Nasa

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NASAFor other uses, see NASA (disambiguation).Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W [1]

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Seal of NASA

NASA insigniaMotto: For the Benefit of All

Flag of NASAAgency overview

Formed July 29, 1958

Preceding Agency NACA (1915–1958)[2]

Jurisdiction United States government

Headquarters Washington, D.C.38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W [1]

Employees 18,100+

Annual budget US$17.8 billion (FY 2012)See also NASA Budget

Agency executive Charles Bolden, administrator

Website nasa.gov [3]

See more

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the United States government agency that isresponsible for the civilian space program as well as for aeronautics and aerospace research.

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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. TheNational Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the NationalAdvisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958.Since that time, most U.S. space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landingmissions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the InternationalSpace Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space LaunchSystem and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP)which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System, advancingheliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program, exploringbodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic missions such as New Horizons, and researchingastrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs. NASA sharesdata with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite.

CreationMain article: Creation of NASA

1963 photo showing Dr. William H. Pickering,(center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy,

(right). NASA Administrator James Webb inbackground. They are discussing the Mariner

program, with a model presented.

From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as thesupersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launchan artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58).An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Sovietlaunch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledglingspace efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat tonational security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnikcrisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D.Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. Thisled to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACAwas needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. TheAdvanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February

1958 to develop space technology for military application.

On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA. When it beganoperations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annualbudget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames AeronauticalLaboratory, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities. A NASA seal was approved byPresident Eisenhower in 1959.[4] Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States NavalResearch Laboratory were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Racewith the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program led by Wernher von Braun, who wasnow working for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology ofAmerican scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works. Earlier research efforts within the U.S. Air Force and many ofARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the JetPropulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility operated by the California Institute of Technology.

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Space flight programs

At launch control for the May 28, 1964,Saturn I SA-6 launch. Wernher von

Braun is at center.

Main article: List of NASA missionsNASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programsthroughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first Americanartificial satellites into Earth orbit for scientific and communications purposes,and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, startingwith Venus and Mars, and including "grand tours" of the outer planets. Mannedprograms sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the SpaceRace with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to1972 in the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle,and developed LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperationof several other nations including post-Soviet Russia.

Manned programsThe experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support formanned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsuleprogram. Reacting to loss of national prestige and security fears caused by early leads in space exploration by theSoviet Union, in 1961 President John F. Kennedy proposed the ambitious goal "of landing a man on the Moon by theend of [the 60s], and returning him safely to the Earth." This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, andNASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned mission to Mars. However, reduction of theperceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans.NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbitalshuttle. In the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space station incooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival, post-Soviet Russia. To date,NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above theUSAF definition of spaceflight altitude, 260,000 feet (80 km).[5]

X-15 rocket plane (1959–68)

Main article: North American X-15

X-15 in free flight

The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonicresearch aircraft, developed in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force andNavy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along theside containing fuel and early computerized control systems. Requestsfor proposal were issued on December 30, 1954 for the airframe, andFebruary 4, 1955 for the rocket engine. The airframe contract wasawarded to North American Aviation in November 1955, and theXLR30 engine contract was awarded to Reaction Motors in 1956, andthree planes were built. The X-15 was drop-launched from the wing ofone of two NASA Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, NB52A tail number52-003, and NB52B, tail number 52-008 (known as the Balls 8).Release took place at an altitude of about 45,000 feet (14 km) and a speed of about 500 miles per hour (805 km/h).

Twelve pilots were selected for the program from the Air Force, Navy, and NACA (later NASA). One hundred ninety-nine flights were made between 1959 and 1968, resulting in the official world record for the highest speed ever reached by a manned powered aircraft (current as of 2014[6]), and a maximum speed of Mach 6.72, 4,519 miles per hour (7,273 km/h).[7] The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km). Eight of the pilots were

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awarded Air Force astronaut wings for flying above 260,000 feet (80 km), and two flights by Joseph A. Walkerexceeded 100 kilometers (330,000 ft), qualifying as spaceflight according to the International AeronauticalFederation. The X-15 program employed mechanical techniques used in the later manned spaceflight programs,including reaction control system jets for controlling the orientation of a spacecraft, pressurized space suits, andhorizon definition for navigation.[] The reentry and landing data collected were valuable to NASA for designing theSpace Shuttle.[]

Project Mercury (1959–63)

Main article: Project MercuryFriendship 7, NASA's first manned orbital spaceflight

Mercury-Atlas 6 launch on February 20, 1962

Still frame of John Glenn in orbit from camera inside Friendship 7Shortly after the Space Race began, an early objective was to get a person into Earth orbit as soon as possible,therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. U.S. Air Force's Man inSpace Soonest program looked at many manned spacecraft designs, ranging from rocket planes like the X-15, tosmall ballistic space capsules.[8] By 1958, the space plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballisticcapsule.[9]

When NASA was created that same year, the Air Force program was transferred to it and renamed Project Mercury.The first seven astronauts were selected among candidates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs.On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space aboard Freedom 7, launched by aRedstone booster on a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight. John Glenn became the first American to be launchedinto orbit by an Atlas launch vehicle on February 20, 1962 aboard Friendship 7. Glenn completed three orbits, afterwhich three more orbital flights were made, culminating in L. Gordon Cooper's 22-orbit flight Faith 7, May 15–16,1963.The Soviet Union (USSR) competed with its own single-pilot spacecraft, Vostok. They beat the U.S. for the firstman in space, by launching cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into a single Earth orbit aboard Vostok 1 in April 1961, onemonth before Shepard's flight. In August 1962, they achieved an almost four-day record flight with AndriyanNikolayev aboard Vostok 3, and also conducted a concurrent Vostok 4 mission carrying Pavel Popovich.

