San Jose Costa Rica 9'53' N 84O11' W 900111 Thickets on steeo roadside banks 1.5km to the north west of Salitrales. 22km north east of Puriscal. p --

13. San Isidro San Jose Costa Rica 9O2.5' N 83"42' W lOOOm Above Rivas and San Isidro bv the Rio Talari and larger Rio General towards the village of Canaan.

p - - - - p p p p p p - - P P p p p p p p p

14. Rio Maje Panama Panama 9"04' N 78'44' W On the banks of the Rio Maie from the waterfalls near Bavano Lake to a farm 3.5km uostream.


Calliandra caloshyrsus 33

l - *pu -1, Cki.p.#. k h a 1 - Sumidero. 01.p.1, Ynieo 3 S M t l C m , Toledo. B e l h 4 - nor... Plf.0, brr.m.1. I - C0b.n. A~~ocI.~... BY.LIU1. 6 - set. ki., W..lf.~. Ou.Lem.1. 7 L. &ib% Atlmtida. Bmdur.~ 8 - Manbar. Mu,.pua. Rocdnduru 9 - a v l b. wtqrlp., niearagu.

I0 -L. Rulu. Chontllem. I(~e.r.w 1 1 - rorr-, ~1.jc.1.. c w t a MC. 12 1 S.liLr.les. S m Jose, Costa Ric. I 3 - SM 1.ilro. mat.r.n.'. Cost. R i ~ a 14 - R10 w e , Pm.". PI-


Tree Biomass Equations for the Forests of the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico*

PETER L. WEAVER and ANDREW J. R. GlLLESPlE

Institute of Tropical Forestry, Southern Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, Call Box 25000, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico 00928

S U M M A R Y

Regression equations were derived to determine total above-ground biomass and above-ground woody biomass (kg per tree) as a function of tree diameter at breast height (D, cm) as the sole predictor, as well as (D2 X H (height, m)) as the predictor, for the tabonuco, colorado and dwarf forests in the Luquillo Experimental Forest of Puerto Rico.

L'on a dkrivB des Bquations de rkgression afin de dkterminer la biomasse totale au-dessus du sol et la biomasse ligneuse au-dessus du so1 (kg par arbre) comme une fonction du diamktre a hauteur d'homme (D, cm) comme le seul predictor, ainsi que (D2 X H (hauteur, m)) comme le predictor, pour les for& de tabonuco, colorado et nain dans la Foret expCrimentale de Luquillo en Porto Rico.

R E S U M E N

Se derivardn equaciones de regresion para determinar biomasa total sobre el terreno y biomasa de madera sobre el terreno (kg por irbol) como una funcion del diametro a1 pecho (D) como el unico predictor, tanto como (D2 X H (altura)) como el predictor, para 10s bosques de tabonuco, colorado y enano en el Bosque Experimental de Luquillo en Puerto Rico.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Biomass estimates are critical for studying ecosystem structure and function (Whittaker et al., 1974). Numerous regressions have been derived to predict tree biomass as a function of easily measured dimensions such as diameter and height (e.g. Crow, 1978; Brown et al., 1989). The purpose of this paper is to report various regression equations for estimating total above-ground biomass and total above- ground woody biomass for three forest types in the Luquil- 10 Mountains of Puerto Rico. These equations predict biomass on a per tree basis, independent of species, and are expected to be useful for other mountainous Caribbean islands with similar forest types.

T H E S T U D Y A R E A

The Luquillo Mountains rise to 1075m in elevation less than lOkm from the ocean in northeastern Puerto Rico. Rainfall increases from 2300mmlyr at 200m to over 4500mmlyr at the summits while temperature declines from 23°C to 19OC over the same gradient. Ascending the mountains, four major forest types are encountered: tabonuco, from the border at 150m to 600m in elevation; colorado, from 600 to 900m; dwarf, from 900 to the 1075111 summits; and palm brake, scattered in ravines and on steep slopes above 500m in elevation. Comparisons of stand structure and dynamics of these forests were summarized elsewhere (Weaver and Murphy, 1990).

M E T H O D S

The forests of the Luquillo Mountains were sampled for

dry weight tree biomass by different investigators during a period of 20 years - tabonuco forest (Ovington and Olson, 1970), colorado forest (Weaver and Murphy, 1990), and dwarf forest (Weaver, 1990). Sample trees from the tabonu- CO and colorado forests were cut in undisturbed stands characterized by primary and late secondary tree species. The dwarf forest tree samples, in contrast, were cut in a plot that had been cleared 20 years earlier by the wreck of an aircraft (Weaver, 1990). Three-quarters of the stems sampled at the aeroplane wreck, however, were considered to be primary species. The regression variables, their ranges, and the numbers of species in each data set are shown in Table 1. Field samples of dwarf biomass were not partitioned into leafy and woody components.

Preliminary graphical and regression analysis indicated that the tabonuco data, which span the range of tree diameters ( D = tree diameter at breast height, or 1.4m above the ground), would be best fit using separate regressions for trees above and below 5cm. Sampled colorado forest trees were all >5cm in diameter. c he dwarf forest trees were <5cm in diameter with the exception of one tree of a species common to the colorado forest. This tree was analysed with the colorado data set.

We developed separate regressions of above-ground woody biomass and total above-ground biomass ( l ~ a f y + woody) in kg vs. tree diameter (D) in cm, and vs. D times tree height (H) in m (Table 2). A variety of models were fitted to each data set to determine which model was most

* Research done in cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, Puerto Riw.

TABLE 1. Ranges of regression variables by forest type

Forest type

Variables (units) Dwarf Colorado Tabonuco

Diameter' (cm) 0.4 - 3.7 6.0 - 36.7 0.3 - 45.7 Height (m) 1.3 - 2.6 3.8 - 15.9 1.3 - 20.7 Leaf biomass (kg) - 0.26 - 43.91 0.01 - 27.72 Woody biomass (kg) - 9.30 - 882.90 0.05 - 732.65

'Total biomass2 (kg) 0.05 - 1.55 9.85 - X2.81 0.07 - 754.89 Tree species (#) 7 7 37

'Diameter - diameter breast height (1.4m above ground). 'Above-ground

satisfactory. These included linear weighted least squares models (Cunia, 1964), log-log models corrected for bias (e.g. Baskerville, 1972), and a modified log-log model that allows for a variable allometric ratio (Ruark et al., 1987). Model selection was based on several criteria including the coefficient of determination (r2), the fitness index (Schlaegel, 1981), and residual analysis that focused on the distribution, leverage, and significance of residuals. The fitness index is computed exactly the same as r2 except that it uses residuals in original (not transformed) units, and thus allows more appropriate comparisons between models that use different transformations. Differences between groups of models were tested using a standard F test in an attempt to derive generalized forest biomass equations. Unless otherwise stated, a probability level of 5% was used to determine statistical significance. Finally, heightldiameter (HID) ratios and the proportion of leaf to total biomass were graphed to explore relationships among trees of different size classes and forest types.

FIGURE 1. Scatter of data points for total above-ground biomass vs. D2H in tabonuco (solid circles), colorado (open circles) and dwarf (triangles) forests of the Luquillo Experimental Forest.

n Tabonuco 0 .

6.0 - 0' '

RESULTS

The scatter of data points of In (total biomass) vs. In (D2H) is shown in Fig. 1. The best equations ?or the colorado and tabonuco (D25cm) forests were linear models that were fit by weighted least squares regression under the assumption that the conditional variance of biomass was proportional to D4 or D4H2 (Table 2). The best equations for the dwarf forest and tabonuco forest (D<Scm) were transformed log- log models that were fit using unweighted least squares algorithms.

There were no significant differences between the total above-ground biomass regression equations of dwarf vs. tabonuco forest (D<5cm) for either the equation based on D alone (p = 0.063) or D2H (p = 0.72). Also, there was no

5 4.0

2

TABLE 2. Regression equations for biomass by predictor variables and forest types in the Luquillo Experimental Forest

Q Colorado m 8 bd) - A Dwarf .W?

o (

Biomass Forest Type Eq~ation',~ component

g 2.0 - ..;B. ' .I

j 0.0 - - . , C

r2 F.I. Sy.x n

D. sole predictor:

Total Dwarf Y = 0.1817 Di4= 0.85 0.88 0.1386 13 Colorado Y = 0.1505 - 1.5305 D + 0.5047 Da 0.87 0.87 0.01623 18

Tabonuco (<5cm) Y = 0.3210 0.70 0.60 0.3788 56 (35cm) Y = 4.7306 - 2.8566 D + 0.5832 D* 0.88 0.87 0.01305 29

Woody Colorado Y = -3.1353 - 1.0950 D + 0.4738 D2 0.88 0.87 0.01357 17

Tabonuco (<km) Y = 0.2634 D'"39 0.71 0.59 0.3926 56 (>%m) Y = 5.7266 - 3.0469 D + 0.5659 D2 0.88 0.88 0.01124 29

D2 X H as predictor:

Total Dwarf Y = 0.1338 (D2H)0.m 0.86 0.93 0.1253 13 Colorado Y = 4.7962 + 0.0310 DZH 0.86 0.91 0.00012 18

Tabonuco (<5cm) Y = 0.1728 (D2H)OSJ6 0.78 0.71 0.2802 56 (25cm) Y = - 0.1106 + 0.02991 D2H 0.79 0.68 0.00012 29

Woody Colorado Y = -1.5556 + 0.03357 (D2H) 0.90 0.95 0.00007 17

Tabonuco (<5cm) Y = 0.1372 (D2H)oWL7 0.79 0.70 0.28255 56 (a5cm) Y = - 0.3461 + 0.02812 (D2H) 0.80 0.72 O.OOO10 29

' Y =Estimated biomass in kg, D d.b.h. (em), H = height (m), P = coefficient of detemnation, F.1 = Fitness Index, &.x =residual mean square, and n = number of observations. Note tbat the exponential models include the correction tern (Sy.&) withm the intercept (Baske~ l l e , 1972).

Tree Biomass Equations for the Forests of the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico 37

7.0 -

Predicted 0

5.0

4.0 - o

0 C 3.0 -

FIGURE 2. Top: Scatter of data points and regression line for total above-ground biomass vs. D ( d c m ) in tabonuco (open circles) and dwarf (triangles) forests of the Luquillo Experimental Forest. Bottom: Scatter of data points and regression line for total above- ground biomass vs. D (25cm) in tabonuco (open circles) and colorado (triangles) forests of the Luquillo Experimental Forest.

significant difference between total above-ground biomass of colorado vs. tabonuco forest (DaScm) for equations based on D alone (p = 0.96). For the equation based on D2H, the equations were significantly different (p = 0.005). The colorado equation yielded estimates that were approximately 4% greater than the tabonuco equation which, while statistically different, may or may not be of practical significance. Reducing the model to a single equation for both forest types caused a loss of 5% in explained variation

Tabonuco . 0 Colorado E - 4.0 A Dwarf

FIGURE 3. Ratios of height (m) over diameter (cm) for trees sampled in the three forest types of the Luquillo Experimental Forest.

Tabonuco 0 Colorado

FIGURE 4. Leafy biomass/total biomass according to tree diameter (cm) for trees sampled in three forests types of the Luquillo Experimental Forest.

as reflected in the reduction of r2. When considering total above-ground woody biomass, there was no significant difference between colorado and tabonuco forest (DsScm) based on D (p = 0.96) or for D2H (p = 0.34). In general, the

TABLE 3. Combined regression equations for biomass by predictor variables and forest types in the Luquillo Experimental Forest

Biomass Forest Type component

r2 F.I. Sy.x n

D sole predictor:

Total ColoradoITabonuco ( ~ 5 c m ) Y = 2.6699 - 2.2832 D + 0.5491 D' 0.88 0.89 0.01335 47

Dwarf5abonuco (<5cm) Y = 0.2847 DIM" 0.72 0.60 0.3573 69

Woody Colorado/Tabonuco (s5cm) Y = -3.4548 - 2.4677 D + 0.5349 D2 0.89 0.90 0.01130 46

D2 X H as predictor:

Total Colorado/Tabonuco (s5cm) Y = 1.3145 + 0.03023 (D2H) 0.79 0.76 0.000146 47

Dwarf/Tabonuco (<5cm) Y = 0.1620 (DZH)USRg8 0.80 0.73 0.2489 69

Woody Colorado/Tabonuco (a5cm) Y = - 0.9323 + 0.03062 (D2H) 0.85 0.73 0.0000909 46

' Y = Estimated biomass in kg, D = d.b.h. (cm), H = height (m), r2 = coefficient of determination, F.I. = Fitness Index, Sy.x = residual mean square, and n = number of observations. ' Note that the exponential models include the correction term (Sy.x/2) within the intercept (Baskerville, 1972).

I Peter L. Weaver and Andrew J. R. Giilespie

fit was better for trees s5cm D than for trees 4 c m although the difference was greatly reduced for models using D and H. Graphs of biomass vs D, along with the appropriate regression lines from Table 3, appear in Figure 2. All combined regression equations are reported in Table 3.

The heightldiameter (HID) ratio for all trees decreases rapidly as diameter increases from 1 through 5 to 10cm, thereafter declining gradually (Fig. 3). The H/D ratios for many tabonuco forest trees <5cm in diameter are notably greater than for larger trees. Dwarf forest trees, in contrast, have lower ratios than tabonuco forest trees of similar diameter indicating that they are shorter andlor thicker. The HID ratios for tabonuco and colorado trees >%m are very similar. The proportion of leaf to total biomass is higher for many tabonuco trees <5cm in diameter than for larger trees (Fig. 4). For tabonuco and colorado trees > k m , proportions of leaf to total biomass are similar for trees of comparable size.

DISCUSSION

Forty-five species were included in all data sets combined. Three species were found in both the colorado and tabonu- CO forests, one species was found in both the dwarf and colorado forests, and one species was common to all three forest types. Tree height over the entire Luquillo Mountain gradient varies from 3m in exposed dwarf forest to 30m in tabonuco forest. The normal range of canopy height varies from 3 to 5m in dwarf forest, 8 to 20m in colorado forest, and 20 to 30m in tabonuco forest (Weaver and Murphy, 1990).

Models that use D alone are local biomass equations because they implicitly include a relationship between D and H, and are most useful in the areas where the data were collected. These models are also useful for estimating damage in hurricane prone environments such as the Caribbean Islands where height measurements may be problematic after storms. Models that use both D and H are general biomass equations that may have wider application to similar forest types.

The breakpoint of 5cm between biomass regressions appears due to variability in tree form and leaf load preva- lent in smaller diameter classes. The HID ratios and percent of leaf to total biomass estimates show that allometric relationships among small trees change rapidly with slight changes in tree size. It is suggested that the transformed log-log models are better suited for describing the biomass relationships of small trees when relationships among dimensions change rapidly. Alternatively, with some more stable relationships of larger trees, traditional linear equations provide adequate estimates.

Other factors also influence biomass estimates. Specific leaf areas decline from 127cmYg in the tabonuco forest to 47cmZlg in the dwarf forest in the Luquillo Mountains (Weaver and Murphy, 1990). Moreover, specific gravities vary by tree species ranging from 0.3g/cm3 in Cecropia peltata L. to 0.8g/cm3 in Manilkara bidentata (A.DC.) Chev. (Little and Wadsworth, 1964), both in the tabonuco forest. Most species, however, are confined to a much narrower range between 0.5 and 0.7g/cm3. Most secondary tree species tend to have lighter woods than primary species

(Budowski, 1963). Recurrent hurricanes in the Caribbean basin (Salivia, 1972) assure that secondary species, as well as damaged primary species, are a regular component of most stands.

Specific gravities, in general, appear to increase slightly with elevation in the Luquillo Mountains, although this phenomenon has not been studied thoroughly. The combined effects of leaf and stem weights may account for the 4% increase in colorado forest estimates as compared to those of the tabonuco forest when using DZH as the total biomass predictor. Inclusion of specific gravity as a predictor variable would probably increase the precision of the regressions; however, this would not be useful in other mountainous Caribbean islands where such information is sparse or unavailable.

These equations may be used in a variety of ways. They may be applied to individual trees in a sample to estimate biomass of the sample. Alternatively, they may be applied to stand averages (e.g. mean D per ha), or a stand table (number of treeslha by D class) to estimate biomass per unit area.

The montane forests of Puerto Rico are similar to those of other Caribbean islands in terms of tree physiognomy and species composition (Beard, 1949). Until detailed knowledge on tree species is available for other Caribbean islands, the general equations presented here may prove useful for estimating their total above-ground biomass and above-ground woody biomass.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the following reviewers for their helpful comments: Dr. Sandra Brown, Forestry Department, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL; Dr. Thomas R. Crow, Forestry Science Laboratory, Rhinelander, WI; Dr. Peter G. Murphy, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI; and Dr. H. L. Wright of the Oxford Forestry Institute, England.

REFERENCES

BASKERVILLE, G. L., 1972. Use of logarithmic regression in the estimation of plant biomass. Canadian Journal of Forestry 2, 49-53.

BEARD J. S., 1949. Natural vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry Memoirs, 21,l-192.

BROWN, S . , GILLESPIE, A. J. R., and LUGO, A. E., 1989. Biomass estimation methods for tropical forests with applications to forest inventory data. Forest Science 35,4,881-902.

BUDOWSKI, G., 1963. Forest succession in tropical lowlands. Turrialba 13, 42-44.

CROW, T. R., 1978. Common regressions to estimate tree biomass in tropical stands. Forest Science 24,110-1 14.

CUNIA T., 1964. Weighted least squares method and construction of volume tables. Forest Science 10,2,180-191.

L ~ E , E. L., Jr. and WADSWORTH, F. H., 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agricultural Handbook 249, USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 548p.

OVINGTON, J. D. and OLSON, J. S., 1970. Biomass and chemical content of El Verde lower montane rain forest plants. Chaper H, p. 53-77. In H. T. Odum and R. F. Pigeon, eds., A tropical rain forest. USAEC, TID-24270.

RUARK, G. A., MARTIN, G. L., and BOCKHEIM, J. G. 1987. Comparison of constant and variable allometric ratios for

Tree Biomass Equations for the Forests of the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico 39

estimating Populus tremuloides biomass. Forest Science 33, 2, 294-300.

SALIVIA, L. A., 1972. Historia de los temporales de Puerto Rico y las Antillas. Editorial Edil, Inc., San Juan, Puerto Rico. 385p.

SCHLAEGEL, B. E., 1981. Testing, reporting and using biomass estimation models. Proceedings 1981 Southern Forest Biomass Workshop pp. 95-112. The Belle W. Baruch Forest Science Institute of Clemson University. June 11-12,1981.

WEAVER, P. L., 1990. Succession in the elfin woodland of the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Biotropica 22,1,83-89.

WEAVER, P. L., and MURPHY, P. G., 1990. Forest structure and productivity in Puerto Rico's Luquillo Mountains. Biotropica 22,1,69-82.

WHITTAKER, R. H., BORMANN, F. H., LIKENS, G. E, and SICCMA, T. G., 1974. The Hubbard Brook ecosystems study: forest biomass and production. Ecological Monographs 44,233-254.

As the largest importer and distributor of timber and sheet materials in the U K , Meyer International

is a major customer for your forest products.

We have specialist companies in hardwoods, softwoods and sheet materials that sell nationally.

Our network of 160 timber and builders merchants serves local markets.

If you have forest products t o sell, perhaps you should be talking t o us.

MEYER 0 MEYER INTERNATIONAL PLC M E Y E R ~ Villiers House, 41-47 Strand,London WC2N 5JG ,,,,, , ,,,,,,, , ,,,, ,,, Telephone: 071 839 7766 Telex: 27451 Fax: 071 839 5520

46) Cornittonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(1), 1992

Forest Renewal by Artificial Regeneration: A Review of Research in Western Canada J. T . ARNOTT

Pacific Forestry Centre, Forestry Canada, Victoria BC, Canada V82 1 M5

SUMMARY

In Canada, clearcutting accounts for 90% of all harvesting and on the resulting clearcuts, close to one billion trees are planted annually. This large reafforestation programme has relied heavily on research directed towards all phases of the reafforestation process; namely nursery production, stock handling and planting, site preparation and subsequent silvicultural treatments. Focusing on Western Canada, this paper describes major developments in seedling production that have been instrumental in meeting these rapidly increasing reafforestation needs and discusses research required in the immediate future to maintain a sufficient supply of top quality tree seedlings that will ensure maximum survival and growth of future forest plantations. It concludes with a brief discussion on the alternative natural regeneration option.

Au Canada, les coupes rases reprtsentent 90 pour cent de l'exploitation forestiere et chaque annCe pres d'un milliard d'arbres sont plant& sur les clairitres qui en rtsultent. Ce grand programme de reboisement s'est appuyC dans une large mesure sur des recherches orienttes vers toutes les phases de I'optration de reboisement, c'est-a-dire, la production en pkpinikre., la manutention et le plantage du matbial, la prtparation de I'emplacernent et les traitements sylvicoles aprts le plantage. Se concentrant sur I'ouest du Canada, cet article dCcrit d'importants dtveloppements dans la production des semis, dtveloppements qui ont contribut a repondre B la croissance rapide de ces besoins de reboisement, et considere des recherches qu'il faudra faire dans l'avenir immCdiat afin de maintenir une provision suffisante de semis d'arbres de qualitt suptrieure qui assureront le maximum de survie et de croissance dans les plantations forestikres futures. L'article conclut par une considtration sommaire de I'autre possibilitk, celle de la rkgtneration naturelle.