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Project Gemini (1961–66)

The first rendezvous of two spacecraft,achieved by Gemini 6 and 7

Main article: Project GeminiBased on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-durationflights, developing space rendezvous techniques, and precision Earth landing,Project Gemini was started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome theSoviets' lead and to support the Apollo manned lunar landing program, addingextravehicular activity (EVA) and rendezvous and docking to its objectives.The first manned Gemini flight, Gemini 3, was flown by Gus Grissom andJohn Young on March 23, 1965. Nine missions followed in 1965 and 1966,demonstrating an endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous,docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data on the effects ofweightlessness on humans.

Under the direction of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the USSR competed with Gemini by converting theirVostok spacecraft into a two- or three-man Voskhod. They succeeded in launching two manned flights beforeGemini's first flight, achieving a three-cosmonaut flight in 1963 and the first EVA in 1964. After this, the programwas then canceled, and Gemini caught up while spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev developed the Soyuz spacecraft,their answer to Apollo.

Spacecraft and rocket comparison including Apollo(biggest), Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and

Mercury-Redstone rockets are left out

Project Apollo (1961–72)

Main article: Apollo programThe U.S public's perception of the Soviet lead in putting the firstman in space, motivated President John F. Kennedy to ask theCongress on May 25, 1961 to commit the federal government to aprogram to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, whicheffectively launched the Apollo program.[10]

Apollo was one of the most expensive American scientificprograms ever. It cost more than $20 billion in 1960s dollars or anestimated $205 billion in present-day US dollars.[11] (Incomparison, the Manhattan Project cost roughly $26.2 billion,accounting for inflation.)[11] It used the Saturn rockets as launchvehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for previous projects. The spacecraft was also bigger; it hadtwo main parts, the combined command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LMwas to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the three astronauts would eventuallyreturn to Earth.

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Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, 1969

The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in aflight around the Moon in December 1968. Shortly before, the Soviets had sentan unmanned spacecraft around the Moon. On the next two missions dockingmaneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced and thenfinally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.

The first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followedby Buzz Aldrin, while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollomissions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972.Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon.These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and 381.7 kilograms(842 lb) of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included

soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind. The Moonlanding marked the end of the space race and as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind[12] when he stepped downon the Moon.

Apollo 17's lunar roving vehicle, 1972

Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone insending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humanson another celestial body.[13] Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraftto orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the lastmoonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit to date.The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheralto rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics,telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in manyfields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machinesdeveloped for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifactsfrom the program are on display at various locations throughout theworld, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums.

Skylab (1965–79)

Skylab space station, 1974

Main article: SkylabSkylab was the United States' first and only independently built space station.Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spentSaturn IB upper stage, the 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was constructed onEarth and launched on May 14, 1973 atop the first two stages of a Saturn V,into a 235-nautical-mile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damagedduring launch by the loss of its thermal protection and oneelectricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its firstcrew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and1974. It included a laboratory for studying the effects of microgravity, and asolar observatory. NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and

elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11,1979.[14]

To save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a canceled Apollo mission to launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts to and from the station. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic feet

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(320 m3), which was 30.7 times bigger than that of the Apollo Command Module.

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (1972–75)

Apollo-Soyuz crews with models ofspacecraft, 1975

Main article: Apollo-Soyuz Test ProjectOn May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier AlexeiKosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, anddeclaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be capable ofdocking with each other. This authorized the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project(ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplusApollo Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The mission tookplace in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the firstorbital flight of the Space Shuttle in April 1981.

The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, andprovided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–MirProgram[15] and the International Space Station.

Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)

Main article: Space Shuttle program

Discovery liftoff, 2008

Mission profile. Left: launch, top: orbit (cargo bay open), right: reentry and landingThe Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequentlylaunchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia,did so on April 12, 1981, the 20th anniversary of the first space flight by Yuri Gagarin.[16]

Its major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid-fuel launch rockets at itsside. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only component that was not reused. Theshuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–643 km (115–400 miles)[17] and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of24,400 kg (54,000 lb).[18] Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.On 20 missions (1983–98) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, designed in cooperation with the European SpaceAgency (ESA). Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay asthe astronauts entered and left it through an airlock.[19] Another famous series of missions were the launch and latersuccessful repair of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively.[20]

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In 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle-Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more anAmerican vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continuedwith Russia and the United States as two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the InternationalSpace Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA beganrelying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003.While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did notbuild another orbiter to replace the second loss. NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the programended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. Theprogram spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.

International Space Station (1993–present)

Main article: International Space Station

The International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space StationFreedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the EuropeanColumbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module. NASAoriginally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but USbudget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a singlemulti-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the RussianFederal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace ExplorationAgency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the CanadianSpace Agency (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules,external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have beenlaunched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is currently being assembled in LowEarth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 andthe completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016. The ownership and use of the space station isestablished in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia toretain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segmentallocated between the other international partners.

The STS-131 (light blue) and Expedition 23 (darkblue) crew members in April 2010

Long duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions.Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six monthson the ISS. The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarilydecreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Since May 2009,expedition crew size has been six crew members. Crew size isexpected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designedfor, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational. The ISShas been continuously occupied for the past 13 years and 330 days,having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visitedby astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.

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Spacewalking NASA astronaut in Earth orbit

The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of2014[6], is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass andvolume greater than that of any previous space station.[21] The Soyuzspacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year longmissions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargospacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian Progress spacecraftwhich has done so since 2000, the European Automated TransferVehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV)since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012 and theAmerican Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before itsretirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did nothave the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready,crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz. The highestnumber of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assemblymissions.

The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020 but may be extended until 2028 or possibly beyond that.