RESUMEN

En CanadB, la tala masiva e indiscriminada de 6rboles justifica el 90 por ciento de la cosecha maderera y como resultado de ello, se plan- tan alrededor de un billon de hrboles a1 afio. Este gran programa de repoblaci6n forestal ha contado, sobre todo. con una investigacidn dirigida a todas las fases del proceso de repoblacion forestal; es decir, la produccion de semillas, el almacenado de la coleccidn y plantado de las mismas, la preparation del Area y toda una serie de tratamientos de silvicultura. Concentrindonos en el Oeste de Canada, este articulo describe importantes desarrollos en la produccion de semillas, que han contribuido materialmente a alcanzar el rapido aumento que la repoblaci6n forestal necesita. Asimismo, discute sobre la investigacion que se requeriria en un futuro inmediato para mantener un suficiente abastecimiento de semillas de alta calidad, que asegurasen la maxima supervivencia y crecimiento de plantaciones de bosques futuros. Concluye con una breve discusion sobre la opci6n alternativa de regeneracion natural.

SEEDLING PRODUCTION

Trends in Nursery Development

Throughout the past two decades, Canada has witnessed a dramatic increase in the use of containerized tree seedlings for reafforestation so that by 1989,75% of all plant production was from container nurseries (Table 1). Nowhere is this more apparent than in British Columbia where container grown stock accounted for more than 90% of the 300 million seedlings sown in 1989 (Amott, 1990). Introduced in 1971 when it only made up 1.5% of all nursery sowings (Bamford, 1974), it is a classic example of good research and development that was successfully transferred to the nursery sector where it grew at a steady and controlled pace over the succeeding decade. Research and development met the demands of the nursery producers and also provided the very necessary feed back from plantations where container seedlings were proven to have equal or superior field performance to conventional bareroot stock (Arnott, 1972,1974a, 1975,1990; Van Eerden, 1972).

The first containers to be used in British Columbia were small plastic bullets that were developed for mechanized planting (Waiters, 1961, 1963, 1969). These low-volume

containers produced small seedlings; their hard plastic did not allow free root egress from the root plug, with the result that field performance did not compare favourably with conventional bareroot stock (Arnott, 1974a, 1975). However, the containerized concept had merit and a research and development team was formed to develop an

TABLE 1. Planting stock production (in millions) in Canada by province - 1989.

Province Bareroot Container Total

British Columbia 30.0 290.0 320.0 Alberta 10.0 30.0 40.0 Saskaketchewan 5.0 5.0 10.0 Manitoba 20.0 20.0 40.0 Ontario 75.0 85.0 160.0 Quebec 60.0 180.0 240.0 New Brunswick 7.0 43.0 50.0 Nova Scotia 9.0 18.0 27.0 P.E.I. 0.5 2.5 3.0 Newfoundland 5.5 8.5 14.0

Total 222.0 682.0 904.0

(Source: Glerum, 1990)

Forest renewal research in Western Canada 41

operational container system for the province (Kinghorn, 1970, 1974; Arnott, 1973; Sjoberg 1974). The result was the Styroblockm, which is made of expanded polystyrene foam, is rectangular in shape and contains cylindrical cavities or cells that hold the seedlings. Many sizes of block and cell are now available since the first model was introduced in 1970 (Arnott, 1973). The Styroblock5 is still the most popular container used throughout the province because its low- cost modular design lends itself to a fully automated loading and sowing line, it is re-usable for a period of at least 4 years, which lowers costs, and it is available with several options. One is the addition of holes within the Sty- roblock that allows free movement of air through the seedling foliage, thus reducing the probability of disease infection (Peterson and Sutherland, 1989): another is the addition of copper coating that reduces root spiralling around the cavity wall and promotes a more even distribution of roots from the root plug after planting which is particularly important for pine species (Burdett, 1981). Current research and development is focused on manufac- turing a fully automated seedling extraction and grading line to improve the efficiency of nursery operations at the seedling shipment end of nursery production, Separate initiatives are under development by both industry and government. Styroblocks come in a variety of sizes, which allows the nurseryman to grow a specific size of seedling for the customer.

In contrast to other regions of Canada where multiple cropping (more than one crop per production area per year) is used (Barteaux and Kreiberg, 1981; Dancause, 1981; Heeney, 1981), the cultural system for rearing container seedlings in British Columbia emphasizes single- crop, low-risk rotations that rely heavily on the normal growing season (Van Eerden and Gates, 1990). This approach has avoided the use of excessively small stock that has contributed to disappointing early results of container development programmes elsewhere (Scarratt, 1981). Furthermore, single crops also avoid the risks of outdoor overwintering, the second most important cause of mortality associated with container growing systems. Although single cropping is more expensive than multiple cropping, it ensures a higher quality seedling; one that is relatively large, woody and more able to withstand the rigours of the planting site than would be attainable using smaller, more succulent material.

The favourably mild, maritime climate of coastal British Columbia was used to advantage in the early years of container production. Open nursery compounds or unheated shadehouses were used successfully to grow one-year-old crops with little, if any, climate control. Such units continue to be used to grow one-year-old lodgepole pine (Pinus con- torts Dougl.) in the interior and other species at coastal nurseries where stock is lifted before winter cold arrives. However, early cold periods in certain years expose these crops to high risks and significant losses have occurred, emphasizing the need to locate nurseries in the most favourable climates.

To circumvent some of these problems, British Columbian nurseries have rapidly expanded their greenhouse capacity. Using early sowing dates (January and February) large, vigorous stock can be grown for summer planting in the interior. This regime is considered better

than that used to grow two-year-old container seedlings in outdoor enclosures where the crop is at risk over the winter, even in coastal nurseries. Most one-year-old crops are sown in greenhouses in March and April and reach a satisfactory size by autumn when they are either planted or extracted and cold-stored overwinter prior to spring planting. Much of the above has evolved as the direct result of research that has been aimed at realizing improvements throughout the production schedule of the containerized seedling. What follows in chronological sequence from sowing to planting are some highlights of past and current research projects that have addressed cultural problems and provided solutions to them.

Seed

An essential feature of any reafforestation programme is a good supply of high quality tree seed. Seedlots with high germination values (>90%) are preferred by nursery growers to ensure quick, even germination. Many seedlots do not attain this high threshold value and recent research by Forestry Canada has looked into ways and means of increasing the germination value of poorer quality seedlots through a procedure known as IDS (Incubate, Dry, Sort). This is done by first wetting the seeds followed by a period of incubation and subsequent drying before placing them back into a tank of water. The heavier (better seeds) sink to the bottom while the lighter (empty and weaker seeds) float on the surface where they are skimmed off and dis- carded. On average, seedlots with poor germination values of 50% can be increased by 30% while better seedlots with germination values of 75% can be increased by a further 15% (Edwards, 1989). Presently container nurseries sow three seeds per cavity if the germination value is 70% or less. IDS has the potential to increase this value to over 90% and therefore allow the nursery manager to sow one seed per cavity, thus reducing production costs by 29% (Vyse and Rudd, 1974).

Growth Control - early season

British Columbia is a mountainous province which spans 11 degrees of latitude and has many tree species with a wide latitudinal and altitudinal range. Many of these tree species tend to be long-day plants in which shoot growth only takes place under conditions of long days. In practical terms, this means that forest nurseries must grow their tree crops under artificially-extended daylengths during the first half of the growing season when natural daylengths are far too short for many tree species being grown. The Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria has provided the nursery industry with guidelines on the practical use of daylength extension for many tree species (Arnott, 1974b, 1979, 1985; Arnott and Mitchell, 1981; Arnott and Simmons, 1985). Lately, trials have been made of a more cost-effective treatment using a night-break approach wherein the seedlings need only be illuminated for a one or two hour break in the middle of the'darkness, rather than extending the natural daylength to achieve the same net effect on seedling growth (Arnott, 1989). In a recent demonstration, night-break lighting was just as effective as the daylength extension technique in promoting seedling growth of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco. and

42 J. T. Arnott

Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry), in the early part of the year (Fig. 1) and reduced monthly electrical consumption and lamp depreciation by as much as 60%.

SEEOLOT 3363

APR14 MAY 12 JUNE 16 JULY 21 . AUG25

FIGURE 1 . Seedling height of Douglas-fir (Seedlot 3363) and Engelmann spruce (Seedlot 5460) under daylength extension and night-break photoperiod lighting in 1989 at Skimikin nursery. Arrows indicate when the lights were turned off:

Growth Control - late season

In the latter part of the growing season, nursery managers need to induce a terminal bud on their seedlings to limit height growth to the desired standards set in their contracts. The method used in the past to achieve this was repeated drought cycles over a one to two month period. However, this practice is becoming less common in the light of new findings that are being made available through research. Use of drought to cause budset in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco) has produced abnormal terminal bud development and inQibited the frost hardening process (MacDonald and Owens, 1988). In western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Ref.) Sarg.), drought treatments were ineffective in arresting shoot growth in the nursery (O'Reilly et al., 1989a). Furthermore, they reduced seedling survival and altered the sequence of bud flushing during the first growing season in the field following outplanting (O'Reilly et al., 1989b). Further work has shown that drought stress in the nursery to control shoot growth negatively affects the numbers of needles formed in the terminal bud (Grossnickle et al., 1990a) which could have negative influences on seedling growth in the field after planting (Grossnickle et al., 1990b). An additional complication arising from the use of repeated drought

. cycles is that seedling roots can die, thus reducing nutrient uptake and predisposing the young trees to disease (Van Eerden and Gates, 1990).

A much better alternative to drought stressing in the nursery lies in the use of blackout to provide seedlings with artificially-shortened days. It is particularly effective in northern nurseries (> Latitude 54"N) in preventing spruce (Picea spp,) seedlings from becoming excessively tall (Hawkins and Draper, 1988) and throughout the southern nurseries (circa Latitudes 49-51°N) where it has been successfully demonstrated on Douglas-fir (MacDonald and Owens, 1988, DeYoe et al,, 1989) and western hemlock (Arnott et al., 1988, O'Reilly et al., 1989a, Grossnickle et al., 1990a).

Stock Quality Testing

Current Status

For decades, seedlings have been graded using morphological standards that have proved to be useful predictors of the seedling's ability to survive and grow after planting on a variety of field site conditions. In general, silviculturists have selected stock with suitable root collar diameter and a good shootlroot balance as these morphological features have been considered the most likely to affect seedling performance in the field over a variety of conditions ranging from drought and heat stress to heavy vegetative competition.

For several years now, this morphological grading has been supplemented by physiological tests that provide a better indicator of the quality of a particular stock type, quality being defined as 'fitness for purpose' (Sutton, 1980). Such tests currently used in British Columbia are root growth capacity (RGC) (Burdett, 1979), frost hardiness (Simpson, 1990), tissue nutrient levels (Van Eerden and Gates, 1990) and stress resistance (McCreary and Duryea, 1985). However, the tests in themselves are by no means perfect in selecting a stock type's 'fitness for purpose'. For example, Binder et al. (1988) and Sutton (1990) have ques- tioned the reliability of the RGC test in predicting performance potential of a particular seedlot or stock type. At best, they claim that on its own, the test only serves to separate live from dead seedlings. While stress resistance is a proven predictor of a stock type's ability to withstand drought, it takes too long to perform (2 months) to be a useful operational tool. Furthermore, the present practice of using the -18°C level of frost hardiness to determine the correct time to lift stock from the nursery for packing and storage underlines the fact that little consideration is given to the actual duration, intensity and timing of frost events on each reafforestation site (Mitchell et al., 1990).

Future Directions

As it is not currently known what combination of physiological traits best predict field performance potential over the immense variety of geography and climate encountered in Western Canada, research is undenvay to address this important topic. It is recognized that the ability of the seedling to survive after planting will in fact be determined by a combination and integration of a series of physiological and morphological characteristics (Ritchie, 1984, Putto- nen, 1989). A combined research project of the Pacific Forestry Centre and British Columbia Research Corpora- tion is attempting to devise a seedling Performance Poten- tial Index (PPI) based on the cultural system used to rear the seedling in the nursery and the main environmental stresses it is likely to experience during the first year after planting (Grossnickle et al., 1990~). The index provides a method for nursery managers to define seedling performance potential of stock from various nursery cultural practices. It also allows silviculturists to define the main environmental stresses of a field site and match stock types with the best performance potential that can handle those identified stresses. However, it is only at the conceptual and initial testing stages.

Another promising new development in stock quality

testing is the SIVE (stress-induced volatile emissions) technique (Drakeford and Hawkins, 1989). It is based on the principle that woody plants produce gases such as ethylene, ethane, acetaldehyde and ethanol in response to various stresses. Of these four primary gases, it appears that ethanol and acetaldehyde are the best for screening stress resistance or quality of plant tissue. To date. protocols have been developed using an expensive, laboratory-based gas chromatograph (GC) but it is felt that the sampling technique could be moved to the nursery using portable breath- alyzer technology and modified laboratory cuvettes. Once this level of sophistication has been achieved, a very fast and accurate quality control programme could be initiated. Present techniques using the laboratory-based GC provide results on seedling frost hardiness development in hours rather than the days and weeks that are required using FIEL (freeze-induced electrolyte leakage) or conventional whole plant tissue browning, respectively.

Another recent development in stock quality testing has been the development of an integrating fluorometer to detect variable chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv) being emitted by whole seedlings. As Fv reflects the photochemical activity of the chloroplasts in the needles, the method shows promise for estimating the activity level of the photochemical and photosynthetic processes enabling several factors in seedling quality to be measured. For example, it could be used to determine the correct time to lift seedlings as it can detect sequential inactivation of the photosynthetic activity that also correlates with seedling frost hardiness development (Fig. 2). The decline in fluorescence has been correlat- ed with conventional frost hardiness testing which showed that the seedlings in Figure 2 were hardy to -18' C on October 20 and, thus. could be lifted. Similar changes in Fv levels have also been linked to changing seedling nutrient regimes and levels of water stress (Vidaver et al., 1988). Fv has the potential to be a rapid, non-destructive sampling method for evaluating seedling physiological status during the nursery production cycle but it is still in the development phase (Hawkins and Binder, 1990).

_____2_

AUGUST 20

h'------ OCTOBER 14

DECEMBER 2 o , , , , , , , , , , ,

0 W 120 180 244 SM

FIGURE 2. The decline m relative fluorescence of nursery-grown white spruce seedlings from August to December (from Vidaver et al., 1988).

PLANTING

Having established the fact that seedling stock must not only be morphologically acceptable but also have good


physiological vigour, the next major link in the artificial regeneration chain is the actual planting of the seedlings. Choice of tree species is based on an assessment of the ecological characteristics of the planting site and, through a major research programme directed by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests, tree species selection guides have been developed for most regions of the province (Haeussler et al., 1984; Klinka et al., 1984; Meidinger et al., 1984; Pojar et al., 1984).

Throughout the province, planting is primarily done by hand, using spades,-mattocks or dibbles, the selection being based on the stock type, terrain, and personal preference of the crew. ~echanized planting is very limited because presently available machines can only plant the more level terrain that is relatively free of slash and stumps. Consider- able research has gone into mechanized planting in the province (Walters, 1961, 1963, 1969) and there have been extensive trials of several machines over the past 15 years (B.C. Ministry of Forests, 1988). At best, these machines equal the cost of hand planting but only on flat, easily- accessible terrain. For mechanized planters to have a future in this region, they will have to be able to traverse steep slopes, select the best microsite among several options available and prepare the planting spot at the same time.

Proper selection of the planting season ensures success of the operation. This varies considerably, as is to be expected from a region as diverse as British Columbia. In coastal areas, autumn planting has been successful when it has been done early in the season to allow sufficient root development before winter begins (Arnott, 1974a; 1975). How- ever, it has not been successful on an operational basis, probably due to differences in seedling quality, handling and soil condition at the time of planting (Mitchell et al., 1990). The problem with autumn planting everywhere is that the stock must be sufficiently hardy to withstand early frosts. This should now be feasible with blackout facilities built into many forest nurseries that can be used to develop higher levels of frost hardiness earlier in the growing season than would otherwise be possible (Arnott et al., 1988; DeYoe et al., 1989; Macdonald et al., 1988). The problems in spring planting are quite different from the autumn. Moisture stress develops rapidly and seedlings may also have reduced physiological vigour, or be damaged by moulds, following extended periods of time in cold storage facilities (Dunsworth, 1988; Sutherland et al., 1989). For spring planting on the coast, surveys have shown that fail- ures increase significantly if sites are planted after mid March (Dunsworth, 1987). For the interior of the province, problems of a different nature occur. In the spring, persis- tence of cold, wet soils in the northern interior (Latitudes 55-60°N) present an impediment to planting as they significantly reduce root development over the growing season. The problem can be circumvented by mounding the site to raise soil temperatures (McMinn, 1982) or by selecting a summer planting programme that is now being prescribed extensively throughout the interior (Mitchell et al., 1990).

On the high elevation plateaux and mountain slopes (>1,00Om altitude) of the southern interior (Latitudes 49-53' N) problems exist in successfully establishing seedlings in very cold environments. Although several research projects have addressed the issue over the past 5 years, no simple solutions'have been found (Vyse et al.,

1990). One major problem has been the inability of the nurseries to supply well-conditioned or adapted seedlings for these harsh sites. Frost is a recurring problem throughout the very short growing season and poor plantation performance is a result. Further empirical testing of stock types is of little value until a greater understanding is gained of the physiology of planted seedlings under the range of environmental conditions found on cold sites in the southern interior (Vyse et al., 1990). One interesting feature of these sites is that conifers, particularly sub-alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.), continue to invade the cutovers for up to 8 years following harvesting. Planted stands everywhere in this province contain a percentage of naturally regenerated species, so why is it that forest regeneration programmes throughout British Columbia are so heavily committed to planting?

N A T U R A L R E G E N E R A T I O N

Weetman and Vyse (1990) provide the answer to the above question and present an excellent review of the subject. They state that natural regeneration has had to assume a position of lower priority because current logging practices place more emphasis on harvesting efficiency than on the biological factors of seed availability, seed dispersal, seed bed and microsite, all of which should be considered if natural regeneration is to succeed. T o date, efficient clear cutting has been possible with planting offering an assured method of forest renewal of the tree species desired. Natural regeneration is not necessarily cheaper than planting, particularly if stocking of acceptable species cannot be easily attained, or if significant amounts of re- spacing are required to reduce stocking of dense, naturally- regenerated stands to desired target levels. However, on sites within regions where natural regeneration can be

TABLE 2. Recommended regeneration methods for re-establishing selected old growth forest types in British Columbia.

Region Forest Type Re-establishment Method' CCP CCN ST SW

Coast Alnus rubra n Tsuga heterophylla R Tsuga mertensiana F

Southern Interior Pinus contorta F Larix occidentalis F Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii n Pinus ponderosa F

Northern Interior Populus tremuloides n Betula papyrifera n

R n2 R F F R F F

R n n F R F

n n R F R F

R n n R F n

' C@ = clearcut method with planting CCN = clearcut method with natural regeneration ST = seed tree method SW = shelterwood method

a R = recommended F =feasible n = not feasible

(Adapted from Weetman and Vyse, 1990)

expected, there are species that can be successfully regenerated in a cost-effective manner (Table 2).

All of British Columbia's forests have repeatedly regenerated naturally from disturbances of many types and over long periods of time. However, natural regeneration, even under the most favourable conditions, is slow. Studies with lodgepole pine (Johnstone, 1976) and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry) show stems appearing on the site from 0-14 and 0-7 years, respectively, following disturbance (Butt et al., 1989). The costs of such delays are difficult to assess, particularly due to the lack of controlled studies on natural regeneration.

A substantial amount of research has been focused on determining the value of advance regeneration, particularly its potential to grow rapidly after harvesting and the disease risks associated with stem damage incurred during logging (Stettler, 1958; Smith and Craig, 1968; Herring, 1977, Herring and McMinn, 1980). Advance regeneration tends to develop into a thicket and almost always requires density control to maximize early tree growth.

Natural regeneration was practised and studied extensively throughout British Columbia in the first half of this century - see the review by Weetman and Vyse (1990). However, in practically every region, it has been dropped in favour of planting that has provided better control of stocking, early growth and, subsequently, anticipated reductions in rotation lengths. The exceptions where it still continues to be practised are in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco) stands in the dry southern interior where concerns over wildlife habitat and summer forage favour the natural regeneration option (Armleder et al., 1986; Jeanes, 1987) and in lodgepole pine stands throughout the interior where reliable natural regeneration occurs if the seed bed is adequately disturbed during harvesting (Vyse and Navratil, 1985).

C O N C L U S I O N

It is clear that natural regeneration will be seriously considered in future. Already several research initiatives are undenvay by both provincial and federal agencies. However, in the immediate future, forest renewal in Western Canada will continue to rely heavily on a tree planting programme supplied by private, corporate and public sector forest nurseries that produce container-grown seedlings. Within this industry, research will be focused on improving nursery efficiency with better, faster stock quality tests that can accurately predict field performance potential of the tree species being planted over a wide variety of sites.

R E F E R E N C E S :

ARMLEDER, H. M., DAWSON, R. J., and THOMPSON, R. N., 1986. Handbook for timber and mule deer management coordination on wlnter ranges in the Cariboo Forest Region. B.C. Min. For. Land Management Handbook 13., Victoria, B.C.

ARNOIT, J. T., 1972. Influences affecting container seeding performance on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. In: Proc. Workshop on Container Planting in Canada. R. M . Waldron (Ed.) Can. Dept., Environ., Can. For. Serv., Inf. Rep. DPC-X-2. pp. 84-91.

ARNOIT, J. T., 1973. Evolution of the styroblock reafforestation system in British Columbia. Commonw. For. Rev. 5272-78.


ARNOTT, J. T., 1974a, Performance in British Columbia. In: Proc. of the North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposium. R. W. Tinus, W. I. Stein, and W. E. Balmer (Eds.) Great Plains Agric. Counc. Publ. No. 68, pp. 283-290.

ARNOTT, J. T., 1974b. Growth responses of white-Engelmann spruce provenances to extended photoperiod using continuous and intermittent light. Can. J. For. Res. 469-75.

ARNOTT, J. T., 1975. Field performance of container-grown and bareroot trees in coastal British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 5:186-194.

ARNOTT, J. T., 1979. Effect of light intensity during extended photoperiod on growth of amabilis fir, mountain hemlock, and white and Engelmann spruce seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 9:82-89.

ARNOTT, J. T., 1985. Photoperiod control of container seedlings. In: Proc. Western Forest Nursery Co~~ncil-Intermountain Nurserymen's Assoc. Combined Meeting. T. D. Landis, (Ed.) USDA For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-185, pp. 9-13.

ARNOTT, J. T., 1989. Regulation of white spruce, Engelmann spruce and mountain hemlock seedling growth by controlling photoperiod. Forestry Suppl. 62:157-168.

ARNOTT, J. T.. 1991. The influence of nursery systems on plantation establishment in British Columbia. IUFRO Symposium 'Efficiency of stand establishment operations,' Sept. 11-15, Rotorua, New Zealand, FRI Bull. 156: 56-66.

ARNOTT, J. T. and MITCHELL, A., 1981. Influence of extended photoperiod on growth of white and Engelmann spruce seedlings in coastal British Columbia. In: Proc. Canadian Containerized Tree Seedling Symposium. J. B. Scarratt, C. Glerum, and C. A. Plexman (Eds.) COJFRC Symp. Proc. O-P- 10, pp. 139-152.

ARNOTT, J. T. and SIMMONS. C. S., 1985. The effect of failure in extended and intermittent photoperiod lighting on the growth of white spruce container seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 15734-737.

ARNOTT. 3. T.. DUNSWORTH. B. G. and O'REILLY, C.. 1988. Effect of nursery culture on morphological and physiological develovment of western hemlock seedlings. In: Proc. Combined Meet. West. For. Nursery Assoc. T. D. Landis (Ed.) USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-167, pp. 38-44.

BAMFORD. A. H., 1974. Development of the British Columbia container program. In: Proc. North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposiun~. R. W. Tinus, W. I. Stein and W. E. Balmer (Eds.) Great Plains Agric. Counc. Publ. No. 68, pp. 53-58.

BARTEAUX, M. K. and KREIBERG, N. H., 1981. The status of container planting programs in Canada 7. New Brunswick. In: Proc. Canadian Containerized Tree Seedling Symposium. J. B. Scarratt, C. Glerum and C. A. Plexman (Eds.) COJFRC Symp. Proc. 0-P-10, pp. 45-48.

BINDER, W. D., SCAGEL. R. K. and KRUMLIK, G. J.. 1988. Root growth potential; facts, myths, value? In: Proc. Combined Meet. West. For. Nursery Assoc., T. D. Landis (Ed.) USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-167, pp. 111-118.

BC. MINISTRY of FORESTS, 1988. Assessment of mechanical planting trials in North Central British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Silv. Br., Victoria, B.C. File Rep. 25p.

BURDETT, A. N., 1979. New methods for measuring root growth capacity: their value in assessing lodgepole pine stock quality. Can. J. For. Res. 9:63-67.

BURDETT, A. N., 1981. Box-pruning the roots of container-grown tree seedlings. In: Proc. Canadian Containerized Tree Seedling Symposium. J. B. Scarratt, C. Glerum and C. A. Plexman (Eds.) COJFRC Symp. Proc. 0-P-10, pp. 203-206.

Burr, G., BANCROFT, B., and FOLK, R., 1989. Ingress of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir in the Southern Interior ESSF. For. Can. and B.C. Min. For., Victoria, B.C. FRDA Rep. Proj. 3.61.

DANCAUSE, A., 1981. The status of container planting in Canada 6. Quebec In: Proc. Canadian Containerized Tree Seedling Symposium. J. B. Scarratt, C. Glerum and C. A. Plexman (Eds.) COJFRC Symp. Proc. 0-P-10, pp. 4144.

DEYOE, D. R., MACDONALD, J. E. and OWENS, J. N., 1989. Culturing and preconditioning that improve bud development and cold hardiness of containerized Douglas-fir seedlings. In: Proc. 10th N. Amer. For. Biol. Workshop, Physiology and Genetics of Reforestation. J . Warrell, J. Loo-Dinkins and D. T. Lester (Eds.) UBC Vancouver, B.C. p. 254.

DRAKEFORD, D. R., and HAWKINS, C. D. B., 1989. The stress induced volatile emissions (SIVE) technique for measuring levels of stress in conifer seedlings. For. Can. and B.C. Min. For., Victoria, B.C. FRDA Rep. No. 084, p. 20.

DUNSWORTH, B. G., 1987. Stock handling survey 1983-1985. MacMillan Bloedel, Nanaimo, B.C. Internal Rep., Project 312.13. 18p.

DUNSWORTH, B. G., 1988. Impact of lift date and storage on field performance for containerized Douglas-fir and western hemlock. In: Proc. Combined Meet. West. For. Nursery Assoc., T. D. Landis, (Ed.) USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-167, pp. 199-206.

EDWARDS, D. G. W., 1989. Prospects for IDS improvement of seed quality. Forestry Canada, Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, B.C., FRDA Res. Memo No. 1 1 5 . 2 ~ .

GLERUM, C., 1990. Stock production research in Canada: a historical perspective. For. Chron. 66103-111.

GROSSNICKLE, S. G., ARNOTT, J. T., MAJOR, J. E. and TSCHAPLINSKI, T. J., 1990a. Influence of dormancy induction treatments on western hemlock seedlings. (1) Seedling development and stock quality assessment. Can. J. For. Res. 21: 164-174.

GROSSNICKLE. S. G., MAJOR, J. E. and ARNOTT, J. T., 1990b. Morphological development of field planted western hemlock from various dormancy induction treatments. In: Target Seedling Syn~posium: Proc. Combined Meeting West. For. Nursery Assoc., R. Rose, S. J. Campbell and T. D. Landis (Eds.), USDA For. Sen . Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-200, pp. 255-262.

GROSSNICKLE, S. G., MAJOR, J. E., ARNOTT, J. T. and LEMAY, V. M.. 1990c. Stock quality assessment through an integrated approach. New Forests 5: 77-91.

HAEUSSLER, S., POJAR, J., GEISLER, B. M,, YOLE, D. and ANNAS, R. M., 1984. A guide to the Coastal Western Hemlock Zone, Northern Drier Maritime Subzone (CWHf) in the Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Victoria, BC., Land Management Rep. 21,163~.

HAWKINS, C. D. B. and DRAPER, D. A., 1988. Height control of Interior spruce by means of photoperiodic induction. In: Proc. Combined Meet. West. For. Nursery Assoc., T. D. Landis (Ed.) USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-167, pp. 45-49.

HAWKINS, C. D. B. and BINDER, W. B., 1990. State of the art seedling stock quality tests based on seedling physiology. In: Target Seedling Symposium: Proc. Combined Meeting West. For. Nursery Assoc., R. Rose, S. J. Campbell and T. D. Landis (Eds.), USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-200, pp. 91-121.

HEENEY, C. J., 1981. The status of container planting programs in Canada. 5. Ontario. In: Proc. Canadian Containerized Tree Seedling Symposium. J. B. Scarratt, C. Glerum and C. A. Plexman (Eds.) COJFRC Symp. Proc. 0-P-10, pp. 35-39.

HERRING, L. J., 1977. Studies of advance subalpine fir in the Kamloops Forest District, B.C. For. Sen., Victoria, B C , Res. Note No. 80.

HERRING, L. J. and MCMINN, R. G., 1980. Natural and advance regeneration of Engelmann spruce and sub-alpine fir compared 21 years after site treatment. For. Chron. 56:55-57.

JEANES, T. G., 1987. Multiple use in the man-made forest. For. Chron. 63:10&111.

JO~STONE, W. D., 1976. Ingress of lodgepole pine and white spruce following logging and scarification in West Central Alberta. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv., Edmonton, Alta., Info. Rep. NOR-X-170.

KINGHORN, J. M., 1970. The status of container planting in western Canada. For. Chron. 48:235-239.

KINGHORN, J. M., 1974. Principles and concepts in container planting. In: Proc. of the North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposium. R. W. Tinus, W. I. Stein and W. E. Balmer (Eds.) Great Plains Agric. Counc. Publ. No. 68, pp. 8-18.

KLINKA, K., GREEN, R. N., COURTIN, P. J., and NUSZDORFER, F. C., 1984. Site diagnosis, tree species selection, and slashburning guidelines for the Vancouver Forest Region. B.C. Min. For., Victoria, B.C., Land Management Rep. 25,180~.

O'REILLY, C., ARNOTT, J. T., and OWENS, J., 1989a. Effects of photoperiod and moisture availability on shoot growth, seedling morphology, and cuticle and epicuticular wax features of container-grown western hemlock seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 19:122-131.

O'REILLY, C., OWNS, J., ARNOTT, J. T., and DUNSWORTH, B. G., 1989b. Effect of nursery culture on the growth of western hemlock during the first year of field establishment. For. Can. and BC. Min. For., Victoria, B.C., FRDA Rep. No. 091.22~.

MACDONALD, J. E., and OWNS, J. N., 1988. The use of developmental studies in refining dormancy induction. treatments for containerized seedlings: A Douglas-fir example. In: Proc. 21st Canadian Tree Improvement Association Meeting. E. K. Morgenstern and T. J. B. Boyle (Eds.), Can. For. Serv., Ottawa, Publication No. Fo18-111987-2E, pp. 197.

MCCREARY, D. D. and DURYEA, M. L., 1985. OSU vigor test: principles, procedures and predictive ability. In: Evaluation seedling quality: principles, procedures and predictive abrlity of major tests. M. L. Duryea (Ed.), Oregon State Univ., For. Res. Lab., Corvallis, Oregon, pp. 85-92.

MCMINN, R. G., 1982. Ecology of site preparation to improve performance of planted white spruce in northern latitudes. In: Forest regeneration at high latitudes: experiences from northern Bntish Columbia. M . Murray (Ed.) U. of Alaska and U.S.D.A. For. Serv., Pac. NW For. Range Exp. Sta., Misc. Rep. No. 82, pp. 25-32.

MEIDINGER, D. V., HOPE. G. D, and MCLEOD, A. J., 1984. Classification and interpretation of some ecosystems of the Rocky Mountain Trench, Prince George Forest Region, British Columbia, B.C. Min. For., Victoria., B.C., Land Management Rep. 22,21p.

MITCHELL, W. K., DUNSWORTH, B. G., SIMPSON, D. G and VYSE, A., 1990. Planting and Seeding. In: Regenerating British Columbia's forests. D. P. Lavender, R. Parish, C. M. Johnson, G. Montgomery, A. Vyse, R. A. Willis and D. Winston (Eds.), UBC Press, Vancouver, B.C., pp. 235-253.

POJAR, J., TROWBRIDGE, R. and COATES, D., 1984. Ecosystem classification and interpretation of the Sub-Boreal Spruce Zone, Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Victoria, BC., Land Management Rep. 17,319~.

PETERSON, M. and SUTHERLAND, J. R., 1990. Grey mould control by seedling canopy humidity reduction through under-bench ventilation and styroblock aeration. For. Can., Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, B.C. FRDA Rep. No. 077,16p.

PUlTomN, P., 1989. Criteria for using seedling performance potential tests. New Forests 367-87.

RITCH~E, G. A., 1984. Assessing seedling quality. In: Forest nursery rnanwk production of bareroot seedlings. M . L. Duryea and T. D. Landis (Eds.). Oregon State Univ., For. Res. Lab., Corvallis, OR. pp. 243-259.

W I T , J. B., 1981. Container stock specifications for northern Ontario. In: h. Canadian Contaimrized Tree Seedling SppmiauPt, 1. B. Scarratt, C. Gletum and C. A. Plexman (Eds.) come Symp. Proc. W-10, pp. 343-354.

SIMPSON, D. G., 1990. Frost hardiness, root growth capacity and field performance relationships in interior spruce, lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir and western hemlock seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 20566-572.

SJOBERG, N. E., 1974. The styroblock container system. In: Proc. of the North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposium. R. W. Tinus, W. I. Stein, and W. E. Balmer (Eds.) Great Plains Agric. Counc. Publ. No. 68, pp. 217-228.

S M ~ , R. B. and CRAIG, H. R., 1968. Decay in advanced alpine fir regeneration in the Kamloops District of British Columbia. For. Chron. 46.217-220.

STETIZER, R. F., 1958. Development of a residual stand of interior spruce-alpine fir during the first 28 years following cutting to a 12 inch diameter limit. B.C. For. Sem., Victoria, BC., Res. Note No. 24.

SUTHERLAND, J. R., SHRIMPTON, G. M. and STURROCK, R. N., 1989. Disease and insects in British Columbia forest seedling nurseries. For. Can. and B.C. Min. For., Victoria, B.C. FRDA Rep. No. 065. 85p.

SUTTON, R. G., 1980. Planting stock quality, root growth capacity and field performance of three boreal conifers. New Zealand J. For. Sci. 1054-71.

S U ~ O N , R. G., 1990. Root growth capacity in coniferous forest trees. Hortsci. 25259-266.

VAN EERDEN, E., 1972. Influences affecting container seedling pePformance near Prince George, British Columbia. In: Proc. Workshop on Container Planting in Canada. R. M. Waldron, (Ed.) Can. Dept. Environ., Can. For. Sen., Inf. Rep. DPC-X-2, pp. 92-100.

VAN EERDEN, E. and GATES, J. W., 1990. Seedling production and processing: container. In: Regenerating British Columbia's forests. D. P . Lavender, R. Parish, C. M. Johnson, G. Montgomery, A. Vyse, R. A. Willis, and D. Winston (Eds.), UBC Press, Vancouver, pp. 226-234.

VIDAVER, W., TOIVONEN, P., LISTER, G., BROOKE, R. and BINDER, W., 1988. Variable chlorophyll fluorescence and its potential use in tree seedling production and forest regeneration. In: Proc. Combined Meet. West. For. Nursery Assoc. T. D. Landis (Ed.) USDA For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-167, pp. 127-132.

VYSE, A. and RUDD, J. D., 1974. Sowing rules for container nurseries. In: Proc. of the North Amencan Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposium. R. W. Tinus, W. I. Stein and W. E. Balmer (Eds.) Great Plains Agric. Counc. Publ. No. 68, pp. 164-169.

VYSE, A. and NAVRATIL, S., 1985. Advances in lodgepole pine regeneration. In: Proc. Symposium on Lodgepole pine: the species and its management. D. M. Baumgartner, R. G. Krebill, J. T. Arnott and G. F. Weetman (Eds.), Wash. State Univ., Pullman, WA. pp. 173-186.

VYSE, A., PEARSE, C, and EREMKO, R., 1990. Evaluation of southern interior research program. Prepared for Southern Interior Technical Advisory Committee, Extension, Demonstration and R&D Sub Program, FRDA Agreement, B.C. Min. For., Kamloops, B C , File Rep. p. 35. ,

WALTERS, J., 1961. The planting gun and bullet: a new tree- planting technique. For. Chron. 3794-95.

WALTERS, J., 1963. An improved planting gun. Tree Planters' Notes 571-3.

WALTERS, J., 1969. Container planting of Douglas-fir. For. Prod. J. 19:lO-14.

WEETMAN, G. and VYSE, A., 1990. Natural regeneration. In: Regenerating British Columbia's forests. D. P. Lavender, R. Parish, C. M. Johnson, G. Montgomery, A. Vyse, R. A. Willis, and D. Winston (Eds.), UBC Press, Vancouver, pp. 118-129.


Site index for Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis in 'La Sabana', Oaxaca, Mexico AURELIO M. FIERROS-GONZALEZ, DAVlD M. SMITH AND HUG0 RAMIREZ-MALDONADO

Apartado Postal 111, 56230 Chapingo, Edo de Mexico, Mexico

SUMMARY

The Mexican government is developing tropical plantations with Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis in order to produce raw material for its paper mills in the Gulf of Mexico coastal plain. This programme started in 1974. The area is savanna type. The climate is hot with a mean annual temperature of 25'C and 2300 mm of rainfall. The dry season is from January to April. The natural vegetation is made up of isolated trees of 'encino' (Quercus spp.), 'nanche' (Byrsonima crassifolia), and 'tachicon' (Curatella americana). The data were obtained from stem analysis of 104 dominant trees and dominant height of 52 permanent plots measured four times. Site index equations were fitted to the Chapman-Richards model (Hd = a [l - ebAIc) using the algebraic difference approach. The equation obtained is as follows:

where: S1 = site index; Hd = dominant height; A. = index or base age; A = stand age; e = base of the natural logarithms; a,b,c = parameters to be estimated.

Le gouvernement du Mexique developpe des plantations tropicales de Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis afin de produire de la matitre pre- mitre pour ses papeteries dans la plaine catikre du golfe du Mexique. Ce programme a commence en 1974. La region est de type savane. Le c h a t est chaud: la temperature annuelle moyenne est 25'C et il y a 2300 mm de precipitations par an. La saison stche est de janvier ?i

avril. La vegetation naturelle se compose d'arbres isolCs des types 'encino' (Querccu spp.), 'nanche' (Byrsonima crassifolia) et 'tachicon' (Curatella americana). Les donnees ont et6 obtenues par l'analyse des tiges de 104 arbres dominants et de la hauteur dominante de 52 lots permanents, mesuree quatre fois. On a adapt6 des equations d'indice des emplacements au modtle Chapman-Richards (Hd = a [ l - ebAIc) selon la methode de diffkrence algtbrique. Voici 1'Cquation obtenue:

lorsque: S1 = indice des emplacements; Hd = hauteur dominante; A. = indice ou Ige de base; A = bge du peuplement; e = base des loga- rithmes naturels; a, b, c = param6tres B estimer.

RESUMEN

El Gobierno de Mexico desarrolla un programa de plantaciones forestales tropicales con Pincu caribaea var. hondurensis, con el fin de proveer material celulosico para sus fdbricas de papel peri6dico que se localizan en la planicie costera del Golfo de Mexico. Este programa se inici6 en 1974. Los terrenos son de tipo sabana. El clima es calido con una temperatura promedio anual de 25"C, y una precipitaci6n promedio anual de 2300 mm. La estacidn seca es de enero a abril. La vegetaci6n natural consiste de drboles aislados de 'encino' (Quercus spp.), 'nanche' (Byrsonima crassifolia), y 'tachic6n' (Curatella americana). Los datos fueron obtenidos del andlisis troncal de 104 Brboles dominantes, y de alturas dominantes de 52 parcelas permanentes medidas cuatro veces. Las ecuaciones de fndice de sitio se desarrollaron usando el enfoque de la diferencia algebraica con el mode10 de Chapman-Richards (Hd = a [ l - e-b*]c). La ecuaci6n obtenida es la si- guiente.

donde: S1 = indice de sitio; Hd = altura dominante; A. = edad base; A = edad del rodal; e = base de 10s logaritmos naturales; a,b,c = parametros e estimar.

INTRODUCTION

The increase in world demand for forest products, the large ,scale devastation of tropical forests, and the necessity for rehabilitating degraded lands, coupled with potential fast growth rates, have been the major driving forces behind the establishment of forest plantations in the tropics.

In addition to genera such as Eucalyptus, Gmelina, Tectona, and some members of the Leguminoseae and Meliaceae, the sub-tropical and tropical conifers have been

the most promising. Among the conifers, Pinus caribaea (Caribbean pine) plays a very important role, especially for the production of long fibre pulp.

Pinus caribaea Mor. var. hondurensis Barr. & Golf. has been planted widely all over the tropical and sub-tropical regions. It has been intensively studied in provenance, growth, and general behaviour trials. The species has shown the ability to grow in hot lowlands, infertile sites,

48 A. M. Fierros-Gonzrilez et al.

eroded areas, and savannas (Lamb, 1973; Greaves, 1981). Since 1974, the Mexican government has developed a

plantation programme with Pinus caribaea, P. oocarpa and P. tropicalis in some savanna areas. This is an alternative source of raw material for the Tuxtepec Paper Mills located in Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, MCxico, which has been supplied during the last 35 years, with old-growth conifers from the forests of the State of Oaxaca.

OBJECTIVE O F THIS STUDY

The utility of a tool such as a site productivity classification is well known as a basis for forest stand treatment. A common way to express site quality is in terms of site index (height of dominant trees at a given age).

Several studies have been carried out on site quality classification for Pinus caribaea throughout the world, but not previously in MCxico. This study was designed to develop site index curves applicable to Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis in Oaxaca, MCxico.

REVIEW O F LITERATURE

Very little research has been done on site quality classification for Pinus caribaea var, hondurensis. In Surinam, Voorhoeve and Schulz (1968) used dominant height as a measure of site quality in developing a five-class site classification. In Uganda, a set of anamorphic site index curves was developed by Kingston in 1972 (Vincent, 1978).