Commercial Resupply Services (2006-present)

Main article: Commercial Resupply Services

The Dragon is seen being berthed to the ISS in May 2012

The Standard variant of Cygnus is seen berthed to the ISS in September 2013The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creatingAmerican commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS. The development of these vehicles wasunder a fixed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list ofmilestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successful completed themilestone. Private companies were also required to have some "skin in the game" which refers raising an unspecifiedamount of private investment for their proposal.On December 23, 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital SciencesCorporation.[22] SpaceX uses its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft. Orbital Sciences uses its Antares rocket andCygnus spacecraft. The first Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012. The first Cygnus resupply missionoccurred in September 2013. The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS cargo needs; with the exceptionof a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.

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Commercial Crew Program (2010–present)

Main article: Commercial Crew DevelopmentThe Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating Americancommercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, stayingdocked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth. It is hoped that these vehicles could also transportnon-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace. Like COTS, CCDev isalso a fixed price milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million was divided amongfive American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies inthe private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270 million wasdivided among four companies.[23] In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASAprovided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems. Thisphase of the CCDev program is expected to last from June 3, 2012 to May 31, 2014. The winners of this latest roundwere SpaceX's Dragon planned to be launched on a Falcon 9, Boeing's CST-100 planned to be launched on an AtlasV and Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser, which is also planned to be launched on an Atlas V.[24] NASA will most likelyonly choose one provider for the Commercial Crew program, this vehicle is expected by NASA to becomeoperational around 2017.

The unmanned variant of Dragonis seen approaching the ISS

Computer rendering of CST-100 in orbit Dream Chaser atmospheric test article

Beyond Low Earth Orbit program (2010–present)

Artist's rendering of the 70 mtvariant of SLS launching Orion

For missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has been directed todevelop the Space Launch System (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two tosix person, beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft, Orion. In February 2010, PresidentBarack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for theConstellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS toprivate companies. During a speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15,2010, Obama proposed a new heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) to replace the formerlyplanned Ares V. In his speech, Obama called for a manned mission to an asteroidas soon as 2025, and a manned mission to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s. TheNASA Authorization Act of 2010 was passed by Congress and signed into lawon October 11, 2010. The act officially canceled the Constellation program.

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Orion spacecraft design as of January 2013

The Authorization Act required a newly designed HLV be chosenwithin 90 days of its passing; the launch vehicle was given the name"Space Launch System". The new law also required the construction ofa beyond low earth orbit spacecraft. The Orion spacecraft, which wasbeing developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen tofulfill this role. The Space Launch System is planned to launch bothOrion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earthorbit. The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerfulversions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70

mt into LEO. It is then planned to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130 mt.[]

Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module, is planned to be launched in2014 on a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS that wouldalso send Orion on a circumlunar trajectory, which is planned for 2017. The first manned flight of Orion and SLS,Exploration Mission 2 (EM-2) is to launch between 2019 and 2021; it is a 10- to 14-day mission planned to place acrew of four into Lunar orbit. As of March 2012, the destination for EM-3 and the intermediate focus for this newprogram is still in-flux.

Unmanned programs

Deep space mission deployed byShuttle, 1989

Main article: Unmanned NASA missionsMore than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earthand the solar system. Besides exploration, communication satellites have alsobeen launched by NASA. The missions have been launched directly from Earthor from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, orwith a rocket stage to take it farther.The first US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as anABMA/JPL project during the early space race. It was launched in January1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer projectwas transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions havebeen focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and thesolar wind, among other aspects. A more recent Earth mission, not related tothe Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentionedabove was brought into orbit in 1990.[25]

The inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least four unmanned programs. The first was Mariner in the1960s and 70s, which made multiple visits to Venus and Mars and one to Mercury. Probes launched under theMariner program were also the first to make a planetary flyby (Mariner 2), to take the first pictures from anotherplanet (Mariner 4), the first planetary orbiter (Mariner 9), and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner10). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach itsdestination.

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Uranus by Voyager 2, 1986

The first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking 1 in 1976.Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder.

Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. Morethan 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere,and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet. Pioneer 11 becamethe first spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979, with Voyager 2 making thefirst (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune in 1986 and 1989,respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer10 in 1983. For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it hassince been surpassed by both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.

Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from theEarth to extraterrestrial life. A problem with deep space travel iscommunication. For instance, it takes about 3 hours at present for a

radio signal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft at a point more than halfway to Pluto. Contact with Pioneer 10was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the SolarSystem and interstellar space.

Artist's concept of NASA's Intelligent PayloadExperiment (IPEX) and M-Cubed/COVE-2

satellites ("CubeSats") that were launched as partof the NROL-39 GEMSat mission in December

2013.

On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory missionwas successfully launched for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed onMars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search forevidence of past or present life on Mars.

Recent and planned activities

NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars andSaturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraftmissions are MESSENGER for Mercury, New Horizons (for Jupiter,Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continuedto support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, includingPioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region,and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini (1997–), and Juno (2011–).

The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and is currently en route for a Pluto flyby in 2015. Theprobe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testingon-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of theMars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.

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Vision mission for an interstellar precursorspacecraft by NASA

On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanentmoon base. The goal was to start building the moon base by 2020, andby 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crewrotations and in-situ resource utilization. However in 2009, theAugustine Committee found the program to be on a "unsustainabletrajectory." In 2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans,including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on mannedmissions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for theInternational Space Station.

Since 2011, NASA's strategic goals have been• Extend and sustain human activities across the solar system•• Expand scientific understanding of the Earth and the universe• Create innovative new space technologies• Advance aeronautics research•• Enable program and institutional capabilities to conduct NASA's

aeronautics and space activities

•• Share NASA with the public, educators, and students to provide opportunities to participateIn August 2011, NASA accepted the donation of two space telescopes from the National Reconnaissance Office.Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to the Hubble Space Telescope.In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to develop a human-ratedheavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and otherelements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and one day Mars. The Orion MPCV is planned for an unmannedtest launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket around September 2014.[26]

Curiosity's wheel on Mars, 2012

On August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on Mars. OnAugust 27, 2012, Curiosity transmitted the first pre-recorded messagefrom the surface of Mars back to Earth, made by Administrator CharlieBolden:

Hello. This is Charlie Bolden, NASA Administrator, speaking toyou via the broadcast capabilities of the Curiosity Rover, whichis now on the surface of Mars.Since the beginning of time, humankind’s curiosity has led us toconstantly seek new life…new possibilities just beyond thehorizon. I want to congratulate the men and women of ourNASA family as well as our commercial and governmentpartners around the world, for taking us a step beyond to Mars.

This is an extraordinary achievement. Landing a rover on Marsis not easy – others have tried – only America has fully succeeded. The investment we are making…theknowledge we hope to gain from our observation and analysis of Gale Crater, will tell us much about thepossibility of life on Mars as well as the past and future possibilities for our own planet. Curiosity will bringbenefits to Earth and inspire a new generation of scientists and explorers, as it prepares the way for a humanmission in the not too distant future. Thank you.[27]

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Scientific researchFor technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA, see NASA spin-off technologies.

Mars rock, viewed by a rover

Medicine in space

Main article: Space medicineA variety of large-scale medical studies are being conducted in spaceby the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI).Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound inMicrogravity Study, in which astronauts (including former ISSCommanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasoundscans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentiallytreat hundreds of medical conditions in space. Usually there is nophysician on board the International Space Station, and diagnosis ofmedical conditions is challenging. Astronauts are susceptible to avariety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma,immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, orthostatic intolerancedue to volume loss, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury.Ultrasound offers a unique opportunity to monitor these conditions inspace. This study's techniques are now being applied to coverprofessional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in populationssuch as medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application onEarth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.

Ozone depletionIn 1975, NASA was directed by legislation to research and monitor the upper atmosphere. This led to UpperAtmosphere Research Program and later the Earth Observing System (EOS) satellites in the 1990s to monitor ozonedepletion. The first comprehensive worldwide measurements were obtained in 1978 with the Nimbus 7 satellite andNASA scientists at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

Salt evaporation and energy managementIn one of the nation's largest restoration projects, NASA technology helps state and federal government reclaim15,100 acres (61 km2) of salt evaporation ponds in South San Francisco Bay. Satellite sensors are used by scientiststo study the effect of salt evaporation on local ecology.NASA has started Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation Program as an agency-wide program directed toprevent pollution and reduce energy and water utilization. It helps to ensure that NASA meets its federal stewardshipresponsibilities for the environment.

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Earth science

Plot of orbits of known Potentially HazardousAsteroids (size over 460 feet (140 m) and passingwithin 4.7 million miles (7.6×106 km) of Earth's

orbit) circa 2013 (alternate image).

Understanding of natural and human-induced changes on the globalenvironment is the main objective of NASA's Earth science. NASAcurrently has more than a dozen Earth science spacecraft/instrumentsin orbit studying all aspects of the Earth system (oceans, land,atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere), with several more planned forlaunch in the next few years.

NASA is working in cooperation with National Renewable EnergyLaboratory (NREL). The goal is to produce worldwide solar resourcemaps with great local detail. NASA was also one of the mainparticipants in the evaluation innovative technologies for the cleanupof the sources for dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs). OnApril 6, 1999, the agency signed The Memorandum of Agreement(MOA) along with the United States Environmental ProtectionAgency, DOE, and USAF authorizing all the above organizations toconduct necessary tests at the John F. Kennedy Space center. The mainpurpose was to evaluate two innovative in-situ remediationtechnologies, thermal removal and oxidation destruction of DNAPLs. National Space Agency made a partnershipwith Military Services and Defense Contract Management Agency named the “Joint Group on Pollution Prevention”.The group is working on reduction or elimination of hazardous materials or processes.

On May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly uselandfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.

Staff and leadershipMain article: List of NASA AdministratorsNASA's administrator is the agency's highest-ranking official and serves as the senior space science adviser to thePresident of the United States. The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC andprovides overall guidance and direction. Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees arerequired to be citizens of the United States.[28]

The first administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan, appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower; during his term hebrought together the disparate projects in space development research in the US.The third administrator was James E. Webb (served 1961–1968), appointed by President John F. Kennedy. In orderto implement the Apollo program to achieve Kennedy's goal of landing a man on the Moon by 1970, Webb directedmajor management restructuring and facility expansion, establishing the Houston Manned Spacecraft (Johnson)Center and the Florida Launch Operations (Kennedy) Center.In 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Charles Bolden as NASA's twelfth administrator. Administrator Boldenis one of three NASA administrators that were astronauts along with Richard H. Truly (served 1989–1992) andFrederick D. Gregory (acting, 2005).

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Facilities

Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California

Vehicle Assembly and Launch Control at Kennedy Space CenterMain article: NASA facilitiesNASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities servemore than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA also operates a short-line railroad at theKennedy Space Center and own special aircraft for instance two Boeing 747 which were used for transport of theSpace Shuttle orbiter.John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for everyUnited States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights are currently on pause, KSC continues to manageand operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoiningCape Canaveral Air Force Station.Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston is home to the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center,where all flight control is managed for manned space missions. JSC is the lead NASA center for activities regardingthe International Space Station and also houses the NASA Astronaut Corps that selects, trains, and providesastronauts as crew members for U.S. and international space missions.Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket andSkylab were developed. The JPL, mentioned above, was together with ABMA one of the agencies behind Explorer1, the first American space mission.

Budget

NASA's budget 1962–2014 as % of federalbudget peaking 1966

Main article: Budget of NASANASA's budget has generally been approximately 1% of the federalbudget from the early 1970s on, but briefly peaked to approximately4.41% in 1966 during the Apollo program.[29] Recent public perceptionof the NASA budget has been shown to be significantly different fromreality; a 1997 poll indicated that Americans responded on average that20% of the federal budget went to NASA.