Carmean and Chew (1974) constructed height curves for Caribbean pine in different soils in peninsular Malaysia. Teoh (1981) developed a family of site index curves for Malaysia and classified sites into four types.

In Mongas, Venezuela, Tobar (1976) derived a set of anamorphic site index curves. Data from both temporary and permanent plots were used to fit Schumacher's model, In H, = a + b (114) (where: In = natural logarithm, and all other symbols as stated earlier).

In eastern Venezuela, Vincent (1978), working in natxal grassland savannas, carried out a comprehensive study on site quality classification for Caribbean pine. He developed anamorphic site quality curves using data from stem analysis and permanent plots. The model fitted by regression analysis of dominant height on age was: H, = a + bA + cA2 (where all symbols are as described above).

In Panama, VBsquez (1987) developed site index curves for 'La Yegiiada' Forest Reserve, fitting Schumacher's model with data from permanent plots. He obtained a set of anarnorphic curves at a base age of 15 years.

Hussain (1987) developed a system of anamorphic site index curves from data obtained in permanent sample plots in Puerto Rico. He used regression analysis to fit the following model: Ln H, = a + b Ln A (all symbols as already stated).

THE STUDY AREA AND PLANTATION

The study .area is located in the eastern limit of the 'Rio Papaloapan' watershed, in the State of Oaxaca, MBxico, betwan 17" 20' and 17" 26' north latitude and 95" 19' and 95* 27' west longitude. The elevation varies from 100 to 3@ m (Fig. 3).

t

FIGURE 1. Location of the Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis plantation 'La Sabana', Oaxaca. Mkxico. Adapted from INIF, 1984.

The climate is hot, summer-wet and winter-dry. The mean annual temperature is 25"C, with maximum and minimum monthly means of 27.7"C and 22.0°C in May and December, respectively. The average annual precipitation is 2300 mm, with a dry season from January to April with less than 60 mm of precipitation each month.

The soils are o i sedimentary origin, deep, yellow-red, with a hardpan crust of iron oxide concretions at different levels; the texture is silty clay, with a high stone content. The pH varies from 4.6 to 5.2. The slope varies from 8 to 30%. These soils have been classified as luvisols.

The general landscape of the area corresponds to a savanna woodland. Scattered trees of 'encino' (Quercus oleoides and Q. sororia), 'nanche' (Byrsonima crassifolia), and 'tachic6n' (Curatella americana) are present. Common grass species are Paspalum sp., and Fimbristylis sp.

The study was limited to the areas planted with Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis during 1974. The plantation was established at a spacing of 2 X 2 m (2500 trees per hectare). Seedlings were six months old, and approximately 25 cm tall. Seeds from Poptum, Guatemala were used.

Site preparation consisted in cutting the scattered trees and broadcast burning. A single hole of 20 cm in diameter by 30 cm in depth was used. Seedlings were planted by hand. No silvicultural treatment was performed after planting other than protection against fire.

Site index for Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis 49

DATA BASE

Data of age and height growth from stem analysis of 104 dominant trees were used in addition to heights of 208 dominant trees, four in each of 52 permanent sample plots, measured four times (1984, '85, '86 and '88). Four replica- tions of each possible combination of aspect (North, South, East, West, and flat), and position on the slope (top, middle, and bottom) were included.

MODELS TESTED

Two models were screened to fit the heightlage data: Schumacher, and Chapman-Richards (Clutter et al., 1983).

Schumacher model: Hd = a eWA) ( 1 )

Chapman-Richards : Hd = a [l - dA]c ( 2 )

Where: H, = dominant height A = stand age e = base of the natural logarithms

a, b. c = parameters to be estimated

THE ALGEBRAIC DIFFERENCE FORMULATION

Site index equations can be used to predict total tree height as a function of stand age, average height of dominants, and site index itself. Such equations can be generated by a wide variety of methods. However, not all methods produce curves that pass through the point at which height equals site index at base age (Clutter et al., 1983). Furthermore, due to the fact that site index enters the model before the estimation of the parameters, those parameters depend on the selected base age (Bailey and Clutter, 1974); this fact could be of importance when dealing with fast-growing species. For these reasons the 'algebraic difference' approach, which avoids those problems, was chosen (Bor- ders et al., 1984).

The algebraic difference formulation, also named the 'difference equation method' by Clutter et al. (1983), uses pairs of consecutive measurements of the variable to be predicted (height in the case of site index), so that the height (H,) at second assessment age (A2 ) is predicted as a function of initial height (H,) at the first assessment age (A,) (Borders et al., 1984).

Moreover, this method recognizes the association between two measurements on the same individual at different ages and also suggested differential equations for growth rates when the parameters of the model used are regarded as site specific (Ramirez et al., 1988). The choice of the parameterto be treated as site specific can lead to families of anamorphic or polymorphic curves. Such a choice depends on local conditions, species, and the way that one or another type of curves can model the actual behaviour of the variable to be predicted.

Models (1) and (2) were manipulated to give the algebraic difference forms for anamorphic and polymorphic site index curves in the following way:

Schumacher model: H = a eW*)

a) Anamorphic, or 'common slope' formulation: Let 'a' be specific for site and 'b' common to all sites. Then for any given pair of height-age data (H,, A,), solving for 'a', we have:

a = Hi +(llAJ

For any two pairs observed in the same individual (H,, A,; H,, A2) we can write:

H, = H, e [b(llA2 - l/AI)l ( 3 )

b) Polymorphic, or 'common intercept' formulation: If we assume that 'b', instead of 'a', is the parameter regarded as site specific, then all sites will share the same 'a', and isolating 'b', we have:

For any two pairs observed in the same individual (H,, A,; H,, A,) we can write:

H, = a (Hl/a) (AI% ( 4 )

Chapman-Richards model: H = a [l -@*]c

a) Anamorphic formulation: If we let 'a' be specific for site, then 'b' and 'c' are common to all sites, and for any pair of height-age data (H,, Ai) we have:

a = Hi [l - ebA,]+

And for two pairs observed in the same individual (H,, A,; H,, A,) we can write:

H, = H1 ([l - ebA2)/(1 -+'')]c ( 5 )

b) Polymorphic formulation: If we regard 'c' as the site specific parameter, then 'a' and 'b' will be equal for all sites, and for any pair of observed height-age data (H, A,), solving for 'c', we have:

c = In (H,/a)/ln(l - e-bAi)

For any two pairs of data observed in the same indi. vidual (Hl, A,; H,, A,) we can write:

Models (3) to (6) can be translated into site index equations by replacing (H,) by site index (SI) and A, by base age (A,).

RESULTS

Fit and choice of the equation Models 3,4,5 and 6 were fitted through the non-linear least square method using the statistical package 'SAS' (SAS Institute, 1985). An analysis of variance showed that polymorphic equations gave better fit of the data in both models, based on the coefficient of determination. The Chapman-Richards model performed better than Schu- macher's following the same criterion. However, for choos- ing between the anamorphic and the polymorphic forms of the Chapman-Richards equation, other factors were taken into account.*

* Details of the analysis of variance may be obtained from the first author.

50 Site index for Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis

First, the parameters 'b' and 'c' of the anamorphic form showed iess variability as indicated by their lower values of the 'Variation Coefficient of the Estimator', compared with those of the polymorphic form ('c','b'), with 3.0 and 1.5% against 16.0 and 18.576, respectively.

Moreover, the value of parameter 'a' of the polymorphic model (6) gave characteristic values for the asymptote of HZ (when Az tends to infinity).

Site index classification Site index for each of the 52 permanent sample plots was computed (Table I) by replacing H, by site index (SI) and A, by base age (15 yzars), H, by the average of observed dominant height (Hd) and A, by stand age (A), and 'b' and 'c' by their estimated values in the selected equation (S), as follows:

SI = Hd [(l - d . 0 6 9 *15)/(1 - ,4.069*A)]1.723 (7)

T ~ L E 1. Site index of the 52 permanent sample plots, as calculated (SI) and rounded off to 3 m classes (RSI). Base age 15 years. Age of the stand 14.5 years'

PLOT SI(m) RSI PLOT SI(m) RSI PLOT SI(m) RSI

11 14.04 15 19 15.90 15 37 10.96 12 21 13.86 15 20 14.63 15 38 11.27 12 3 14.25 15 21 17.74 18 39 16.44 15 4 14.58 15 22 13.13 12 40 17.35 18 51 12.26 12 23 15.46 15 41 18.77 18 61 14.31. 15 24 19.73 21 42 16.55 18 7 15.18 15 25 19.24 18 43 17.75 18 8 12.49 12 26 16.11 15 14 27 15 9 11.74 12 27 18.41 18 45 12.90 12

10 13.01 12 28 18.46 18 46 14.01 15 11 14.97 15 29 14.63 15 471 14.85 15 12 15.23 15 30 14.22 15 48 19.11 18 13 12.93 ia 31 15.95 15 49 17.48 18 141 12.65 12 32 14.55 15 50 14.50 15 15 12.93 12 33 16.21 15 51 11.74 12 16 14.82 15 34 13.03 12 52 13.08 12 17 13.39 12 35 13.93 15 18 15.07 15 36 14.92 15

1 Site index for plots 1, 2, 5, 6, 14 and 47 was computed at stand age of 12.5 years, since those plots were cut before the 1988 measurement.

Site index curves construction A set of anamorphic site index curves (Fig. 2) was also developed from equation (5). H, was replaced by selected site indices (SI,, from 12 to 21 m by 3-meter intervals, which covers the range of observed dominant heights) and A, by the base age (15 years). A2 was replaced by selected ages (As, from 3 to 20 years) and H2 by predicted dominant height (HP); and 'b' and 'c' by their estimated values, as fo~ows:

H, = S S [(l - d." *S)I(l - eaJ"J9*q1.723 (8)

! 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 l 2 l1 4 15 l6 IT 8 $9 A G E i l e m s l

FIGURE 2. Site index curves for Pinus cartbaea var. hondurensis in 'La Sabana', Oaxaca, Mexico at base age of 15 years.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

It can be seen in Table I , that there exists very little variation in site index for the species Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis at 'La Sabana', since more than two thirds of the sample plots (41) were classified as having either 12 or 15 m of site index at base age of 15 years; only one plot had 21 m, and the remaining ten had 18 m.

This lack of variation could be explained in terms of the uniformity of seed source, site preparation, and site factors. In another study an investigation on site factors responsible for that variation or which limit the growth in height of this species at 'La Sabana' will be carried out.

Finally, it can be concluded that the equation selected can model the behaviour in height growth of dominant trees of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis for the particular conditions of the areas under plantation, and possibly for those with a similar combination of site factors and genetic constitution of growing stock.

REFERENCES

BORDERS, B. E., BAILEY, R. L. and WARE, K. D. 1984. Slash pine site index from a polymorphic model by joining (splining) nonpolynomial segments with an algebraic difference method. Forest Science 30,411-423.

BAILEY R. L. and CLUT~ER, J. L. 1974. Base age invariant polymorphic site curves. Forest Science 20, 155-159.

CARMEAN, W. H., and CHEW, T. K. 1974. Site quality for Caribbean pine in peninsular Malaysia. Malaysian Forester 37,2, 109-119.

CLWITER, J. L., FORTSON, J. C., PIENAAR, L. V., BRISTER, H. G. and BAILEY, R. L. 1983. Timber management: A quan- titative approach. New York, Wiley. 333 pp.

GREAVES, A, 1981. Progress in the Pinus caribaea Morelet and Pinus oocarpa Schiede international provenance trials. Commonwealth Forestry Review 60,1,35-43.

HUSSAIN, M. Z. 1987. Growth studies of plantations of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis in Puerto Rico. Ph. D. Dissertation. Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. New Haven, Conn. 118 pp.

INIF. MEXICO. 1984. Evaluaci6n preliminar de la plantacicin 'Ing. Jorge L. Tamayo' en la Sabana, Oaxaca. Unpub- lished report. Approx. 170 pp.

A. M. Fierros-Gonzalez et al. 51

LAMB, A. F. A. 1973. Pinus caribaea: Volume I. Fast growing timber trees of the lowland tropics 6. Comm. For. Inst. Oxford, University of Oxford. 254 p.

RAMIREZ MALDONADO, H., BAILEY, R. L. and BORDERS, B. E. 1988. Some implications of the algebraic difference approach for developing growth models. In. Ek, A.R., Shifley, S.R. and Burk, T.E. (eds.) 1988. Forest Growth Modelling and Prediction. Proceedings of the IUFRO Conference. Aug. 23-27, 1987, Minneapolis, Minn. U S D A Forest Service General Technical Report NC-120. Vol. 2. pp. 731-738.

SAS INSTITUTE. 1985. SAS user's guide: statistics, version 5 edn. SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina. pp. 575-606.

TEOH, S.K. 1981. Soil suitability in relation of Caribbean pine growth and yield. Malaysian Forester 44, l , 60-76.

TOBAR, A. 1976. Evaluacion de la calidad de sitio de las plantaciones de Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis en

relacion a 10s factores edaficos en Cachipo, Edo. de Mongas, Venezuela. M.Sc. Thesis. MCrida, Venezuela, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad de 10s Andes. 169 p.

VASQUEZ C. W. 1987. Desarrollo de indices de sitio y selec- ci6n de un mode10 preliminar rendimiento para Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis en la Reserva Forestal La Yegiiada, PanamB. M.Sc. Thesis UCWCATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica. 113 p.

VINCENT, L. W. 1978. Site classification for young Caribbean pine in grasslands, Venezuela. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 149 p.

VOORHOEVE, A. G. and SCHULZ, J. P. 1968. La necesidad de parcelas permanentes de clareo y rendimiento en plantaciones forestales. Boletin del Institute Forestal Latinoamericano de Investigacibn y Capacitacibn 27-28~3-17.

I ABERDEEN University of opportunity

FORESTRY EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES The Universio of Aberdeen, founded in 1495, has been awarding degrees in Forestry since 1914.

BSc (Forestry) Firmly founded on a scientific base, this degree emphasises resource and business management aspects relevant to both temperate and tropical forests. The honours degree normally requires four years of study but students with diplomas or equivalent qualifications are usually admitted direct into the second year.

DiplomdMSc Designed for practising foresters from the tropics or subtropics are a in Forest diploma course (9-months) and an MSccourse (l 2-months). Programmes Management are flexible and can be designed to meet individual needs, including the

involvement of courses from other land-use departments. Courses include Forest business administration; Finance and investment appraisal in forestry; Forest mensuration and inventory; Rural development forestry'andAgro-forestry; Silviculture; Forestprotection and Arboricutture.

Research These are available at both Master's and Doctoral level: a wide- Degrees ranging research programme is available encompassing both temperate

and tropical forestry issues.

Aberdeen and the North-East of Scotland contain aconcentration of researchestablishments in Land Use and Environmental matters unique in Europe: in addition to the departments within the University there is the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, the Rowett Research Institute and the Marine Research Laboratory; combining the interests of all these is the Aberdeen Centre for Land Use. The University is also the base of CEMP, the international Centre for Environmental Management and Planning.

Write for further details to

DrWHParry Department of Forestry University of Aberdeen St Machar Dnve Aberdeen AB9 2UD United ffingdom

Telephone 0224 272667 Fax 0224 272685 Telex 73458 UNIABN 9

UNIVERSITY OFABERDEEN I '

When replying to this advertisement, please mention the Commonwealth Forestry Review.

52 Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(1), 1992

Vegetative Propagation of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del

J. M . MBAH and S. J . RETALLICK'

School of Agricultural B Forest Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 ZUW, UK

SUMMARY

Balanites aegyptiaca is a promising economic plant for both the arid and semi-arid regions of tropical Africa, the Middle East and India. Two experiments were carried out in a heated glasshouse at the University of Wales, Bangor, to evaluate the effects of stock plant and source position on the capacity of cuttings of B. aegyptiaca to strike. Scope for clonal propagation by rooting stem cuttings under mist conditions was demonstrated. Stem cuttings taken from different positions on the stock plant did not differ significantly in rooting percentage, but cuttings from distal positions gave better quality rooting than those from medial and basal sources. Treatment with a range of Indole- 3-Butyric Acid (IBA) concentrations did not improve the incidence of rooting or the quality of rooting.

Balanites aegyptiaca est une plante qui a beaucoup de possibilites tconomiques pour les regions arides et semi-arides de 1'Afrique tropicale, du Moyen-Orient et de 1'Inde. On a realise deux experiences dans une serre chaude B 1'UniversitC du Pays de Galles, h Bangor, afin d'6valuer les effets de la plante-mbre et de la position de la source sur la capacite de prendre racine des boutures de Balanites aegyptiaca. On a ddmontre la possibilite de realiser la propagation clonale en enracinant des boutures de tige sous des conditions de brumisation. I1 n'y avait pas de difference importante de pourcentage d'enracinement entre les boutures de tige prelevees sur diffirentes positions sur la plante-mbre, mais les boutmes prelevCes sur des positions distales offraient une meilleure qualitC d'enracinement que celles prClevCes sur des sources mCdianes ou basales. Le traitement avec de diffbrentes concentrations d'acide-indole-3-butyrique (AIB) n'a amCliorC ni la frequence ni la qualitk d'enracinement.

RESUMEN

Balanites aegyptiaca es una planta con un prometedor valor econ6mico en las regiones Aridas y semi-aridas de Africa tropical, Oriente Medio y la India. En la Universidad de Gales, Bangor, se han llevado a cabo, en un invernadero con calefaccih, dos ensayos para evaluar la capacidad de enraizamiento de esquejes de B. aegyptiaca provenientes de distintas zonas del tallo y de diferentes plantas madres. Se ha demostrado la capacidad de propagacidn vegetativa de esquejes del talio en condiciones de neblina. Esquejes cortados de distintas posiciones no diferian significativamente en cuanto a1 porcentaje do enraizamiento, aunque 10s esquejes de posiciones apicales mostraron una calidad de enraizamiento superior a la de 10s que se cortaron de posiciones medias o basales. El tratamiento con distintas concentraciones de Acido 3-indol-butirico no mejoraba el porcentaje ni la calidad de enraizamiento.

i

INTRODUCTION

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Balanitaceae) is a tough, drought-resistant multipurpose tree species ideally suited to the land-masses of northern tropical Africa, the Middle East and India, which have suffered extensive loss of germplasm (Ladipo, 1989). As a multipurpose tree B. aegyptiaca offers food, medicinal products and fuel-wood valued for subsistence living in arid and semi-arid areas where other options are few. The potential of B. aegyptiaca under management remains unexplored and it is a priority to construct a picture of variation within the natural range and to generate the capacity to raise plants with desirable features.

The tree naturally regenerates by seed, root suckering and coppicing (Maydell, 1986). Air-layering has been successful with a very closely related Indian species B, roxburghii (recently regarded for a time as conspecific with B. aegyptiaca) but this technique is expensive, time consuming and limited in productivity compared with the rooting of stem cuttings.

The efforts described in this report to propagate B. aegyptiaca vegetatively are a contribution towards meeting immediate needs. Two experiments were carried out - the

first examining the potential of stem cuttings to root and the second to look at variation in rooting between cuttings from three positions (basal, medial and distal) on a B. aegyptiaca stock plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Stock plant preparation and tending Stock plants of two age groups (14 months and 23 months) had been grown in a glasshouse at the Treborth Botanical Garden of the University of Wales, Bangor (UWB). The original seed source was wild trees at Kitui ( l0 22'S, 38" 01'E; 1090 m), Kenya. The older stock plants were raised from seeds pretreated by soaking in warm water (30°C) and subsequently incubated for 8 days in a growth cabinet under a cycle of 30°C (12 hours light) and 20°C (12 hours dark). Germinated seedlings were transferred to pots containing a 2:l (by volume) vermiculite, Levington Multi- purpose Compost, and grown-on in a heated glasshouse in a temperature regime of 30°C day and 20°C night. After two months the plants were re-potted into John Innes No. 1 Compost. By the time the younger stock plants were raised,

'To whom correspondence should be addressed

Vegetative propagation of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del 53

procedures had been refined: the growth cabinet phase was Experiment l-potential of stem cuttings to root reduced to 7 days during which light period temperature was maintained at 28OC. After germination, transfer was directly to John Innes No. 1 Compost.

A liquid fertilizer was applied weekly to all stock plants (elemental concentration g I-': 0.26 N, 0.11 P, 0.22 K plus trace elements - boron, copper, iron, magnesium. man- ganese, molybdenum and zinc). For a month prior to the taking of cuttings a higher nitrogen feed was given (g 1.': 0.33 N, 0.09 P, 0.16 K plus trace elements as above). The fertilizer solutions were administered as required to restore field capacity in the pots.

The growth model of B. aegyptiaca follows that of Cham- pagnat (Hall6 et al). More familiar temperate examples of this model are roses, brambles and elder (Sambucus nigra). A trunk is eventually formed by superposition of renewal shoots which are generated by lateral buds after the apical shoot bends and becomes pendulous under its own weight. In the first few years many renewal shoots arise from the basal region forming a multi-stemmed bush. It was in this condition that the stock plants were used.

Five younger stock plants (Cl-C5) and one older stock plant (C6) were selected for Experiment 1 (potential of stem cuttings to root). Another older stock plant (C7) was used for Experiment 2 (significance of within-shoot position of cuttings).