The percentage of federal budget that NASA has been allocated hasbeen steadily dropping since the Apollo program and as of 2012 theNASA budget is estimated to be 0.48% of the federal budget. In a

NASA 17

March 2012 meeting of the United States Senate Science Committee, Neil deGrasse Tyson testified that "Right now,NASA’s annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice that—a penny on a dollar—we can transform thecountry from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its 20th centurybirthright to dream of tomorrow."

Environmental ImpactSpace exploration can affect life on Earth by using toxic chemicals to manufacture rockets, and carbon dioxidepumped into the atmosphere during operation of rockets. NASA addressed environmental concerns of its nowdefunct constellation program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act.

Current missionsSee also: List of NASA missions

Various nebulae observed from a NASA spacetelescope

Examples of some current NASA missions:• 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars orbiter• Cassini, Saturn orbiter•• Chandra X-ray Telescope• Curiosity rover (Mars Science Laboratory), Mars rover• Dawn, asteroid orbiter•• Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope•• Hubble Space Telescope•• International Space Station•• Kepler mission• Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Lunar orbiter• MESSENGER, Mercury orbiter

• Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars orbiter•• MAVEN• New Horizons, Pluto flyby• Opportunity rover, Mars rover•• Solar Dynamics Observatory•• Spitzer Space Telescope•• STEREO•• Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission

NASA 18

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centennialofflight.net. Retrieved on 2011-11-03.[3] http:/ / www. nasa. gov/[4][4] Executive Order 10849 (Wikisource)[5] The Air Force definition of outer space differs from that of the International Aeronautical Federation, which is .[6] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=NASA& action=edit[7] Aircraft Museum X-15." (http:/ / www. aerospaceweb. org/ aircraft/ research/ x15/ ) Aerospaceweb.org, 24 November 2008.[8] Encyclopedia Astronautica, Project 7969 (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ craft/ prot7969. htm), retrieved 2011-10-17[9] NASA, Project Mercury Overview (http:/ / www-pao. ksc. nasa. gov/ history/ mercury/ mercury-overview. htm), retrieved 2011-10-17[10][10] , speech[11] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2014 (http:/ / www. minneapolisfed. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. cfm).

Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 27, 2014.[12] The Phrase Finder: (http:/ / www. phrases. org. uk/ meanings/ 324100. html)...a giant leap for mankind, retrieved 2011-10-01[13] 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, Manned Apollo Missions (http:/ / history. nasa. gov/ ap11ann/ missions. htm). NASA, 1999.[14] Benson, Charles Dunlap and William David Compton. Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab (http:/ / history. nasa. gov/

SP-4208/ contents. htm). NASA publication SP-4208.[15] NASA, Shuttle-MIR history (http:/ / spaceflight. nasa. gov/ history/ shuttle-mir/ history/ h-t-long. htm), retrieved 2011-10-15[16] Encyclopedia Astronautica, Vostok 1 (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ flights/ vostok1. htm), retrieved 2011-10-18[17] NASA, Shuttle Basics (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ returntoflight/ system/ system_STS. html), retrieved 2011-10-18[18] Encyclopedia Astronautica, Shuttle (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ lvs/ shuttle. htm), retrieved 2011-10-18[19] Encyclopedia Astronautica, Spacelab (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ craft/ spacelab. htm). Retrieved October 20, 2011[20] Encyclopedia Astronautica, HST (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ craft/ hst. htm). Retrieved October 20, 2011[21] International Space Station (http:/ / www. shuttlepresskit. com/ ISS_OVR/ index. htm), Retrieved October 20, 2011[22] "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2008/ dec/

HQ_C08-069_ISS_Resupply. html). NASA, December 23, 2008.[23][23] Dean, James. . space.com, April 18, 2011.[24] Five Vehicles Vie For Future Of U.S. Human Spaceflight (http:/ / www. aviationweek. com/ aw/ generic/ story_generic. jsp?channel=awst&

id=news/ awst/ 2011/ 04/ 25/ AW_04_25_2011_p24-313867. xml& headline=Five Vehicles Vie To Succeed Space Shuttle)[25] NASA mission STS-31 (35) (http:/ / science. ksc. nasa. gov/ shuttle/ missions/ sts-31/ mission-sts-31. html)[26] nasa.gov, NASA On Course to Launch Orion Flight Test (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ exploration/ systems/ mpcv/ Triprogrambriefing. html#.

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datablog/ 2010/ feb/ 01/ nasa-budgets-us-spending-space-travel). theguardian.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-26.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to NASA.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

National Aeronautics and Space Act

Wikisource has original works written by orabout:NASA

General• Official website (http:/ / nasa. gov)

• NASA Engineering and Safety Center (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ offices/ nesc/ home/ index. html)

NASA 19

• NASA Photos (http:/ / nix. nasa. gov/ ) and NASA Images (http:/ / www. nasaimages. org/ )• NASA Launch Schedule (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ missions/ highlights/ schedule. html)• NASA Television (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ multimedia/ nasatv/ ) and NASA podcasts (http:/ / www. nasa.

gov/ multimedia/ podcasting/ )• NASA (https:/ / plus. google. com/ + NASA/ posts) on Google+• NASA's channel (https:/ / www. youtube. com/ user/ NASAtelevision) on YouTube• @NASA (https:/ / twitter. com/ NASA) on Twitter

• NASA (https:/ / www. federalregister. gov/ agencies/ national-aeronautics-and-space-administration) in theFederal Register

• NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site (http:/ / www. nasawatch. com/ )• The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth (http:/ / eol. jsc. nasa. gov/ sseop/ clickmap/ )• NASA Documents relating to the Space Program, 1953–62, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library (http:/ /

eisenhower. archives. gov/ Research/ Finding_Aids/ N. html)• Online documents pertaining to the early history and development of NASA, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential

Library (http:/ / eisenhower. archives. gov/ research/ online_documents/ nasa. html)• NASA records available for research at the National Archives at Atlanta (http:/ / www. ourarchives. wikispaces.

net/ National+ Aeronautics+ and+ Space+ Administration+ Records+ Available+ at+ the+ National+ Archives+at+ Atlanta)

• Technical Report Archive and Image Library (TRAIL) (http:/ / www. technicalreports. org/ ) – historic technicalreports from NASA and other federal agencies

• NASA Alumni League (http:/ / www. nalhq. com), NAL Florida Chapter (http:/ / www. nalfl. com), NAL JSCChapter (http:/ / www. nal-jsc. org)

Further reading• How NASA works (http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ nasa. htm) on howstuffworks.com• NASA History Division (http:/ / history. nasa. gov/ )• Monthly look at Exploration events (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ exploration/ main/

this_month_main. html)• NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System (http:/ / nodis3. gsfc. nasa. gov/ )• NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/ )• NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past (http:/ / history. nasa. gov/ launiuspharticle.

pdf)• "Quest: The History of Spaceflight Quarterly" (http:/ / www. spacebusiness. com/ quest)

Article Sources and Contributors 20

Article Sources and ContributorsNASA  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=626678725  Contributors: 0northm, 10wucher1090, 123suthan, 15lsoucy, 19aineshl, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 28bytes, 62.253.64.xxx, 66.81.45.xxx, A8UDI, ABF, AEMoreira042281, AMK1211, ASeverin, ATR94, AThing, AVand, Aafm, Aalox, Abdullais4u, Abeg92, Abw1987, Aces lead, Acgrogans17, Achmelvic, Adam Cuerden, Adamrocks22, Addshore, Adnan bogi, Aelatico, Aervanath, Aesopos, Afluent Rider, Againme, Ageekgal, Agood25, Agordhandas12788, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajfd11111, Akademy-force, AlainV, Alan Rockefeller, Alansohn, Albanian012, Alckwc, Ale jrb, Aleenf1, Alejandrocaro35, Alex.tan, AlexPlank, Alexanderpas, Alexandria, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Ali, Ali 786, Alison, AlistairMcMillan, AliveFreeHappy, Alkivar, Alkoller, AllanHainey, Allers95, AllisonJP22, Alvez3, AmiDaniel, Amiralia, AndersL, Andonic, AndreasSchreiber, Andreasmperu, Andres, Andrew Gray, AndrewHZ, Andreworkney, Andrewpmk, Andy Marchbanks, Andy120, Andy120290, Andyjsmith, Angeldemonyo, Angie Y., Angular, Angus Lepper, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Antonio Lopez, Antony-22, Arbor to SJ, Argo Navis, ArielGold, Aris Katsaris, Arjayay, Arkuat, Armbrust, Arnoldmartin, Arpingstone, Art LaPella, Asfasfd, Astudent, Atomician, Atraxani, AttackingHobo, AuburnPilot, Audin, Austinenator, AvicAWB, Avoided, Awesome girl 123\madi, AwesomeNinja1337, Awsomepossum, AxG, Ayla, Aymatth2, Az1568, B, BOBMANJRBOY, BScMScMD, Bababadger, Babygrand1, Bail bonze, Barneca, BarretB, Barrytilton, Baseball Watcher, Baseball102, Bayerischermann, Beland, Belinrahs, Ben ross.ross, Ben-Zin, Bender235, Benny45boy, Benwing, Berek, Bevo, Bevo74, Bhadani, Biblbroks, Bigtimepeace, Bijal d g, Biker Biker, BilCat, Bill37212, Billinghurst, Blackjesus11, Blakkandekka, Blood11211, BlueMoonlet, Bmattioli, Bms4880, Bnash108, Bnjacobs, Bob98133, Bobblewik, Bobmarley96, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Bobsmother123, Boccobrock, Bokbokchicken, Bongwarrior, Bonhoff, Borisblue, Boromir123, Bovineone, Bratsche, Brian Cooke is A God, Brian Everlasting, Brian0918, BrianGV, Brianga, Brianreading, Bribo3, Brickbrown, Brion VIBBER, Broken Spine, BrokenSegue, Brookie, Bruce1ee, Bryan Derksen, Bspratt, Bubba hotep, Buckaroofuss, Bucksportmainerocks, BuffaloChip97, Bull Market, Bulwersator, Bumblezellio, Burley1811, Burzmali, C-squared, C16sh, C1AStewart, C628, C6758, CALR, CHawc, CIreland, CRGreathouse, CRJ200flyer, CTF83!, CWY2190, Cadiomals, Caiaffa, Caknuck, Calmer Waters, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Camptown, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canaima, Candlemb, Canterbury Tail, CapitalR, Capitalistroadster, Capitalwiki, CaribDigita, Carrotsarefun12, Catgut, Cawhee, Cbrown1023, Cbustapeck, CecilWard, Ceejayoz, Celarnor, Cenarium, Centurion328, Cessc, ChadyWady, Chaheel Riens, Chairboy, Chairman S., Chalkdusted, Challisrussia, Chappie5, Check-Six, Cheeesemonger, Chendy, Chewy Legoto, ChiZeroOne, Chris Howard, Chris the speller, ChrisHodgesUK, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, Chriswiki, Chuckiesdad, Chzz, Cirt, Ckatz, ClanCC, Clarince63, Claritas, Classicfilms, Clawson, Clayclayclay, Clemmentine, Cleric Yacorah, Closedmouth, Cmind123, Cncs wikipedia, ColinClark, Cometstyles, CompRhetoric, CompuHacker, Confiteordeo, Confuciusay, Connortoohey, Conversion script, Cool Blue, CoolGuy, Coolhawks88, Cosworth, Courcelles, Cp111, Craigboy, Crazymentalchris, Crazynas, CrimsonDragon90, Crissangelmindfreak2, Cromis, Crystallina, Crzrussian, Cslashb, Csrempert, Cuddlyopedia, Curps, Curtholr, Cwillm2, Cybercobra, Cyberguru, Cyktsui, Cyrusc, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVD R W, DVdm, Dan100, Daniel Quinlan, Danno uk, Danrok, Danski14, Darklord1307, Dateapp, DaveG12345, Davedroc, DavidLevinson, Davidcannon, Dawn Bard, Dchicago, DeFy18, DeadEyeArrow, Deepred6502, Defender of torch, Deflective, Delldot, Demicx, Demmy, DerHexer, Dewritech, Dextrovix, Dgw, Dhaluza, Diagonalfish, Diamondbaxfan2, Diannaa, Digitalme, Ding612, Dipankan001, Dirac1933, DirectEdge, Discospinster, DivideByZero14, DividedByNegativeZero, DividedFrame, Diyar se, Dizzydj, Djtrollshard, Dlohcierekim, Dobat, Doberman1560, Doglover64, Doktor Who, Dolly123, Donghyuncoconut, Donnnni, DonnovaBelly, Dontrell04, Doopokko, Double