The experimental environment

The experiments were carried out at the UWB Pen-y- Ffridd Field Station and commenced on 12 May, 1989. Two mist propagation benches enclosed in a polythene tent were used for the experiments. Misting was controlled by the electronic leaf method (Hartmann and Kester, 1983). Bottom heat was provided by thermostatically controlled warming cables situated in the bench sand. The rate of misting was set to ensure a film of water was maintained on the leaves. Bench temperature was monitored by a thermocouple having its sensor element inserted into the rooting medium and connected to a chart recorder. Compartmented trays filled with the rooting medium (1:l moss peat and perlite mixture) were left on the mist benches for one and a half weeks to stabilize. At the start of the experiments the bases of the trays were sunk 3cm deep into the mist benches. The temperature in the rooting medium ranged from 31°C to 37OC with the latter frequently attained during hot sunny weather. A minimum night temperature of the mist unit was maintained at 22OC. Day temperatures, however, were difficult to control and ranged from 22°C to 3g°C. Ventilation was provided automatically on the numerous hot days experienced during the course of the experiments. There was no supplementary lighting: the experiments relied on natural day length (about 16 hours).

Experimental design

A two-factor randomized design with three blocks was adopted for each experiment. The randomized block design was based on replicates of clones X treatment com- binations Individual cuttings were allocated to 4.5cm X

Comparisons were made between material from six ortets (seed derived mother plants) subjected to five different hormone treatments (including a control). One hundred and fifty cuttings were incorporated in each of three replicate blocks. Within each block there was complete randomization of five replicate cuttings of each clone X

hormone treatment combination. Provision was made for reserve replicate cuttings (under

every clone X treatment combination) so that the progress of rooting could be monitored without disturbing the experiment.

Experiment 2 - significance of within-shoot position of cuttings

Comparisons were made between material derived from a single 24-month-old stock plant and referable to three shoot positions (basal, medial, distal). Cuttings from each position were subjected to five different hormone treatments (including a control). Seventy-five cuttings were incorporated in each of three replicate blocks. Within each block there was complete randomization of five replicates (cuttings) of each source-position X hormone treatment combination.

Experimental procedure

Preparation of cuttings: Undesirable variability in the material used for the experiments was minimized by use of stock plants which were comparable in terms of vigour, size, health and node number.

Leafy cuttings of four node lengths (or minimum of 7cm) were taken at 9.00 a.m. on 12 May, 1989. The cuttings were immediately stored in clean polythene bags and water sprinkled on them. The polythene bags were then stored briefly on a cold shaded cement floor pending transfer to the mist tent where they were treated with a hormone.

In Experiment 1 cuttings were collected from all over each of the six ortets in turn. Cuttings in Experiment 2 were collected at three positions; basal, medial and distal end along plagiotropic and orthotropic shoots. The total length of each primary orthotropic shoot was measured and divided by three to get the three positions. Cuttings were then collected from each of the sections accordingly. The number of cuttings from various sections of shoots were dependent on the number of four node cuttings (> 7cm) available.

Hormone application and cutting insertion: Hormone treatments were applied by immersing the proximal 2-3cm of each cutting for 5 seconds in the appropriate solution. The solutions were:

1. Control (50% industrial methylated spirit (IMS) in water).

2. 0.5% IBA in 50% IMS. 3. 1.0% IBA in 50% IMS. 4. 1.5% IBA in 50% IMS. 5. 2.0% IBA in 50% IMS. Immediately following the hormone treatment cuttings

were inserted at 2cm.depth into the rooting medium and firmed to position.

4cm compartments in plastic trays ( k m deep) in each Final assessment: After four weeks cuttings were assessed experiment. for rooting and rooting quality. For the latter, a score on a

54 J. M. Mbah and S. J. Retallick

six point scale was assigned: 0 cutting did not root at all; no shoot growth 1 at least one root was formed; no shoot growth 2 more than one root was formed; detectable but

minimal shoot growth 3 fair rooting; fair shoot growth 4 better rooting but more vigorous root growth than

shoot growth or vice versa 5 excellent rooting and shoot growth; both shoot and

root growth vigorous. Data for incidence of rooting and root quality were sub-

jected to analysis of variance, angular transformation first being applied to percentage figures. Significant differences were examined at 95% confidence interval. The Tukey Pairwise Test (Alder and Roessler, 1977) was used to determine which pairs of treatments, clones or positions were significantly different.

RESULTS

General

Cuttings rooted profusely under mist conditions but were not enhanced by the range of IBA treatments given. Periodic examination of reserve cuttings indicated rooting commenced after one week. The total incidence of rooting

. was 70% (Table 1) and 47% (Table 2) for Experiments 1 and 2 respectively. Roots were observed in most cases to develop as finger-like outgrowths from within 2 to 3cm of the basal ends of the stem cuttings.

Experiment l -potential of stem cuttings to root

Incidence of rooting: There was no significant difference between treatments with respect to incidence of rooting although a significant difference arose between clones as is commonly observed with other woody species (Table 5). On the basis of Tukey's test, the only significant difference occurred between the older clone (C6) and two younger clones (C1 and CS).

Rooting quality: There were no significant differences between treatments or clones with respect to rooting quality (Table 3 and Table 5).

Experiment2 -significance of within-shootposition of cuttings

Incidence of rooting: There were no significant differences in the incidence of rooting associated with source positions or treatments (Table 2 and Table 6) .

Rooting quality: A significant difference in rooting quality occurred between stem cuttings from difference positions (Table 4). Tukey's test indicated that rooting quality was superior in the distal cuttings compared with those from the more proximal positions (Table 6).

DISCUSSION

The experiments revealed that stem cuttings of Balanites aegyptiaca are capable of profuse rooting. This is in agreement with that found in Nigeria by Ladipo (1989) but contrasts with total failure in India by Amalraj (1987), and a maKimum of 35% rooting in Mali by Gosseye (1980). The conditions under which the cuttings were placed by

Amalraj (op. cit.) were not reported, and so a comparison with the findings of this study and Ladipo (op. cit.) cannot be made. Gosseye (op. cit.) carried out cuttings experiments under relatively harsh nursery conditions, i.e. no shading and no atmospheric humidity control - only regular watering.

The overall percentages in rooting for the two experiments differed markedly. The results imply a correlation between the age of a stock plant and the ability to root. The older clone (C6) of Experiment 1 gave an average of 49% rooting of stem cuttings (Table 1). This value was close to the 47% overall results obtained for the clone C7 of the same age used in Experiment 2. In contrast, the lowest mean result obtained from Experiment 1 for the younger stock plants (Cl-CS) was 68% rooting of stem cuttings. More formal comparison of stock plants of different ages is clearly desirable.

On completion of the experiments it was evident that cutting diameter was related to root formation. A subjec- tive impression was that the greater the stem cutting diameter the lower its potential to root. The cuttings with the most profuse rooting were generally those only about 2mm diameter - the smallest used. Most of the cuttinns that did not root or even showed signs of rotting at their proximal ends were greater than 12mm diameter. For most woody species considered for forestry purposes, greater stem diameter would normally imply increased age of cutting. The growth model of B. aegyptiaca is such that this is not always the case, and the youngest material arising vigorous- ly from the base of the plant can be 12mm or more thick. It is, therefore, not possible to say whether or not the observation of better rooting from smaller diameter cutting material is related to age.

The conditions under which the stock plants were grown, the cuttings were taken and the cuttings were rooted, were those known to favour rooting. High temperatures and humidity are essential for rooting in many tropical plants. Balanites aegyptiaca is evidently no exception. The low light intensity (relative to the tropics) under which stock plants were raised also could have enhanced rooting of stem cuttings (Leakey, 1985). This possibly explains why the stock plants grown in high light intensity used by Amalraj (1987) did not furnish cuttings which rooted. Similarly, Gosseye (op. cit.) apparently used material from unshaded trees.

The restriction of root growth on stock plants has been shown to enhance rooting of cuttings (Hartmann and Kester, 1983). The younger stock plants used in this study were raised in smaller pots in comparison to those used for the older stock plants. There was likely to be more root restriction in the smaller pots, a possible contributing factor to the difference in the rate of rooting between the two.

There were no significant differences between the controls and any of the IBA treatments. These results contrasted with those of Ladipo (1989). The reserve cuttings given no direct pretreatment rooted well. This confirms Ladipo's (1989) view that stem cuttings of this species can root with up to 60% success without any treatment with root promoting hormones.

The clone C7 used in Experiment 2 had vigorous shoots, branches and branchlets most of which exceeded the stem diameter range indirectly suggested by this study for optimal rooting. Accordingly, it is not surprising that cuttings from the distal source did better than those from

Vegetative propagation of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del 55

TABLE 1. The effect of IBA concentrations on the percentage incidence of rooting of Balanites aegyptiaca stem cuttings

Clone no./ Treatment C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean

No IBA (control) 93 67 80 73 53 47 69 0.5% IBA 73 67 73 60 93 47 69 1.0% IBA 73 100 47 60 87 60 71 1.5% IBA 67 87 67 87 67 53 71 2.0% IBA 80 60 73 87 80 40 70 Mean 77 76 68 73 76 49 70

TABLE 2. The effect of source of cutting and IBA concentration on the percentage incidence of rooting of Balanites aegyptiaca stem cuttings (clone C7).

Stem position1 Treatment Basal Medial Distal Mean

No IBA (control) 40 47 67 5 1 0.5% IBA 40 47 67 5 1 1.0% IBA 40 33 60 44 1.5% IBA 33 53 33 40 2.0% IBA 33 53 60 46 Mean 37 47 S7 47

TABLE 3. The effect of IBA concentrations on the quality of rooting of Balanites aegyptiaca stem cuttings.

TABLE 4. The effect of source of cutting and IBA concentration on the quality of rooting of Balanites aegyptiaca stem cutrings (clone 7).

Clone no./ Treatment C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean

No IBA (control) 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 0.5% IBA 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1.0% IBA 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 1.5% IBA 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2.0% IBA 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 Mean 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Stem position1 Treatment Basal Medial Distal Mean

No IBA (control) 1 1 2 1 0.5% IBA 1 1 2 2 1.0% IBA 1 1 2 1 1.5% IBA 0 1 1 1 2.0% IBA 1 1 2 1 Mean 1 1 2 1

Key to Rooting Quality Values in Tables 3 & 4. 3 fair rooting; fair shoot growth 0 cutting did not root at all; no shoot growth 4 better rooting but more vigorous root growth than shoot growth 1 at least one root was formed; no shoot growth or vice versa 2 more than one root was formed; detectable but minimal shoot 5 excellent rooting and shoot growth; both shoot and root growth growth vigorous.

TABLE 5. The effect of clones and IBA treatment on incidence of TABLE 6. The effect of position and IBA treatment on incidence of rooting and rooting quality (Tukey's test). rooting and rooting quality (Tukey's test).

Source DF Incidence of Rooting Rooting Quality F P F P

Source DF Incidence of Rooting Rooting Quality F P F P

C3 (Blocks) 2 2.25 ns 0.98 ns C1 (Treatments) 4 0.02 ns 0.93 ns C2 (Clones) S 3.07 ** 1.07 ns C1 * C2 20 1.28 ns 0.75 ns Error 58 Total 89

C3 (Blocks) 2 2.50 ns 1.42 ns C1 (Treatments) 4 0.42 ns 0.80 ns C2 (Positions) 2 2.54 ns 7.83 ** C1 * C2 8 0.57 ns 0.64 ns Error 28 Total 44

ns, not significant; **, p < 0.05

the medial and basal sources. It is, therefore, concluded that cuttings from distal sources will give better rooting success and rooting quality.

In both experiments the analysis of variance showed no significant differences as regards the interactions between treatments and clones; treatment and positions or experimental blocks. The latter was evidence that the environmental conditions were uniform.

The rooting ability of stem cuttings provides the means by which Balanites aegyptiaca can be genetically improved and thus its full potential realized. This is another step forward in the race to reduce pressure on the natural forest resources of arid and semi-arid zones, by providing subsistence and urban communities with a broad spectrum multipurpose tree.

ns, not significant; **, p < 0.05

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Much appreciation is accorded the Cameroon Government for sponsoring James Mbah to pursue the M.Sc. Rural Resource Management Course under whose umbrella this study was carried out. Beyond this the work was funded by a grant from the Overseas Development Administration held jointly by the School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences and the Centre for Arid Zone Studies at the University of Wales, Bangor, in collaboration with the University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. The project title is 'A Comparative Study in Africa of Agroforestry Trees on Vertisolic Soils Under Low Rainfall (R4181C)'.

Our thanks go to Dr. J. B. Hall who read and commented on a draft of this paper and gave advice on B. aegyptiaca.

56 J. M. Mbah and S. J. Retallick

REFERENCES: ALDER, H. L. and ROESSLER, E. B., 1977. Introduction to probability

and statistics. 6th Edition. San Francisco, W. H. Freeman, 426pp. AMALRAJ, V. A., 1987. Vegetative Propagation of Balanites

roxburghii PL. Ind. J. For. Sci., 10 (2):155-156. GOSSEYE, P., 1980. Introduction of browse plants in the Sahelo-

Sudanian zone. In: Browse in Africa: the Current State oj Knowledge (ed. H. N . Le HouCrou), pp. 393-397. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 491pp.

HALLE, F., OLDEMAN, R. A. A. and TOMLINSOK, P. B., 1978. Tropical Trees and Forests: an Architectural Analysis. Springer, Berlin. 441pp.

HARTMANN, H. T. and KESTER, D. E., 1983. Plant Propagation - Principles and Practice. 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 727pp.

LADIPO, D. O., 1989. Balanites aegyptiaca: Native tree with potential for Agroforestry and Arid zone afforestation in Nigeria. In: Trees for Development in sub-Saharan Africa (ed. J. M . Wolf). Proceedings of a Regional Seminar on Trees for Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, 20-25 February 1989, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 207-212 International Foundation . for Science, Stockholm. 36lpp.

LEAKEY, R. R. B. 1985. The capacity for vegetative propagation in trees. In: Attributes of Trees as Crop Plants (eds. M . G. R. Cannell and J. E. Jackson). Institute of Terrestrial Ecology Natural Environment Research Council, UK. 592pp.

MAYDELL, H.-J. VON, 1986. Trees and Shrubs of the Sahel: Their Characteristics and Uses. Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Germany. 525pp.

T R A D A

TRADA Technology Limited which is the consultancy arm of the Timber Research & Development Association (TRADA) provides a full range of services within the UK and internationally. - Service include planning, design and fabrication

set-up for: - Low cost housing and social buildings - Timber bridge design, including manufacture

and erection - Agro-industrial buildings in timber

- Selection, commissioning and installation of secondary conversion sawmilling and woodworking plant; drying; preservation and log yard operation equipment, plus test equipment for research and development and project management.

- Marketing and end-use surveys. - Preparation of manuals, guidebooks, training texts

and audio-visual material. - Courses conducted in English and Spanish at

TRADA's UK training centre or overseas. - Tailor-made training programmes to suit the needs

of overseas participants. Full details from: Overseas Operations

TRADA Technology Limited Stocking Lane Hughenden Valley High Wycombe Bucks HP14 4ND, UK

Telephone: 024 024 (Naphill) 30911277113956 Telex: 83292 Fax: 024 024 5487

58 Precocious flowering in Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del

3 out of the 21 seed-derived stock plants (now 2 years 4 months and 3 years 1 month old). These stock plants had been grown almost continuously (i.e. no induced dormant period) at temperatures of approximately 20°C at night and 30°C during the day with 16 hours supplementary lighting per day. Copious watering and a regular supply of nutrients by liquid feeding ensured good growth (2m-3m high at 3 years) despite the plants being in a relatively small amount of soil in 7.51 and 101 pots. Root restriction may have been the factor responsible for flower induction.

B. aegyptiaca has demonstrated an ability to produce flowers under greenhouse conditions after a relatively short time from seed germination and rooting of cuttings. To uti- lize this observation in breeding programmes it is essential to devise standard methods for greater and more predictable flower induction. The use of various growth regu- lating chemicals is being explored.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T

This work is funded by a grant from the Overseas Development Administration held jointly by the School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences and the Centre for Arid

Zone Studies at the University of Wales, Bangor, in collaboration with the University of Maiduguri. Nigeria. The project title is 'A Comparative Study in Africa of Agroforestry Trees on Vertisolic Soils Under Low Rainfall (R4181C)'.

R E F E R E N C E S :

HALL, J. B. and WALKER, D. H., 1991. Balanites aegyptiaca - A Monograph. School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales. Bangor.

HALLE. F.. OLDEMAK. R. A. A. and TOMLIKSOK, P. B., 1978. Tropical Trees and Forests: an Architectural Analysis. Springer. Berlin. 441pp

IAD, 1987. Seed of Hope in the Desert. Chronicle, p 16. MAYDELL. H.-J. VON. 1986. Trees and Skrubs of the Sahel: Their

characteristics and uses. Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Germany. 525pp.

MBAH. J. M. 1989. Vegetative propagation of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Unpublished MSc. thesis, Rural Resource Management, School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences. University of Wales. Bangor.

WHITE. F., 1983. The vegetation of Africa. (UNESCO Natural Resources Research. 20.) UNESCO, Paris. 356pp.

ESTABLISHED 1957

WHOLESALE SEEDSMEN

SEEDS OF (SUCALVPNS, ACACIA AND MANY OTHER TREE AND SHRUB FOR COMMERCIAL FORESTRY, SAND STABILISATION ,

FODDER, SALT-LAND REHABILITATION AND HORTICULTURAL PURPOSES.

SPECIAL PROVENANCE COLLECTIONS - SEED LIST (OVER 1000 SPECIES) FORWARDED ON REQUEST

P.O. BOX 67, HAZELBROOK. N.S.W. 2779. AUSTRALIA Phone (047) 586132 Telex AA75749 (BOURNE)

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (l), 1992 59

BOOK REV 'IEWS

JANET N. ABRAMOVITZ. Investing in Biological Diversity. US Research and Conservation Efforts in Developing Coun- tries. World Resources Institute, 1709 New York Avenue NW, Washington D C 20006, USA. 1991. ISBN 0-915825- 63-5.

In 1990, the Centre for International Development and Environment of the World Resources Institute conducted a survey of US-based organizations to solicit data on the biological diversity research and conservation activities they had undertaken in developing countries in 1989. Included in the survey were the US government, charitable foundations, non-governmental organizations, universities, muse- ums, botanical gardens, and zoos. The data collected were compared with the data from a survey of 1987 activities also conducted by the WRI Centre.

In all. 1,093 projects active in 127 developing countries in 1989 were analysed. This $62.9 million invested by the US in developing countries represents a 68% increase over funding in 1987 ($37.5 million for 873 projects).

The US government and charitable foundations each contributed slightly over one third of the total funding. One striking finding was the seven-fold increase in biodiversity investments by foundations in the two years since the last study.

Thirty-eight per cent of all funds were spent on projects focused primarily on research. Projects concerned with site and species management received 25%, with most of that spent on areas rather than single species. Fifteen per cent went for institutional strengthening. 11 % for policy planning and analysis. and 8% for education and technical training. US institutions carried out 72% of the total funding; institutions based in developing countries implemented 23%.

Projects in Latin America received 68% of the total funding; Africa, 17%: and Asia and Oceania together, 10%. Projects that were global or multiregional in scale received 6%. The ten countries with the most project funding together received half of all the US biodiversity investments in 1989. In 1987. only seven countries received more than $1 million dollars in project funding. compared with 13 in 1989. Investments on a per hectare basis and to countries identified by others as priorities for biodiversity conservation were also analysed (e.g. hotspots. megadiversity). Despite the sizeable increase in funding witnessed in 1989. the large majority of countries received less than $5 per 1,000 hectares for biodiversity research and conservation.

Compared to the amounts devoted to such other worthy endeavours as mapping the human genome ($ billion) and measured against the pressing need to conserve the planet's biological wealth for the benefit of current and future generations, the total amount invested by the US in global diversity - $62.9 million in 1989 - is still very small.

T.H.R. HALL

Forestry research: a mandate for change. National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington D.C.. U.S.A. 1990. 84pp. pbk. US$14.95 'Although much good research is now in progress within the forestry research community, in aggregate, forestry

research is inadequate to meet society's needs. Forestry research must improve in quality and at the same time broaden its scope if social issues are to be addressed adequately.'

This quotation from the Executive Summary of this report indicates the reason for establishing a Forestry Research Committee within the politically and scientifically powerful National Academy of Science of the United States: it also encapsulates the findings of the Committee which was made up of thirteen eminent academics and one manager of research in a major industrial forestry company. The National Academy also organized a national workshop of eminent scientists and forest policymakers and practitioners to review the needs of research and the details of their deliberations are included in an Appendix to the main report. The Committee's comments and recom- mendatons were based on the American situation and addressed to American authorities but they have equal relevance to all forested countries having or wishing to have any research capability.

The Committee recognized six major issues affecting society at present: - interaction of forests and climate; loss of biological diversity: growing demands for wood and wood products: increasing demand for preservation of 'pris- tine' areas: sustainable production of wood products integrated with all the other products and services obtained from forests; and maintenance of the health of forests nationally and globally.

Five broad research areas need to be strengthened:- biology of forest organisms: ecosystem function and management; human-forest interactions: wood as a raw material: and international trade. competition and cooperation. These include the research needed to address current and future biological, environmental and social issues in forestry and the related management of renewable natural resources. The report considers each of these areas in detail and identifies several specific basic research needs in each.