sharp, DouglasCalvert, Dpaajones, Dpwiki, Dr meetsingh, Dr. Blofeld, DragonflySixtyseven, Dragonkiller33454, Dralwik, Drbogdan, Drcjel, Dreemteem, Drewza.Collins, Drift chambers, Driftwoodzebulin, Drmies, Drunkcaveman, Dtank97, Dufus00, Dysepsion, E Wing, E emma0306, EJF, EVula, Eagle cole, Eastlaw, Eat1176, Ederiel, Edison, Edward, Eehahn12, Eemme1, EfrenIII, El Roih, ElationAviation, Elentirmo, Elipongo, Eloquence, Enam Esru, Engineer astro 12, Engr. Mohiuddin Ahmed Rajon, EnthusiastFRANCE, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epicgenius, Epolk, Eric Forste, Erich gasboy, Ericmachmer, Erjohnst2, Erzengel, Esanchez7587, EscapingLife, EurekaLott, Euroflux, Euryalus, Evalowyn, Evans1982, Eve Hall, Everard Proudfoot, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evrik, Ewikdjmco, Excirial, Experting, Extra999, Eyreland, FACE3336, FACE3337, Fang 23, Fat pig73, Favonian, FayssalF, Fdlznbkfadopibhjna, Fdp, FearTec, Fedchallenged, Felyza, Fenice, Fennec, Feralhamsterjustin, Fetchcomms, Fetofs, Fgsak, Fiddle4199, Fieldday-sunday, Finalius, Finlay McWalter, Firecrotch69, Fireswordfight, Firetrap9254, Fishnet37222, FlamingSilmaril, Florentino floro, Flowerpotman, Fnlayson, Foochar, Fordzii, Forgot to put name, Fotaun, Fotty, Fox Wilson, FrancoGG, Francs2000, Frank, Frankypiama, Frazzydee, Freakofnurture, Frenzie23, Freysauce, Frooby, Fsguitarist, Funnyfarmofdoom, G0T0, G2bambino, GHe, Gail, Galactus91, Gameseeker, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Gary, Garzo, Gcpioneers, Gdo01, GeneralPatton, Geologyguy, George Church, George100, Geremia, Geräusch, Ghepeu, Ghiraddje, Giftlite, Giraffedata, GirasoleDE, Glane23, GlassCobra, Glen, Goatse123, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, Gonzo fan2007, Gooblah, Googar123, GorillaWarfare, GraemeL, Grafen, Graham87, GrandDrake, GrantHenninger, GregorB, Ground Zero, Gsarwa, Gtadoc, Gtrmp, Gualtieri, Guanaco, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gwernol, Gwillhickers, HDCase, HHH-13times, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Haljackey, Halmstad, Halo tru7h, HamburgerRadio, Hanacy, Hanboan, Hans Dunkelberg, Happyme22, Hapsiainen, Harsha850, Hatashe, Havea1234, Havefunchangingmyedits, Hcobb, Hdt83, Headline123, Hektor, Hemanshu, Henry W. Schmitt, HenryLi, Hephaestos, Hertz1888, Herzensgut, HiDrNick, HiLo48, Hisagi, Honda Pilot, Howardjp, Hqb, Hridith Sudev Nambiar, Hu, Hucz, Huntster, Hurricane111, Husnock, Hut 8.5, HybridBoy, Hydrargyrum, I8urneighbor, IComputerSaysNo, INkubusse, Icairns, Icarus, Igotoschool2917, Ilikeracing, Illegitimate Barrister, Imikem, Imroy, Indon, Indosauros, Inkdragon2, Insanity Incarnate, Int21h, Inwind, Iridescent, Ironb777, Ironnickel, Isaiah lowe, Isenstein, Istartfires, IworkforNASA, Ixfd64, Ixireveng3ixi, J 1982, J Di, J.delanoy, JForget, JFreeman, JIBLETS, JLaTondre, JNW, JTN, JV Smithy, JW1805, Jab7842, Jacek Kendysz, Jack.belk, Jackrace, Jacotto, Jadbad, Jaffer, Jahiegel, Jakebob88, JamesTeterenko, Jamespitts89, Jamesx12345, JamieS93, Jared555, Jason Leach, Jasper Deng, Jath143, Jatkins, Jaxl, Jay Gatsby, Jayden54, Jbanning22, Jblake, Jeepday, Jeff G., Jeff Song, Jeff3000, Jeffhollan, JeremyBoggs, Jess Mars, Jesushaces, Jgreeter, Jh51681, Jiang, Jim.henderson, Jim1138, JimWae, Jimaginator, JimsMaher, Jj137, Jkle, Jlvjr11, Jmavs1, Jnelson09, Joanjoc, Jodec123, Joe Decker, JoeCool59, Joefaust, Jogar2, John, John Vandenberg, John of Reading, John oh, JohnCD, JohnTechno, Johnbrownsbody, JohneyAmerica, Johnman239, Johnmarkh, Johnpseudo, Johntex, Jojalozzo, Jok2000, Jon Cates, Jonathan.s.kt, Joneseyboy2007, Jonverve, Jordan.Kreiger, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh99666, Jossi, Joyous!, Jssteil, Jtowns, Julian1234, Junglecat, Junior Skeeter, Junyor, Jupiter-4, Jusdafax, Jusjih, JustinTime55, Jvanvelden, Jwissick, Jwoodger, KUsam, Kablammo, Kabri, Kafziel, Kahastok, Kaijan, Kanishafa, Karada, Katalaveno, Katefan0, Katherine, Katieh5584, Katydidit, Kbolino, Ke4roh, Keilana, Kelly Martin, Kelvin Case, Kf4bdy, Khazar2, Killer kaor, Kim Bruning, King of Hearts, Kingkluk1234, Kingpin13, Kirk Surber, Kitch, Kjkolb, Klipatov, Knight of BAAWA, KnightLago, Knowledge Seeker, Koavf, Kogmaw, Kostisl, Koyaanis Qatsi, Kozuch, Kralizec!, Krenair, Kross, Krous, Ksj2k9, 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:NASA seal.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA_seal.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Vargklo at en.wikipedia. Laterversion(s) were uploaded by Zscout370 at en.wikipedia.File:NASA logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA_logo.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationFile:Flag of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.svg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Kennedy Receives Mariner 2 Model.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kennedy_Receives_Mariner_2_Model.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Docu,Haabet, TheDJ, Tigriss, WstrwaldFile:VonBraunMuellerReesSA6.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VonBraunMuellerReesSA6.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASAFile:X-15.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:X-15.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Courtesy photofile:Launch of Friendship 7 - GPN-2000-000686.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Launch_of_Friendship_7_-_GPN-2000-000686.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/photographer unknownfile:Glenn62.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glenn62.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASAFile:Gemini 7 in orbit - GPN-2006-000035.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gemini_7_in_orbit_-_GPN-2006-000035.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:NASAFile:NASA spacecraft comparison.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA_spacecraft_comparison.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Canoe1967, Craigboy,Fotaun, Huntster, Jann, Jean-Frédéric, Jeff G., Ras67, Soerfm, Thierry Caro, 2 anonymous editsFile:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A.Savin, Bryan, CommonGood, Conscious, Eippol, Gildir, Javierme, Julia W, Mattes, Multichill, Nagy, Spider pig, SteveSims, TheDJ, Wilfredor, Wstrwald, Xavigivax, Xijky, 9 anonymous editsFile:NASA Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA_Apollo_17_Lunar_Roving_Vehicle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:NASAFile:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skylab_and_Earth_Limb_-_GPN-2000-001055.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASAFile:Portrait of ASTP crews - restoration.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portrait_of_ASTP_crews_-_restoration.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:Adam Cuerdenfile:Shuttle-a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shuttle-a.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Auntof6, Huntster, Soerfmfile:Space shuttle mission profile.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Space_shuttle_mission_profile.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BokicaK, Cwbm(commons), DragonflySixtyseven, Hellisp, Karlfk, 4 anonymous editsFile:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/Crew of STS-132File:STS-131 and Expedition 23 Group Portrait.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:STS-131_and_Expedition_23_Group_Portrait.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASAFile:Astronaut Mike Hopkins on Dec. 24 Spacewalk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Astronaut_Mike_Hopkins_on_Dec._24_Spacewalk.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Achim55, Ras67, Stas1995file:COTS2 Dragon is berthed.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COTS2_Dragon_is_berthed.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Craigboy, Huntsterfile:Cygnus Orb-D1.8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cygnus_Orb-D1.8.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Craigboy, Ras67File:COTS2Dragon.6.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COTS2Dragon.6.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CraigboyFile:CST-100.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CST-100.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASAFile:Dream Chaser pre-drop tests.3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dream_Chaser_pre-drop_tests.3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CraigboyFile:Art of SLS launch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Art_of_SLS_launch.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Huntster, Spaceshuttlediscovery, Uwe W.File:Orion with ATV SM.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_with_ATV_SM.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Craigboy, Graphium, 1 anonymous editsFile:Galileo probe deployed (large).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galileo_probe_deployed_(large).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA, image is aNSSDC cropFile:Uranus2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uranus2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/JPL/Voyager missionFile:Thinking Inside the Box, Launching Into Space.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thinking_Inside_the_Box,_Launching_Into_Space.png  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Ariadacapo, Frenzie23, WstrwaldFile:Iieartb.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iieartb.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fotaun, Sfan00 IMGFile:Martian gravel beneath one of the wheels of the Curiosity rover.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Martian_gravel_beneath_one_of_the_wheels_of_the_Curiosity_rover.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex95-Ukraine,DragonflySixtyseven, Havebased123, McZusatz, 3 anonymous editsFile:PIA16236-MarsCuriosityRover-EtThenRock-20121029.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PIA16236-MarsCuriosityRover-EtThenRock-20121029.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: ComputerHotline, DrbogdanImage:Potentially Hazardous Asteroids 2013.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Potentially_Hazardous_Asteroids_2013.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASAfile:Site du JPL en Californie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Site_du_JPL_en_Californie.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASAfile:Vehicle-Assembly-Building-July-6-2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vehicle-Assembly-Building-July-6-2005.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:MrMiscellaniousFile:NASA-budget-federal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA-budget-federal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SoerfmFile:Catseyeandmore.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Catseyeandmore.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASAImage:Commons-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commons-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: AnomieImage:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: ChrisiPK, Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo,MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000, Steinsplitter

License 22

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