The Committee drew several conclusions and made recommendations that largely refer to increasing the size and sources of research funds: - establish a National Forestry Research Council with representation from government agencies. industry, conservation organizations and academia: encourage conservation groups and other non- governmental organizations to support teaching and research more actively: provide a vastly enlianced competi- tive funding mechanism; create centres of research for each of the main topics: strengthen and broaden the teaching of forestry to attract a wider array of students and sciences; increase the quality of forestry research by opening it to the wider scientific community; enhance collaboration between research and line management; establish long-term grants for long-term research topics; establish graduate fellow- ships for all areas of forest and environmental sciences; and develop a cadre of forest and related scientists equipped to solve local and global problems.

The Committee recognized that demands for increased research support must be seen in the light of competition from other sciences and topics in natural resources. Never- theless the place of forests in global survival and human

60 Book Reviews

welfare justifies the strongest claims for additional support for both basic and allied research that will lead to the wise management of the world's resources. The report is pene- trating in its analysis, well written and attractively presented. It will be of considerable interest to all those concerned with the policy and management of forests and the management and conduct of research.

J.BURLEY

Managing global genetic resources - forest trees. National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington DC. USA. 1991 228pp. Hardbound, 16 X 23.5cm; many tables and figures; price £12.00 or $20.00. ISBN 0 309 04034 5.

This timely and accessible book is the fruit of efforts by the National Research Council's Committee on Managing Global Genetic Resources. It is one of a series of five reports published by this committee or groups commissioned by it; the others focus on the global resources of crop plants, livestock, and fish and shellfish, and on the ,

USA's National Plant Germplasm System. The Forest Genetic Resources Work Group, chaired by Gene Namkoong and comprising also Kamal Bawa, Jeff Burley and Susan Shen, were asked to

address the uses and status of forest tree genetic resources globally; address in situ and ex situ conservation methods; assess current international, regional and national activities in forest tree germplasm conservation; identify constraints to germplasm conservation, including coordination, information dissemination, and training; present a global strategy for conserving and managing forest tree genetic resources.

The Group drew on the services of 20 other experts in the compilation of this report, and their contributions have been edited into a coherent and well-presented whole.

The six chapters are structured to follow the Group's mandate. The first two provide a general introduction to the issues; Chapters 3 and 4 are excellent summaries of the structure of genetic variation in forest trees, and the means by which these genetic resources may be conserved and managed. Chapter 5 describes the institutions active in forest genetic resource conservation, and Chapter 6 proposes the means by which global cooperation in forest tree genetic resource conservation might be realised: the Council suggests establishment or designation of an international institution to lead and coordinate activities. These chapters are preceded by an executive summary. and followed by appendices which list the forest tree species included in breeding or testing programmes (400 in total), threatened provenances or species (524, of which 209 are not known to be included in conservation programmes), and agencies providing tree seed for research purposes.

The pressures on forest genetic resources, especially those in the tropics, have been described exhaustively elsewhere. It is probably more useful here to draw attention to the Group's recommendations:

- expand the species included in site and ex situ conservation programmes by at least a factor of ten;

- develop the strategies and methodologies to accomplish such an expansion;

- increase coordinated efforts for the exploration, collection and evaluation of the genetic resources of species, regardless of their immediate value;

- double, at least, the number of species of potential value included in testing and breeding programmes;

- establish and maintain a global database on the status of tree genetic resources:

- increase research activities focused on population structure and taxonomy, particularly of tropical species, and on the consequences of climate change and pollution;

- strengthen the capacities of national and regional institutions, and integrate them more closely with other forest management and conservation programmes;

- establish or designate an international lead and coordi- nating agency;

- provide adequate staff and financial resources to ensure that such agencies are effective.

One could hardly fault these conclusions. Of more concern is the extent to which resources will be made available to give them substance, and the prospects of institutional cooperation rather than competition in pursuit of those funds which are forthcoming. The present unseemly scrab- bling for position in the CGIAR's forest-related initiative reminds one that the world's forest genetic resources are as much under threat from our own self-interest as from the 'causes of forest tree loss' described in this book.

PETER KANOWSKI

ALEMNEH DEJENE and JOSE OLIVARES. Integrating Envi- ronmental Issues znto a Strategy for Sustainable Agricultural Developnzent. The Case of Mozambique. World Bank Tech- nical Paper 146. World Bank Publications, PO Box 4247- 8619, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania 19170-8619, USA. 1991. ISBN 08213.

The civil war and the subsequent displacement of 2 million people is currently the key environmental problem in Mozambique. The displaced population is concentrated near the major towns of the coastal region and safe rural areas, thus creating severe shortages of land in those areas, increasing the demand for woodfuel and fishery resources, and threatening the mangroves. One of the most significant national environmental threats is the disruption of the mangrove ecosystem (Rhizophora mucronata, Cerlops tagal, Avicennia marina and Lumnitzera racemosa) and its associated impact on shrimp and prawn production. There are two main threats to the mangrove forests. Mangroves are being felled for fuel, the construction of boats and houses near the coastal towns where there is a shortage of fuelwood. The second threat arises from the changes in salinity levels due to the construction of large dams for hydropower and irrigation purposes. With the construction of the Cab- ora Bassa Dam, there is an increase in the salt water content in the lagoons where the mangroves occur and fewer water born nutrients from the Zambesi River. The clearing of mangroves for wood combined with the increased

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (l), 1992 61

salinity and lower mineral nutrient status in the lagoons has had an adverse effect on the shrimp population.

Mangroves are a natural renewable resource which, if properly managed, can be exploited on the principles of sustained yield. The importance of mangroves to the Mozambique economy emphasizes the urgency to develop a national plan for mangrove conservation and development which would identify areas for sustainable uses and preservation and assess the significance of mangroves in relation to water flow. genetic diversity, sedimentary stability, marine species reproduction and migration and nursery areas for both aquatic and terrestrial life.

Woodfuel is severely lacking around the major cities and safer rural areas and is the major cause of the depletion of forest resources. Woodfuel projects initiated around Maputo. Beira and Nampula should be intensified and the woodfuel demand in the rural areas could best be met from agroforestry projects that involve the local people. The low stumpage fees for woodfuel and high quality timber encourage deforestation. Reasonable stumpage fees should be set to encourage better utilization and management of forest resources.

THOMAS H. R. HALL

N. M. COLLINS, J. A. SAYER, and T. C. WHITMORE (Eds.). The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests. Asia and the Paclfic. Macmillan Press Ltd, Stockton House, 1 Mel- bourne Place, London WC2B 4LF. 1991. £65.00. ISBN 0- 333-53992-3.

The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests. Asia and the Pacific is the first in a series of three intended to provide a factual basis to the world forest conservation debate. This atlas covering Asia and the Pacific is divided into two sections. In the first part - called the Issues - the characteristics of the forest, the social and economic structures and the land use systems of the different countries of the region are described. Within each chapter the forest policies, attitudes towards conservation and exploitation are examined and discussed to include national parks, sustained yield initiatives and Tropical Action Plan involvement. Although these chapters have a predominantly conservation bias, they are well balanced and informed, examining in detail the interaction of forest exploitation with the extremely complicated ecosystem of the rain forest. The extensive background information presented is clear evidence of the author's local knowledge.

The second part - entitled Country Studies - contains a series of 25 maps of the 18 countries of the region which delineates the different types of forest, conservation areas existing and proposed, and land use. The detail on these maps is augmented by short essays on specific aspects of the forests of the country, the accompanying coloured illustrations being of the highest quality, dramatically emphasizing the issues under review, for example the great forest fires of Borneo 1982-3.

The atlas provides a comprehensive reference guide to the rain forests of Asia and the Pacific from India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka through Malaysia and Indonesia to Queensland. The extent of the destruction and degradation of the rain forest as well as areas which have been pro-

tected are documented up to 1990. The comprehensive treatment of the subject is not usually obtainable in such a well written and beautifully illustrated manner in one volume and has to be regarded as an indispensible reference as well as essential reading.

It is impossible not to be enthusiastic over this title. For far too long the exploitation of the rain forest has been a highly emotive subject which has been used by environmentalists using half truths for self aggrandisement. Three biologists (a forester, an ecologist and a botanist) have built up a massive collection of facts on the ecology and people of the rain forests of the region and discussed the actions necessary to ensure their conservation.

'The data presented in the text and maps that make up this atlas are a selection based on editorial discretion and the limitation of scale and design. The maps have been compiled using the latest computer technology, a Geo- graphic Information System (GIS). The files on which this atlas is based are held at the World Conservation Monitor- ing Centre in Cambridge. UK and IUCN will be pleased to collaborate with organisations wishing to apply the data in the interest of natural resource conservations.'

It would be churlish not to acknowledge the contribution of the publishers and the printers and the financial ;L&- tance provided by the British Petroleum Company plc.

THOMAS H. R. HALL

J. ILIC. CSIRO Atlas of Hardwoods. Springer-Verlag, Post- fach 105280, D-6900 Heidelberg 1, Germany. 1991. 525pp. Hardback, DM378. ISBN No 3-540-53242-0.

This is a book of photomicrographs of different hardwoods in the CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia, wood collection. With 467 pages having 16 or 20 prints to a page, there is a total of 7,704 prints; it is little wonder it is the price it is! There is an index but apart from one page each of references and acknowledgements there are just two pages of text. The photomicrographs are in two sections, the so- called macro and micro atlases. The macro atlas illustrates the microtomed end-grain surface, magnified 6.5 times, of 1284 species of wood. All are in colour, though the colour has only a passing resemblance to the colour of the wood, because each sample was boiled to make it suitable for cutting. The micro atlas comprises half-tone photomicrographs, 54 X 40mm in size, of transverse, tangential and radial sections, each at X25 magnification, and, for most, an additional radial section at X100 magnification, of 1604 species of wood. Thus there are some 320 species included in the micro atlas which do not appear in the macro atlas, though each follows the same sequence, with families and genera within families in alphabetical order; thus it is an easy matter to compare macro and micro end grain pictures of a timber species.

The standard of the photomicrographs and their reproduction is generally good and it is only the higher powered (XlOO) radial photographs which sometimes leave something to be desired. They are included to show the raylves- sel pitting but this is not always clear and the focus is not always as crisp as might have been wished. The macro, end- grain surfaces have reproduced well: inevitably, there are problems, e.g. with Ilex aquifolium and Scorodocarpus

62 Book Reviews

borneensis, but more puzzling are the apparent number markings which mar the prints of Reinwardtiodendron celebicum, Turraeanthus africanus (incidentally spelt incor- rectly), Olinia cymosa and others, and what appear to be knife marks occur on Cryptocarya invasiorum, Dipteryx odorata and Gironniera subaequalis. Consistency might have been expected in the orientation of the prints of the transverse sections; thus some are positioned so that growth is towards the top of the page and in others towards the bottom: see, for example, species of Quercus in both the macro and micro atlases. There are too many spelling mistakes - Melanochylia, Rhus typhinia, Ilex aquifoluim, Euonymus europeaus, Shorea leavis and others, which are commonly repeated in both the macro and micro atlases and in the index; in the 27 entries under Shorea in the index, there are no fewer than eight errors - it suggests a lack of attention to detail.

What is the purpose of such a book? It is to provide an authentic source for comparison of samples for identification. Ideally this is done with an authenticated wood sample but such material is available in a few places only and ,

photomicrographs provide a convenient, compact and very much cheaper alternative. This book follows others of a like kind, most notably those issued from Princes Risbor- ough in 1953 and 1978. It is more comprehensive than the Princes Risborough atlases and as might be expected, considering its origin. has particularly good coverage of South- east Asian, Pacific islands and Australian timbers; it also includes many species from the Northern temperate forests, Africa and America but there are some surprising omissions of important commercial timbers, such as Castanea sativa, European sweet chestnut, Juglans regia and J. nigra, European and American black walnuts respectively, and, from Africa such important woods as Aucoumea klaineana, gaboon or okoume, Cylicodiscus gabunensis, okan, species of Guibourtia prdducing such woods as bubinga. mutCnyC and ovangkol, species of Aningeria, Nesogordonia papaver- ifera, danta, species of Tieghemella, makork, and so on.

But the apparent comprehensive character of the atlases warrants closer examination. Thus many genera are represented by numerous species, Canarium and Dipterocarpus by eleven each and Diospyros by fourteen, and the implica- tion is that species can be individually recognised from the structure of their wood; to do so in most cases would be quite wrong. A s a rule, woods can be identified only to the level of a genus or sometimes, as in a large genus such as Shorea, to groups within the genus; only exceptionally is it possible to identify individual species when there are several in a genus. This needs to be made clear in such a publication as otherwise the less well informed could assume a precision of determination which is not justified. Arguably, too, it means that many of the prints are unnecessary and, with care in selection, the number and no doubt cost could have been reduced. Such a publication is of value only if it is used and while today DM378 (say £130) is not excessive for such a book, if this price had been lower, without significantly detracting from usefulness, it is likely the atlas would have appeared on more bookshelves.

J. BRAZIER

P. G. JARVIS (Ed.). Agroforestry: Principles and Practices. Elsevier Science Publishers, PO Box 1991, IOOOBZ Amster- dam, Netherlands: or Elsevier Science Publishing Co. Inc., PO Box 882, Madison Square Station, New York NY 10159, USA. 1991. viii+356pp. US$138.501 Dfl.270.00. ISBN 0-444-89376-8.

This book, reprinted from a special issue of Forest Ecology and Management (Vol 45, 1991), contains most of the papers presented at an international conference held at Edinburgh in July, 1989. There are 26 papers, ranging in scope and quality from excellent reviews of microclimatic and soil-plant interactions by international experts, to descriptions of localised agroforestry practices. Overall it contains more on principles than practice. There are many strong contributions from an ecological perspective and several papers describing economic approaches but much less space is given to the integration of social factors that are so vital to the success of agroforestry development. The collection of papers from temperate and tropical countries in the same volume is valuable and serves to highlight that while the motivation for engaging in agroforestry is often very different. there is much common ground in the ecological processes underpinning productivity and sustainability.

Both atmospheric and soil interactions receive fairly full and up-to-date coverage, while there are only three specific papers directed at animal interactions. Perhaps the most significant contribution to the general agroforestry literature is the treatment of ecophysiological interactions based largely on research led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics. ICRISAT, (Monteith et al. and Ong et al.). Although there is a focus on hedgerow intercropping with fast growing exotic species on alfisols in the dry tropics, which clearly does not have much scope for practical application. the analytical approach adopted has general relevance and is supported by several other papers on shelter and pasture productivity under agroforestry in temperate conditions. The general review of soil-plant interactions (Szott et al.) updates and develops the earlier review from the same North Carolina stable by Pedro Sanchez in 1987 (in Agroforestry: a decade of development edited by Stepler and Nair, ICRAF, Nairobi) and is followed by detailed experimental work on mycorrhizal inoculation, litter decomposition and long-term nutrient and carbon cycling. There is surprisingly little on biological nitrogen fixation by woody legumes.

On the more practical side there are reviews of agroforestry experience at national (New Zealand and Soma- lia), regional (north-eastern Nigeria, Gujarat, and the Brazilian Amazon) and local (Sri Lanka. Philippines and Bangladesh) levels. These vary in their detail and scope and several mix discussion of research trials with analysis of practices adopted by farmers. The baseline study of Kandyan forest gardens in Sri Lanka is the only detailed treatment of a traditional agroforestry practice. There are descriptions of spreadsheet models for economic analysis and multiple objective linear programming used for decision support, but social factors are treated quantitatively in only one paper on socio-economic evaluation of agroforestry in Orissa, India. While local knowledge and extension are incorporated in a paper on rapid rural appraisal


and are touched upon in some of the more practical evalua- tions, the human element receives less attention than the title of the book leads one to expect.

In the main the content and presentation of material is concise and of a very high standard but the editorial policy appears to have been relaxed in terms of the scientific import and rigour of one or two more practically orientated papers. There are cases where data are presented without adequate reference to how they were obtained and others where excessive tabulated and diagrammatic information is presented, not all of which is germane or fully interpretable. The subject index has a rather peculiar classification of subject headings and is neither complete nor useful.

As a collection of scientific papers on soil and atmospheric interactions in agroforestry by internationally renowned authors, several of whom have since joined the new staff team at the International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), this is a valuable publication that sets the scene for mainstream ecological research in agroforestry in the 1990s. This will proceed with ICRAF integrated in the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and agroforestry well established as a subject focus by research institutes and funding bodies. This volume is a welcome landmark in the development of the subject because it is largely based on data collected from agroforestry systems, as opposed to previous international reviews that have been dominated by extrapolation from agriculture and forestry and the statement of hypotheses and intentions. It will be most useful for research workers and postgraduate students but extension staff and undergraduate students will also find the more practical papers both accessible and useful.

F. L. SINCLAIR

K. W. CREMER (Ed.). Trees for Rural Australia. Inkata Press Proprietary Ltd, Melbourne, Australia. 1990. ISBN 0-909605-653.

Trees for Rural Australia is a delightful book which aims to help those with a responsibility for the land establish and care for trees. It has a clear place on library shelves as it contains writings by 34 authors covering the basics of management of trees on farms with each leading the reader to more intensive study by listing further reading. But the book is much more than another text. It is designed for browsing and skimming as well as careful study. It contains numerous excellent and attractive photographs with sufficient description to permit their standing alone, without reference from supporting text. Indeed the photographs are sometimes so separate from the relevant text that browsing is essential to appreciate the coverage fully. Thus Trees for Rural Australia will sit well on coffee tables and in consultancy rooms as well as in libraries.

The book seeks to develop motivation for planting trees on farms by outlining the rationale for having trees and gives advice on tree cultivation and usage. It updates Brown and Hall's Growing Trees on Australian Farms published in 1968 and long out of print. Many of the photographs and figures used in the original publication are reproduced again.

The coverage is comprehensive. The cultural sections include seed and nursery operations, planting and tending. protection, thinning and harvesting, and many forestry orientated aspects of agroforestry including the use of trees for shade, shelter and fodder, for the control of erosion, salinity and soil acidity and for generating income. There is coverage of the use of natural woodlands and, most impor- tantly, sections on farm planning and economics. With so extensive a coverage and with each section complete in itself there is necessarily some repetition but this is never conspicuous. The basic scientific coverage is supplemented with some sections of laudable depth and all with careful outlines of field application of the principles. Most chapters are well written. some with quite elegant authority and the editor has done an excellent and clever job in combining the expertise of so many writers. However it would have been improved by having the authors listed at the start of each chapter as well as in the Table of Contents.

One problem is the arrangement of the chapters. The first appeals to Australians' nobler instincts to plant trees but then any other rationale for using trees is hidden away until chapter 24 and later. One wonders why the arrangement used by Brown and Hall was not repeated. Those authors used the early chapters to establish the need for trees and the need for planning before outlining cultural practices. The same sequence would have been advanta- geous here.

Inevitably in so comprehensive a book there are some minor omissions. The importance of the genetic quality of planting stock and the use of high quality clones receives little emphasis. Also whilst the uses and requirements of some 230 species are summarized and the use of melaleucas to produce tea tree oil is noted there are no description of the important species so used (M. alternifolia and linariifo- lia). An introductory account of the use of computerized databases and models to assist planning might also have been useful.

The book emphasizes the complexity of planting trees for use on farms and frequently indicates to the reader the need for guidance. This leads to an anticipation that the final chapter entitled 'Help' will detail the assistance available to potential planters. Instead the coverage is sketchy with as much emphasis on videos and pamphlets as on personal guidance. Only eleven contacts are given. all as Post Office Box numbers, without street addresses or telephone numbers. Eight of the eleven are offices of Greening Australia and ten, in a book intended for rural Australia, are in capital cities. Yet Australia abounds with professionals able to help. State departments with offices in most country towns include Agriculture, Soil Conservation, Forestry, and National Parks and there are professional consultants and organizations such as the Australian Forest Development Institute (now Australian Forest Growers) readily available.

But a failure to indicate where to go for advice should not detract from the general excellence. The comprehensive coverage of techniques and rationale allied with the photographs make this an excellent reference book for farmers, teachers at all levels, students, extension officers and consultants. It could be used with advantage as a basic text for courses on agroforestry and the quality of the production and the illustrations make the book an excellent

64 Book Reviews

present for anyone with a love of the Australian landscape and a concern for landcare.

MIKE SLEE

BROWN, A. G. and HALL. N. 1968. Growing trees on Australian Farms. Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra. 396 pp.

J. and K. MACKINNON, G. CHILD, J. THORSELL. Managing Protected Areas in the Tropics. IUCN Publications Services Unit, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL. 1986. ISBN 2-88032-808-X.

We find from this book that there are now 1,420 protected areas in the tropics, covering some 174 million ha. In some the protection is notional only and others present serious management problems. This book results from the management workshop held at the World Congress on National Parks in Bali in 1982, as an attempt to provide guidance for managers and decision-makers. A particular theme that runs through it is the attempt to move from the old view of ,

protected areas in which people are not considered a natural part, to the current integration of protected areas into regional land-use programmes in which concern for local people is central.

The book is divided into three parts: 'Part A - The Basis for Establishing Protected Areas' covers site selection, as well as legal and administrative status. 'Part B - Winning Support for Protected Areas' covers public relations and land-use programmes and contains an interesting chapter on 'Local People and Protected Areas'. 'Part C - Managing Protected Areas' covers a wide range of management issues. The book will undoubtably be useful, as little else on this topic is available. Particularly interesting are the large number of concrete examples and photographs illustrating particular management problems and successes. However, it is a lost opportunity that the book is so animal-oriented. The management of rare plant species is hardly touched on and the problems of invasive plants only briefly sketched out, but forestry is mentioned in passing (pp. 78-79), as is the harvesting of plant products (pp. 174-175).

Q. C. B. CRONK

R. WORRELL. Trees and the Treasury. Valuing Forests for Society. World Wide Fund for Nature, Panda House, Way- side Park, Godalming, Surrey GU7 1XR. 1992. £5.00. ISBN 0-94761358-7.

This fairly slim volume of 40 A4 pages was commissioned by the World Wide Fund for Nature, UK, and is sub-titled 'Forestry, economics, decision-making and the environment.' It is a review of current practice and thinking on the assessment of benefits and costs in forestry; including non-market benefits, both present and future. The problems associated with discounting and the opinions of different authorities are clearly set out, as are the problems of attaching reliable values t o matters such as nature conservation and recreation. The use of environmental impact assessment, the limitations of the 'sustainable development' approach, and implications for silviculture are also discussed.

The use of the word 'Treasury' in the title is justified by the author as, in the final analysis, it is the Treasury which needs to be persuaded of the benefits arising from forestry.

The author does not purport to be an economist, although bearing the same name as one of the authors of a book on a similar subject (Sinden and Worrell, 1979). Assistance from Colin Price, Roy Lorrain-Smith, David Pearce, and others is acknowledged, and their names are prominent in the list of references. Examples of forestry in Scotland indicate that the author has a special interest in that country.

This report appears to have been written to explain to conservationists and others who are not forest economists what the problems and possible answers are: and it achieves this objective fairly clearly. The presentation could have been improved slightly. Too much use is made of footnotes, which are sometimes difficult to find and are in exceedingly small print; and more use might have been made of diagrams or drawings. There are a few small typing errors and omissions. The reference to Helliwell 1967 on page 22 is not covered in the references at the end: and there are more up-to-date references for this work. Authors such as Sinden and Worrell are not mentioned.

One or two statements, e.g. (p. 23) 'Environmentally adjusted national income accounts aim to demonstrate how changes in the environment affect measures of social welfare such as GNP,' require further explanation to be meaningful.

However, the report appears to pick up all the essential elements of the argument and to point readers towards solutions - 'increasingly differential grant systems'; greater use of uneven-aged forestry; more genuinely multi-purpose plantations; 'a new set of economic targets': and use of a range of economic tools.

If this book is read by those with an interest in the future development of forestry it will provide a useful basis from which to move forward, and I commend it to all such people. It is well worth the price.

D. R. HELLIWELL

SINDEN. J. A. and WORRELL, A. C. 1979. Unpriced values. Deci- sions without marketprices. John Wiley, New York.

R. C. HOSIE. Native Trees of Canada. (8th Edition) Fitzhenry and Whiteside Ltd, 198 Allstate Parkway, Markham, Ontario, L3R 4T8 in cooperation with Canadian Forestry Service (now Forestry Canada), 1990. 380pp, Illus. $21.95CAN.

J. LAURIAULT. Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada. Fitzhenry and Whiteside Ltd, 198 Allstate Parkway, Markham, Ontario, L3R 4T8 in cooperation with National Museum of Natural Sciences, 1989. $25.00CAN.

The first edition of Native Trees of Canada was published in 1917 and used line drawings to illustrate botanical features. In 1949, the format for the 4th edition was changed and line drawings were replaced by black and white photographs. The distinctive 4th edition format was retained in successive editions and became a sort of hallmark that was appreciated by generations of foresters throughout the world.


R. C. Hosie rewrote the text for the 7th edition, published in 1969. He also replaced and even increased the number of photographs, modified the range maps. added colour, new identification keys and printed Prof Stan Rowes's map of 'Forest Regions of Canada' on the inside cover. But the successful format of earlier editions was essentially retained.

Apart from a few changes, such as changing the cover and background colour schemes, the 8th edition is more or less a reprint of the 7th edition which, I suspect, was done to replenish dwindling stocks. Although the difference between 7th and 8th editions is largely cosmetic, substitut- ing a pastel green for the harsh orange background for plates and silhouettes, and changing the paper from a high- gloss to matt finish, has made it even more attractive - and easier on the eyes.

While never intended to be an authoritative taxonomic treatise, this and successive editions will continue to be the standard mainstream reference on Canadian trees. One weakness lies in the habitat notes and range maps which refer only to the distribution of a tree species within Cana- da's borders. Hopefully, future editions will convey a better picture of a species' range and importance in North Ameri- ca. Most of the photographic illustrations are of good quality and very useful aids. Some photographs are not very useful: firstly because they are black and white; secondly, because too many were crammed onto a plate - which inevitably led to problems with reduction; and, thirdly, because the poor micro-photographic techniques resulted in considerable loss of detail so that important details resemble little more than a collage of mottled grey blobs. Hopefully, such problems will be addressed in future editions of this classic reference on Canadian trees.

Although lacking the detailed description of trees in Native Trees of Canada, Lauriault's book is better in many respects simply because he has many interesting historical, economic. and medical comments on each species. The book is also written in a style that is as captivating as it is informative. The text for each species is supported by beautiful, simple and effective line drawings by Marcel Jomphe and Susan Laurie-Bourque. The author suggests colouring in the drawings to reinforce the learning experience. Species are grouped according to their leaf arrangements with a series of illustration in four tables serving as a basic key which works well for identifying broadleaves in summer. Unfortunately, there is no key for identifying trees in winter and so novices are left to their own devices. Still, he provides ample detail to make it possible to identify most species from twigs collected in winter.

The range maps give some indication of a species distribution in Canada and some parts of the USA (i.e., in eastern Alaska and south to a latitude from northern California to North Carolina). The author gives the origin and meaning of Latin names for each species - a useful mnemonic feature which is not done nearly enough in books of this sort.

The historical anecdotes are excellent from a Canadian viewpoint, less so from an international perspective. For example, on the Biblical reference to willow in Babylon (Psalm 137:l-2) I'm not sure I would refer to it as a legend; nor is it strictly factual that it was indeed Popolus euphrati- ca, notwithstanding Linnaeus' error in referring to it as a

willow. However, unless some new evidence has come to light recently the Babylon (weeping) willow is represented by a single male clone and, contrary to Lauriault's statement, there is no female clone of this species. In the case of another willow, shining willow (Salix lucida), which the author says is good for cultivating hedges, I suspect it is its conspecific European cousin the bayleaf willow (Salix pen- tundra) - that landscapers are so fond of.

There are some inconsistencies throughout the text. For example, in one case Archibald Menzies is referred to as an Irish scientist. in another as an Irish naturalist, and in the nomenclatural notes on Arbutus, as a Scottish naturalist. Actually. he was born in Lanarkshire and was the ship- board surgeon with additional duties as a botanist who accompanied Capt George Vancouver on his voyages along the west Coast of North America in the late 18th century. Similarly, David Douglas is also referred to as both an Irish and Scottish botanist. Douglas' contribution to plant introduction to Europe is such that many foresters, botanists and horticulturists know he was born in Scone, Scotland, and was a gardener at the Glasgow Botanic Garden where his talents earned him the patronage of Sir William Hook- er. It was Sir William who recommended him to The Royal Horticultural Society which sent Douglas on one of the most famous plant collecting expeditions of all time. Tragi- cally, Douglas was killed at the age of 36 by natives in the Hawaiian Islands. Lauriault labels Engelmann as an American of German descent. More to the point Engel- mann emigrated from Germany to America and, of course, became a respected plant scientist. On the whole, however, such obvious slips of the pen, including some allusions to folk medicine, are not numerous and certainly do not detract from this delightful and very useful identification guide.

For those with a love of the forest environment and a desire to know its trees better, Lauiault's book is exceptionally user-friendly, as they say nowadays. And, although it is a book about Canadian trees, its rich folklore has universal appeal.

ALEXANDER ROBERTSON

MALCOLM COE and HENK BEENTJE, Illus. ROSEMARY WISE A Field Guide to the Acacias of Kenya. Oxford University Press, Oxford. UK. 1991. 148 pp. Price £14.95. ISBN 0-19- 858410-5.

Books for identifying trees in the African savannas, that are readily available, are limited, and those that attempt to key out the dominant genus Acacia accurately are even more scarce. This beautifully illustrated field guide fills just that role in Kenya, and is very welcome. This is especially so as it provides a means of identifying the trees based on habit, bark, armature and leaf characters and not solely on the diagnostic reproductive features which are absent for a t least half the year. The difficulty is that many Acacias are very variable in these characters.

The book gives a' brief and informative introduction to the ecology and distribution of the genus in Africa. At present there are around 134 African species, including in the last decade, five new species from the Horn of Africa, with 43 species in Kenya including two endemic taxa. The

66 Book Reviews

characters used for identification in the keys are succinctly described and illustrated. Apart from the primary features such as spines and prickles and the floral and fruit characters, glands on the leaves and involucels (bracts on the inflorescence stalk) are also included. For studying the latter two, one is best armed with a hand lens.

Both authors have had a long association with the ecology and vegetation of Kenya, and their keys appear to work well, with confirmation left to the more detailed species descriptions and black and white illustrations which follow. It is a detailed field guide carrying almost as much information as a formal Flora treatment.

The fine illustrations are exceptionally well produced and on the whole the species descriptions are precise and read- able, with a limited number of botanical terms which are clearly explained in the glossary. The species descriptions are brief and restricted to a single well-spaced page. Local names are provided but synonymy left out. Species distributions are broad, but personally I would prefer a single map showing the different Flora divisions or geographical regions which could be referred to in each species description.

With regard to the species descriptions, a number of '

typographical and taxonomic omissions occur under related subspecies and varieties. The related subspecies of A. abyssinica, subsp. abyssinica is omitted. A. nilotica has seven other subspecies not five. A. tortilis subsp. heteracan- tha does not have two varieties but A . tortilis subsp. spirocarpa does, and A. tortilis subsp. tortilis has been omitted. Some recent name changes are also discussed, such as A. albida now beingqlaced into Faidherbia, but no mention is made of A. oerfota which has been the accepted name for A . nubica in the most recent African Floras.'

Most Acacia species are restricted to dry lowland habitats, but a number of species extend into the highland areas or are even restricted there ( A . abyssinica). Altitude can help in identifica,tion and is generally provided, though omitted for A. bussei. Sometimes it is precisely defined, as with A. elatior 'with a maximum of 75m', but in the distribution it is said to occur around Lodwar (500m). Other altitude ranges are broad, for instance A. tortilis subsp. spirocarpa is said to vary from 200 to 1650m, but it can be found, and is documented, over 2000m in the Cherangani hills.

There are a number of inconsistencies between the species descriptions and the illustrations, glands being said to be absent on the rachis and petiole of the leaf and yet clearly present in the drawings and on herbarium specimens (for instance A. ogadensis, A, thomasii, A. paolii, A. nubica, and A. hamulosa). The involucel is another character which has taxonomic significance, especially its position on the inflorescence stalk, and while it is found on all Acacias with a capitate inflorescence, it is also found on A. bussei.

Overall this practical field guide is very useful and informative. As a reasonably priced softback it is highly recommended for anyone interested in the Kenyan flora. As an essential reference work, hopefully it will be available at a lower price in Kenya.

C. W. FAGG

1 Hunde in Thulin, Opera Botanica 1983, .Thulin & Hunde in Flora Ethiopia 1990, Hassan and Styles in A Conspectus of Somali Acacias 1990.

JULES J. A. JANSSEN. Mechanical Properties of Bamboo. Kluwer Academic Publishers, P O Box 989, 3300 A Z Dor- drecht, Netherlands. 1991. 134pp. Price Df195.00. US$52.00, £32.50. ISBN 0792312600.

This is a small book which consists of a series of summaries of papers written on the properties of bamboos. It is, in essence, a collection of lengthy and comprehensive abstracts of these papers.

The papers are grouped into chapters under the following headings: growth and anatomy; thermal expansion; moisture content and mass per volume; chemistry; elastic- ity; bending; compression; shear; tension; torsion and relations between properties. The book's scope, therefore, is wider than would appear from the title. Each paper is sum- marised under the headings: keyword, subject, source and results.

Apart from a short preface, a list of symbols. author and keyword indexes and a list of 37 references, no text exists other than the summaries.

It should provide a useful source of information presented in an easily accessible form. which describes the research which has been carried out on bamboo. As it is selective it has not covered the whole literature range but it should prove particularly useful to people working on bamboos who do not have access to good library facilities. It could also be of use t o industries and other users of bamboo who need a general summary of the main research which has been done on bamboos.

R. PLUMPTRE

G. C. MATTHECK. Trees - The Mechanical Design. Springer- Verlag, Postfach 105280. D-6900 Heidelberg 1, Germany. 1991. xi+l21pp. pbk. DM48.00. ISBN 3-540-54276-0.

This is a unique book, impossible to classify. It is not a text- book but rather a personal vision of how trees respond to nfechanical stress. After a brief introduction into simple mechanics and a discussion of how trees grow the main part of the book consists of 95 case studies of actual trees. These are presented as attractive line drawings which illustrate, much more clearly than photographs would, the points the author is making. The whole style is so informal that it sounds as if D r Mattheck himself was guiding you through the pages and showing you the incredible way in which nature adapts itself.

The idea that trees grow in a manner which attempts to keep surface stresses uniform goes back to Metzger (1893), who showed that the diameter of spruce trees was related to the cube root of the distance from the top of the tree. Other workers such as Hall (1967) and Leiser and Kemper (1973) have shown stress to be constant in the outer layers of the bent stems of red pine and broadleaved saplings respectively. Measurements of stem shape made in Sitka spruce plots by the Forestry Commission support the notion that trees d o indeed grow in this way. Other workers such as Petty and Worrell (1981), Petty and Swain (1985) and Galinski (1989) have assumed that the constant stress rule holds in their calculations of the factors which influence snow and wind damage in conifers. Now Dr,Mattheck gives us very clear visual evidence that trees behave in this

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 ( l ) , 1992 67

way. The sheer number of illustrations and examples blud- geons you into submission; if you are not convinced by the end you must be wearing a crash helmet. You have to be convinced that plants respond to contact stress by the ele- phant foot branch in Singapore Botanic Gardens (page 78) or to wind stress by the modified stem growth of a pair of trees when they are fused together by one of their branches (page 89). Some of the suggestions of why trees behave the way they do are more speculative, such as the reasons for spiral growth and root delamination. However, all the suggestions are plausible and at least put our speculation in a proper scientific framework rather than the pseudo-science of some earlier workers.

Dr Mattheck is correct in his primary assertion that trees grow adaptively to the mechanical stresses imposed on them. However, even though I am not a physiologist, I do feel he tends to underestimate the importance of other 'forces' such as phototropism and geotropism in order to make his point. Having said that, I think that this book has a very important message. It is no longer acceptable, when modelling and attempting to understand tree growth, to forget the influence of mechanical stresses due to wind loading, gravity or contact with another body. Furthermore, I also believe the book contains very important insights into how trees fail mechanically which will be of value to all those concerned at the safety of trees, particularly in urban environments. The book is not a precise piece of scientific work with all the theories and ideas rigorously tested, and there are many counter-arguments that could be put forward. However, if it gets people discussing the ideas put forward and looking at trees in a new light, it will have succeeded.

I enjoyed this book immensely, particularly having watched its birth over the last couple of years. It is great fun to pick up and browse through or take on a walk through the woods. Its easy manner means that it can be enjoyed by the interested layman as well as the professional scientist or arboriculturist. I would recommend it to all those who are interested in how trees grow but particularly to arboriculturists who are responsible for the safety of trees. Whoever you are, once you have read this book you won't be able to look at trees the same way again.

BARRY GARDINER

GALINSKI, W. 1989. A windthrow-risk estimation for coniferous trees. Forestry, 62,139-146.

HALL, G. S. 1967. Some mechanical and nutritional aspects of cambial increment distribution in red pine. PhD thesis, Yale Univ. School of Forestry, USA.

LEISER, A. T., and KEMPER, J. D. 1973. Analysis of stress distribution in the sapling tree trunk. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98, 164-170.

METZGER, K. 1893. Der Wind als massgeblicher Faktor fiir das Wachstum der Baiime. Miinderser Forstliche Hefte, 3, Heft, Berlin.

PETTY, J. A., and WORRELL, R. 1981. Stability of coniferous tree stems in relation to damage by snow. Forestry, 54,115-128.

PET~Y, J . A., and SWAIN, C. 1985. Factors influencing stem break- age of conifers in high winds. Forestry, 58, 75-84.

P. G. ADLARD. Procedures for monitoring tree growth and site change. Tropical Forestry Paper, Oxford Forestry Insti- tute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB. 1992. 188pp. ISBN 0 85074 118 1.

This book is esse~ltially a manual of permanent sample plot procedures particularly directed at plantations and uniform forests with one or a few species. As its title suggests, it seeks to go beyond the narrow goal of acquisition of data for the construction of volume and yield tables and growth models, towards the collection of ecological, hydrological and edaphic information. This latter is necessary in modern plantation management in the tropics and requires a conceptual approach that is effectively covered by this book.

Readers will appreciate the clarity of classification of concepts and provision of definitions in the introductory sections. Plots are classified into temporary inventory plots, conventional permanent plots for increment and yield estimation, productivity plots for estimating nutrient cycling and water relations, intensive water-use plots subject to daily soil water and precipitation monitoring, destructive sampling plots for volume and biomass studies, including root excavations, spacing and thinning trials, specieslsite interaction trials, and intensive production plots at close spacing designed to study the upper limits and effects of plantations performance. These various types of plots are given designatory code letters (T, P, E l , etc.) which adds to the clarity of cross-referencing in the text. Tables show, for each type of plot, the variables which are typically sampled, grouped as observations of living organic matter, dead organic matter, climate, soil, topography, hydrology and silviculture. The practical procedures for statistical sampling design, plot demarcation and measurement are covered, with numerous diagrams supporting and clarifying the text. The author generally recommends the use of small (0.04-0.08 ha) circular plots, but discusses other cases.

Section 3 of the manual, entitled simply 'Implementa- tion', is a concise but complete coverage of measurement and sampling procedures on the different classes of plot. T o guide the reader, there is an introductory key that summa- rizes measurements needed and cross-references to more detailed sections. Conventional measurement of diameter, upper stem diameters, and different height points are clearly described. It is clearly stated that a conventional relascope is not adequate for standing volume measurement, and recommends a telerelascope or similar instrument. Given the enthusiasm of some practitioners of inventory for relascope volume estimates of very doubtful precision, it is good to see this point made. More ecologically directed measurements of evapotranspiration indices, leaf area index, foliage sampling methods, leaf fall and litter sampling and root sampling are described briefly, but library access will be needed for fuller information from the various references cited. Practical guidance on the marking and handling of samples is given. The appendices contain field forms. These relate to the text and are cross-referenced by form numbers. The forms are word-processor forms and would be clearer if properly drawn, but it would not be difficult in practice to use the examples as a basis for design for specific projects.

The manual is supported by a suite of computer programs which are described in section 4. These are available

68 Book Reviews

on disk from the Oxford Forestry Institute for £25. They are suitable for MS-DOS compatible computers and are supplied as compiled .EXE files from original programs in Basic. The programs cover storage and management of PSP data, volume data and regression analysis. Weibull diameter distribution analysis, plotting tree position maps. telerelascope stem volume calculation, site index curve analysis, and a stem analysis tree growth summary program. A general multiple regression program MULT is also provided. The user interface is rather primitive, with most data being entered by BASIC-type INPUT requests, and little opportunity to break out or revert to earlier stages of data entry. The programs do however work and will be useful for those who are unable to write their own programs. The data can be stored in ASCII formats that can be imported into other packages.

Section 5 covers experimental plots, especially for spacing and thinning studies and fertilizer experiments. It is rather brief but gives a useful introduction to the literature. In the appendices are a number of examples of actual experimental designs. Other appendices cover the abbrevi- . ations and IUFRO algebraic symbols for mensuration, codes for qualitative or categoric variables, species codes for about 170 common tropical and subtropical plantation species, methods of constructing litter traps, the use of the telerelascope, training requirements, slope corrections (a computer program), equipment lists, an interesting dichoto- mous key for selecting plot type, and a contribution on methods for measuring root systems written by A. B. Matthews. The field forms and the use of the computer programs are also in the appendices.

There is no doubt that many will find this book very useful. Its classification of sampling types, the clear definitions, and the concise but sufficient coverage of many field procedures are excellent. The sections on data processing are a little dated. Clear descriptions of data record structures, and a chart showing the stages in processing required would have been sufficient. The space saved from this could have been better devoted, in the context of the book's objectives, to more detailed and extensive coverage of some of the more non-conventional measurement and sampling procedures required for ecosystem nutrient cycling. ecoenergetic and hydrological analysis. but these are minor reservations, and users of the programs may well disagree with the reviewer; in general this is an excellent and much needed reference book.

DENIS ALDER

ANGELA K. KEPLER. Tree3 of Hawai'i. University of Hawai'i Press, 2840, Koiowalu Street, Honolulu, Hawai'i 96822 USA. 1991. Paperback $11.95. ISBN 08248 1329 4.

After a careful examination of Trees of Hawai'i my immediate reaction was one of disappointment because of the few truly indigenous tree species described and illustrated. However, the first paragraph of the Introduction explains that 'because of the insular and isolated location of Hawai'i in the Pacific Ocean, its original plant life is highly distinctive. Despite a prodigious number of extinctions, 89% of the islands' 960 species of native plants are not found any- where else in the world.' The all too familiar exploitation of

the islands' forests from the first arrival of Polynesians in 400 AD for the growing of pili grass cleared a considerable area of forested land. Following the arrival of Captain Cook in the last quarter of the 18th century, immigrants continued the destruction of the forests with the result that by the end of the 19th century the Hawaiian Islands presented a barren aspect; 'as viewed from seawards . . . no trees or shrubs form a feature of the view. but the hill slopes are covered with a scanty clothing of grass and low herbage.'

Today there are a reputed 5,000 introduced plant species from the tropics and sub-tropics and there is no doubt that they contribute greatly to the aesthetic appeal of the islands. The roadside trees, those in private gardens and the forest vegetation in the lowlands were all introduced from many parts of the world.

Angela Kepler's book has been designed to help the lay person identify the many floriferous and foliage attractive pan-tropical tree and shrub species which are to be found in Hawai'i. They have been selected for their attractive coloured flowers, their fruits, their foliage, and in some instances for their outline at maturity which includes their shade providing character. The classification of these chosen species is simple - the book is divided into seven colour coded sections each based on a particular conspicuous character. There is therefore a certain amount of duplication - Bougainvillea, Hibis- cus, Plumeria (Frangipani) all have flowers which can be white, yellow, pink, orange or purple. Where a tree cannot be classified by the colour of its flowers or fruits, the section Inconspicuous Flowers or Fruits is a very useful means of including many disparate species - Banyans (Ficus benghalensis and F. microcarpa). Cook pine (Araucarin columnaris), Norfolk pine (A. heterophylla), Eucalypts, palms and tree ferns are all beautifully illustrated. The text of all sections could be greatly improved by better descriptions of their botanical characteristics.

For those visiting Hawai'i for the first time, this title is a useful introduction to the trees. For the landscape architect working in a wet tropical climate the range of species from which he can choose is well represented. While the treatment of the subjects included in this book is adequate for a casual acquaintance of a tree species, the disappointment experienced initially could not be dispelled. I would have thought that the author with her international botanical background, could have produced a manual on the trees of Hawai'i on lines similar to those for mainland North America. The Appendix giving brief notes on the botanic gardens and National Parks contains welcome information.

THOMAS H. R. HALL

JAN REMROD. The Forest of Opportunity. Skogsindustrier- na. Available from Pulp and Paper Information Centre, Rainhill Road, Westlea, Swindon SN5 7BE. ISBN 91- 88198-030-0.

Although this book is first and foremost about the temperate coniferous forest which stretches across the northern hemisphere from Norway to Kamchatka, Professor Remrod uses the forests of Sweden to defend mankind's

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 ( I ) , 1992 69

use of timber. As the publisher is the timber industry which exploits the forest the reader may suspect this is a public relations exercise, but this is an unjustifiable reaction most likely to arise from those environmentalists who are unable to comprehend forest management.

The frontispiece is a photograph of a burnt over piece of tropical rain forest with the caption 'Poverty and population constitute the greatest threat to the forests. Three- quarters of the depletion of the tropical forest is caused by burning and clearing cultivated land for poverty stricken people'. Both the picture and the caption could not have stated the problem in a more dramatic manner. Under the first chapter heading, 'The World's forest is shrinking', FAO figures are quoted, 'No less than 80% of the timber felled in the developing countries is used for fuel' or to create land for food crop cultivation. To compensate for this loss, Professor Remrod advocates the creation of new wood and fuel resources as an integral element of developed agriculture systems.

The replacement of forests with plantations in developing countries is inadequate. Once the trees are destroyed. the land is used for farming resulting in a permanent change.

Using the example of Swedish silvicultural management, projected forest yields for the 21st century indicate a continuing increase which will satisfy the world's growing demand for paper and wood products. The factual basis of the book consists of a large amount of scientific information and also includes personal experiences from many varying and reliable forestry sources. It is true that foresters are better at growing trees than spreading the gospel of sustained yield. The author is equally justified in protesting that the gap between reality as experienced by foresters and the forest debate is beginning to feel more unnecessary and annoying.

Although the facts and figures in this title are generalized and lacking in details, the lay reader will find it extremely informative. However it is disappointing that more space has not been devoted to demonstrating that 'nature conservation and active forestry are combinable and the rapid progress currently being made towards this end will be attained in the 1990s'. According to the author. Sweden has demonstrated that it is possible to revitalise natural resources that have previously been abused. H e has also shown that planned cultivated forestry can safeguard and preserve the value inherent in nature.

Foresters should take heart from Professor Remrod's Forest of Opportunity and use the many excellent illustrations and facts and figures to confound those who think that recycling waste paper is an alternative to felling trees. Forestry and recycling are two essential parts of the same system. (A folder of 40 overhead projector slides of illustrations and photographs from Forest of Opportunity is available on application from the UK representatives in Swindon.)

THOMAS H. R. HALL

PUBLICATIONS ANNOUNCED

DANIEL M. ROBISON and SHEILA J. MCKEAN. Shifting Culti- vation and Alternatives: An Annoted Bibliography 1972- 1989. C.A.B. International, Wallingford, Oxon OX10 8DE, UK. 1992. 280pp. pbk. £25.00 (US$47.50 Americas only). ISBN 0 85198 680 3.

Tropical deforestation and its possible contribution to global warming has recently received increasing attention in bothn tropical and temperate countries. This bibliography seeks to gather and sort the research done since the publication of Nye and Greenland's monograph in 1960. The editors' belief is that most of the work yet to be done in this topical and challenging area involves evaluation of the alternatives to shifting cultivation. Sections have therefore been included on alternative fallows, alternative nutrient input strategies and attempts at rehabilitating land which has been degraded due to slash and burn agriculture. The literature, taken from the international database, CAB ABSTRACTS, has been categorized as follows:

Part I Farming system descriptions The cropping period The fallow period

Part I I Improved fallows Agroforestry and community forestry Other intensified cropping systems Soil and water conservation studies Alternative input strategies Alternative crops Land rehabilitation

Part III Social and policy aspects of intensification

MSc in FOREST PRODUCTS TECHNOLOGY

Duration: 1 2 months -commencing in October

A This is a taught Masters course comprising two semesters of lectures, tutorials, practicals and field trips which are examined in May, followed by a four month period of independent research leading to the presentation of a dissertation.

A The course aims to extend the participants' knowledge of wood and its various applications, and to equip them for the advancing technologies of the future in the forest products industries. All participants study such subjects as wood science, wood processing, wood composites, biodegration and protection of wood. Management studies and marketing are important core elements, together with environmental management.

A Entry Requirements: Candidates are normally expected to hold a first degree in a discipline related to the course. Access for mature students will be considered. This course can be undertaken on a part-time basis over two years.

GRADUATE DIPLOMA in TIMBER STUDIES

(with Management Studies Certificate) Duration: 9 months - October to June

A This long-established course continues to meet the needs of both overseas and UK students. The courses aims to train experienced technical and management personnel to Graduate Diploma level and it comprises three major areas of study: i) Timber Technology

, Including wood anatomy, sawmilling, drying, preservation, wood based panel technology, furniture production, wood machining, wood engineering and grading.

ii) Management Major study areas are communication, management processes, production planning and financial control.

iii) Specialisation Module Tuition is aimed at developing specialist knowledge in any selected area of technology or management.

A In both courses particular emphasis is placed on the needs of developing countries.

A Further details and application forms may be obtained from: The Course Leader, Department of Timber and Construction, The Buckinghamshire College, Queen Alexandra Road High Wycombe, Bucks, HP1 1 252, United Kingdom. Tel: 0494 522 141 Fax: (UK) 0494 524392


THE COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

Recent years have seen far-reaching changes in forestry and Commonwealth forestry has been no exception. The tropical forests have been disappearing fast and most investment is in plantation forestry or in forestry for community development. The oil crisis has brought renewed attention to tree growing for renewable energy supplies. The awareness of the environment and recreational value of the forest continues to grow.

The aims of the Association The Commonwealth Forestry Association (CFA) brings together all who are concerned with conservation, development and management of forests, especially of the tropical and sub-tropical resources. Forests are important in many ways to many people. Supply of timber, the protection of soil, water supplies and the environment and the provision of healthy recreational areas are a few. Equally important in the long term are the maintenance of wild areas for research and the preservation of genetic diversity. For millions of rural people in developing countries the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems, including wildlife, forest and grazing lands, is of prime importance. Such concerns cannot be confined within narrow geographical or political boundaries and, although originally instituted as a Commonwealth organisation, the Association now represents global concern about forestry matters.

The Association's membership The CFA is essentially a professional Association keeping its members informed of developments in forest science and practice, mainly through its publications, but also through periodic meetings. Its members come from non-Commonwealth and Commonwealth countries and include foresters, forest and wood scientists, timber merchants, ecologists. resource managers and conservationists, as well as forest services, institutions, organizations and firms.

The Association's services The Association's office is in the Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, with which it co-operates closely. The Departmental library, in collaboration with CAB International, Wallingford, gives the Association unique support as an information centre for visiting members.

THE ASSOCIATION'S PUBLICATIONS

Commonwealth Forestry Review The Review is published quarterly and contains articles on a wide range of subjects, an editorial on forestry around the world and reviews of books, research papers and reports. The object of the Review is to bring to readers, particularly those who do not have extensive library facilities, a comprehensive summary of information. The Review is sent free by surface mail to all paid-up members and it can be sent airmail at .extra cost.

Commonwealth Forestry Handbook Published periodically, this gives a List of Members, details of senior personnel of Commonwealth Forest Services, Research and Educational Institutions, Organizations and Societies, a list of Forestry publications, has a section on Technical Infor- mation and a list of World Timbers, with their standard and botanical names and countries of origin. This is also sent free to members of the Association.

Annual Subscription Rates 1992193

LIFE MEMBER: ................................................................ £300.00 NB: Eligibility to transfer to Life membership:

30 subscriptions paid up or 60 years age with ............................................ 10 subscriptions paid up f 75.00

ORDINARY MEMBER: (individual) Over 30 years age ............................................................... f 30.00 Under 30 years age .............................................................. f 20.00 AFFILIATED MEMBER: ........................................... f 50.00 (Forest Depts, Companies, Institutions. International Organisations) STUDENT MEMBER: ................................................... f 10.00 DEVELOPING COUNTRY MEMBER: (Please apply to CFA National Secretary)

SUBSCRIPTIONS TO REVIEW: (Libraries) .............. f 50.00 SINGLE COPY OF REVIEW: (Plus postage) ............. f 12.50 COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY HANDBOOK: ... f 20.00 Free to members (plus postage)

APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP The Commonwealth Forestry Association, OFI, South Parks Road, oxford OX1 3RB, UK Please enrol me as a *Life MemberiOrdinary MemberlAssociate Member (Student)lAffiliated Member (Institution. Company, Firm, or Forest Department) I enclose *ChequelBanker's OrderlDraftlCashlUNESCO Coupon for f ................... .... ................................................................................................... * Delete those not applicable PLEASE USE, BLOCK CAPITALS Ordinary Members, Life Members and Associate Members

Surname and Initials ................... ... .......................................................................................... Title (e.g. Mr.) ....................................................................

Degrees and Distinctions .......................... .............. ......................................................................................................................................................................... (Students-first degree, if any) ........................................................................................................ Date of Birth .......................... .. ...................................... Affiliated Members (Institutions, Company etc.) ................... .... ..........................................................................................................................................

Address for despatch of Commonwealth Forestry Review

....................................... ....................... .................................................................................................................................................................... Country ...

Signature of Applicant .................... .. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ; .... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Position ....................... ..

Introduced by (this is not essential) ............................................................................................................................................................................................. Date .................................................................................................................................................. Membership to start as from January 19 .....................

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (l), 1992

THE COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY ASSOClATION

PATRON: HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN

Past and Present Officers

President: 1979 -HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH AND QUEENSBERRY, KT

Past Presidents: 1921 - 35 H. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, KG, KT, Kp, GMMG 1936 - 42 H R H THE DUKE OF KENT, PC, KG. KT, GCMG. GCVO. 1943 - 56 THE EARL OF ATHLONE, PC. KG, GCMG, GCB, GCVO 1957 - 72 THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH AND QUEENSBERRY. PC.

KT GCVO ED 1973 - 78 SIR S. S. MALLINSON, CBE, DSO, MC, DL

Vice Presidents: J. D. BRAZIER: ISO, DSc. J. A. DICKSON. CB. .l. WYATT-SMITH. CBE

C. G. LATHAM. MA. CA M. E D POORE. MA, PhD, M1 Biol R. T. BRADLEY, MA

Chairman: R. L. NEWMAN, BSc. Vice-Chairman: P. J. WOOD, MA. Hon. Treasurer: P. G. ADLARD, MA.

. P a ~ t Chairmen: 1921 - 22 The Rt. Hon. VISCOUNT NOVAR, KT, GCM, PC. 1923 - 24 Colonel The Rt. Hon. LORD COURTHOPE. MC. PC i924 - 27 S ~ ~ ~ . S T I R L I N G MAXWELL. Bt. KT 1927 - 32 Sir P. H. CLUTTERBUCK, CIE, CBE, VD

1954 - 59 The g: on. LORD MILVERTON, GCMG. 1959 - 61 Sir H. CHAMPION, CIE. 1%1- 64 E. B. LATHAM, CBE, MM. 1964 - 72 Sir A. GOSLING, KBE, CB. 1972 - 74 J. A. DICKSON, CB. 1975 - 77 C. G. LATHAM, MA, CA. 1977 - 79 J. WYATT-SMITH, CBE. 197.9 - 82 D. R. JOHNSTON, MA. 1982 - 85 J. D. BRAZIER, ISO. PhD. 1985 - 88 M..E. D. POORE, MA, PhD, M1 Ulol. 1988 - 90 R. T. BRADLEY, MA.

Executive Commirtee R. L. NEWMAN (Chairman) P. J. WOOD (Vice-chairman) P. G. ADLARD (Treasurer) R. D. BARNES R. T. BRADLEY J. D. BRAZIER BUCCLEUCH, The Duke of J. BURLEY C. J. COPELAND J. M. DOBBY P. D. HARDCASTLE G. D. HOLMES R. H. KEMP C. G. LATHAM J . S. McBRIDE D. L. McNEIL F. R. MILLER M. E. D. POORE G. J. ANIM-KWAPONG (Bangor Student Representative)

Regional Vice-chairmen D. GWAZE (Africa) G . L. AINSCOUGH (Americas) P. J. N'OOD (Europe'and ~edl t r r ranean) S. SHYAM SCNDER (Ind~an Subconc~nenr) R. L NEWhlAN (Pacific)

Representative on the Standing Committee on Commonwealth Forestry R. T. BRADLEY

Governing Councrl P. G. ADLARD (UK) G. L. AINSCOUGH (Canada) R. D BARNES (UK) R. T. BRADLEY (UK) J. D. BRAZIER (UK) A. G J. BROWN (Australia) BUCCLEUCH. The Duke of J. UURLEY (UK) A. J. COMBEN (UK) C. J. COPELAND (Canada) T. R. CUTLER (UK) D M DARUS (Malaysia) J M. DOBUY IlJKI

W. FINLAYSON &K) R. G. FLORENCE (Australia) P. D. HARDCASTLE (UK) G. D. HOLMES (UK) W. J. HOWARD (UK) D. R. JOHNSTON (UK) R. H. KEMP (UK) G. M. KHAT~AK (Pakistan) P. R. 0. KIO (~ ige i i a ) A. KIRKLAND (New Zealand) .I. P. LANLY (FAO) ~ - ,----, C. G. LATHAM (UK) J. S. McBRIDE (UK) R. McCRAE (Canada) D. L. McNEIL (UK) C. H. MURRAY (FAO) R. L. NEWMAN (Australia) M. E. D. POORE (UK) F. L. C. REED (C&&) S. D. RICHARDSON (New Zealand) R. W. ROBERTS (Canada) L. ROCHE (UK) S. SHYAM SUNDER (India) J . SPEARS (USA) W. R. J. SUTTON (New Zealand) P. A. WARDLE (FAO) P. J. WOOD (UK)

(Vice-Presidents sit as observers on the Governing Council)

Administraror E. G. RUTHERFORD

Editor T. H. R. HALL, PhD. FLS

Auditor K. S. WRIGHT, FCA. AT11

Editorial Committee J: D. BRAZIER (Chairman) P. G. ADLARD R. D. BARNES T. H. R. HALL F. R. MILLER P. J. WOOD

Trustees of the Schlrch Memorral Trust Fund: CHAIRMAN VICE-CHAIRMAN DIRECTOR, OXFORD FORESTRY INSTITUTE

Queen's A ward Winners 1988 Dr J. W. TURNBULL (Australia)

Dr D. GILMOUR (Australia) runner up 1989 Dr S. N. RA1 (India)

Dr J. PALMER (UK) runner up

Organization of Commonwealth Professional Associations Representative P. J. WOOD I

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(1) 1992

Advice to Contributors G E N E R A L Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced throughout, with at least a 3 cm margin on the left. Two copies must be submitted to the Editorial Office. Commonwealth Forestry Association, Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB. Authors are advised to keep a copy of their manuscripts for checking against proofs. The style of setting out, subdivision of text, and layout of tables should conform to that of a current copy of the Review.

Contributions must be original and not have been submitted for publication elsewhere.

S U M M A R Y Authors must supply a summary of not more than 250 words at the beginning of the paper, and should suggest no more than five keywords.

P R E P A R A T I O N F O R P U B L I C A T I O N Each submitted manuscript will be referred to a member of the editorial board and at least one expert referee. Authors will be consulted if the paper is considered suitable for publication but alterations are thought desirable. After these alterations have been included the manuscript will be considered final.

Page proofs will be sent to authors for checking before publication. These proofs are simply for the purpose of cor- recting printing errors; only in exceptional cases, and at the discretion of the Editorial Board, may authors be permitted to change their text at this stage.

S C I E N T I F I C N A M E S The complete scientific name (genus, species, and authority, and cultivar where appropriate) must be cited for every organism at the first time of mention. The generic name may be abbreviated to the initial thereafter except where intervening references to other genera with the same initial would cause confusion. If vernacular names are employed, they must be accompanied by the correct scientific name on first use.

T A B L E S Tables should be numbered in arabic numerals and each submitted on a separate sheet with an appropriate legend at the head. The preferred position in the text should be indicated.

I L L U S T R A T I O N S Text-figures. The publication of papers may be delayed, and the cost is increased, when figures have to be redrawn or relettered by the printers. This can be avoided if authors will comply exactly with the following instructions.

Drawing should be made in black ink on Bristol board, tracing film, or graph paper with faint ruling. Photocopies are not satisfactory for reproduction. A photocopy or other suitable duplicate should, however, accompany each figure. The maximum space available on a page is 228 x 179 mm (9 X 7 inches), and the width of a single column of text is 86 mm (3.4 inches), thus for a full page figure the original should not be larger than 456 x 358 mm (18 X 14 inches) and for a single column width figure the original should not be larger than 172 X 358 mm (6.8 X 14 inches). Authors

should indicate on the back of figures whether they are to be reproduced at single or double column width.

Legends to figures must not be incorporated in the figures, but should be typed in double spacing on a separate sheet. Each legend should contain sufficient explanation to be meaningful without cross-referencing. The individual figures must be numbered clearly in pencil and should bear the name of the author.

Photographs for plates must be of a high quality, printed on glazed paper, and should be supplied at the same size as for final reproduction, bearing in mind the dimensions given above. A separate typewritten double-spaced EXPLANA- TION O F PLATES should be supplied, setting out the legends for the photographs, which will be referred to as Plate 1, Plate 2, Plate 2A etc. A scale should be included in the picture wherever possible, otherwise the scale of the original should be stated in the EXPLANATION O F PLATES so that the final scale can be calculated. Photographs should be black and white; colour reproduction will not be considered, and black and white reproduction of colour photographs is possible but will give an inferior result.

O R I G I N A L S If authors wish to have original illustrations returned after publication they should make a specific request when sub- mitting their paper for consideration.

R E F E R E N C E S A great deal of editorial time can be taken up by revising references to conform with the style of the Review. Authors are requested to observe the following guide closely.

Citations in the text should take the form: Smith and Robinson (1960). If several papers by the same author in the same year are cited, they should be lettered in sequence (1960a), (1960b) etc. When papers are by more than two authors, all the names should be recorded on first mention, e.g. Smith, Jones, and Williams (1960). Subsequent reference should be to Smith et al. (1960).

At the end of the paper, the list of REFERENCES must be arranged in alphabetical order without serial numbering. The following standard form of citation should be used: BUNTING, G. S., 1967. The conserved type of Calliandra.

Taxon, 16,469-472. ELIAS, T.S., 1978. Mimosoideae. In POLHILL, R.M. and

RAVEN, P.H. (eds.) Advances in Legume Systematics Part I . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey. 425pp. All citations in the text should appear in the list of refer-

ences and vice versa. The list must be typed double-spaced throughout and checked thoroughly before submission.

C O M P U T E R DISKS Where authors use a computer, they should nevertheless submit their papers in hard copy (manuscript) only in the first instance. When a paper is accepted for publication, it will be greatly appreciated if authors can provide a soft copy (disk) to accompany the final version of the manuscript.

The publication of a paper in the Commonwealth Forestry Review does not imply responsibility for, or agreement with, any statement or views expressed by the author, but merely that the paper has been judged to be of sufficient interest to merit publication.