Nanocellulose, a tiny fiber with huge applications Tiffany Abitbol 1,3 , Amit Rivkin 1,3 , Yifeng Cao 1,3 , Yuval Nevo 1 , Eldho Abraham 1 , Tal Ben-Shalom 1 , Shaul Lapidot 2 and Oded Shoseyov 1 Nanocellulose is of increasing interest for a range of applications relevant to the fields of material science and biomedical engineering due to its renewable nature, anisotropic shape, excellent mechanical properties, good biocompatibility, tailorable surface chemistry, and interesting optical properties. We discuss the main areas of nanocellulose research: photonics, films and foams, surface modifications, nanocomposites, and medical devices. These tiny nanocellulose fibers have huge potential in many applications, from flexible optoelectronics to scaffolds for tissue regeneration. We hope to impart the readers with some of the excitement that currently surrounds nanocellulose research, which arises from the green nature of the particles, their fascinating physical and chemical properties, and the diversity of applications that can be impacted by this material. Addresses 1 Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel 2 Melodea Ltd, Rehovot 76100, Israel Corresponding author: Shoseyov, Oded ([email protected]) 3 These authors contributed equally to this work. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2016, 39:76–88 This review comes from a themed issue on Nanobiotechnology Edited by Michael Nash and Oded Shoseyov http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2016.01.002 0958-1669/# 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction Increased demand for high-performance materials with tailored mechanical and physical properties, makes nanocellulose the most attractive renewable material for advanced applications. Cellulose is the product of biosynthesis from plants, animals, or bacteria, while the general term ‘nanocellulose’ refers to cellulosic extracts or processed materials, having defined nano-scale structural dimensions. Nanocellulose can be divided to three types of materials: (I) cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), also re- ferred to as nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) and cellulose nanowhiskers (CNWs), (II) cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), also referred to as nano-fibrillated cellulose (NFC), and (III) bacterial cellulose (BC). Different approaches are used to extract nanoparticles from cellulose sources, resulting in particles with varied crystallinities, surface chemistries, and mechanical properties [1]. See Figure 1 for electron microscope images of the three types of nanocellulose. Currently, CNCs are mainly produced by acid hydrolysis/ heat controlled techniques, with sulfuric acid being the most utilized acid. Extraction of the crystals from cellulose fibers involves selective hydrolysis of amor- phous cellulose regions, resulting in highly crystalline particles with source-dependent dimensions, for exam- ple, 5–20 nm 100–500 nm for plant source CNCs. Sul- furic acid hydrolysis grafts negatively charged sulfate half-ester groups onto the surface of the particles, which act to prevent aggregation in aqueous suspensions due to electrostatic repulsion between particles. Furthermore, the rod-like shape of CNCs leads to concentration- dependent liquid crystalline self-assembly behavior. CNFs are micrometer-long entangled fibrils that contain both amorphous and crystalline cellulose domains, unlike CNCs which have near-perfect crystallinity (ca. 90%). Entanglement of the long particles gives highly viscous aqueous suspensions at relatively low concentrations (be- low 1 wt%). The extraction of CNFs from cellulosic fibers can be achieved by three types of processes: (I) mechani- cal treatments (e.g. homogenization, grinding, and mill- ing), (II) chemical treatments (e.g. TEMPO oxidation), and (III) combination of chemical and mechanical treat- ments [2]. BC is produced extracellularly by microorganisms, with Gluconacetobacter xylinum being the most efficient amongst cellulose-producing microorganisms. Different from plant-source nanocellulose, which may require pre- treatment to remove lignin and hemicellulosics before hydrolysis, BC is synthesized as pure cellulose. BC nano- fibers, characterized by average diameters of 20–100 nm and micrometer lengths, entangle to form stable network structures (see Figure 1). The different types of nanocellulose exhibit distinct properties which dictate their applicability and function- ality, that is, certain types of nanocellulose are better suited for specific applications than others. The unique properties of nanocellulose include high Young’s modu- lus/tensile strength (e.g. 150 GPa/10 GPa for CNCs), a range of aspect ratios that can be accessed depending on Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2016, 39:76–88 www.sciencedirect.com
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Nanocellulose, a tiny fiber with huge applicationsTiffany Abitbol1,3, Amit Rivkin1,3, Yifeng Cao 1,3, Yuval Nevo1,Eldho Abraham1, Tal Ben-Shalom1, Shaul Lapidot2 andOded Shoseyov1
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Nanocellulose is of increasing interest for a range of
applications relevant to the fields of material science and
biomedical engineering due to its renewable nature,
anisotropic shape, excellent mechanical properties, good
biocompatibility, tailorable surface chemistry, and interesting
optical properties. We discuss the main areas of nanocellulose
research: photonics, films and foams, surface modifications,
nanocomposites, and medical devices. These tiny
nanocellulose fibers have huge potential in many applications,
from flexible optoelectronics to scaffolds for tissue
regeneration. We hope to impart the readers with some of the
excitement that currently surrounds nanocellulose research,
which arises from the green nature of the particles, their
fascinating physical and chemical properties, and the diversity
of applications that can be impacted by this material.
Addresses1 Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel2 Melodea Ltd, Rehovot 76100, Israel
Corresponding author: Shoseyov, Oded ([email protected])3 These authors contributed equally to this work.
Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2016, 39:76–88
This review comes from a themed issue on Nanobiotechnology
Edited by Michael Nash and Oded Shoseyov
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2016.01.002
0958-1669/# 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
IntroductionIncreased demand for high-performance materials with
tailored mechanical and physical properties, makes
nanocellulose the most attractive renewable material
for advanced applications. Cellulose is the product of
biosynthesis from plants, animals, or bacteria, while the
general term ‘nanocellulose’ refers to cellulosic extracts or
processed materials, having defined nano-scale structural
dimensions. Nanocellulose can be divided to three types
of materials: (I) cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), also re-
ferred to as nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) and cellulose
nanowhiskers (CNWs), (II) cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs),
also referred to as nano-fibrillated cellulose (NFC), and
(III) bacterial cellulose (BC). Different approaches are
Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2016, 39:76–88
used to extract nanoparticles from cellulose sources,
resulting in particles with varied crystallinities, surface
chemistries, and mechanical properties [1]. See Figure 1
for electron microscope images of the three types of
nanocellulose.
Currently, CNCs are mainly produced by acid hydrolysis/
heat controlled techniques, with sulfuric acid being
the most utilized acid. Extraction of the crystals from
cellulose fibers involves selective hydrolysis of amor-
phous cellulose regions, resulting in highly crystalline
particles with source-dependent dimensions, for exam-
and differentiation [149–155], and cellular patterning
[53,148,156,157]. With the possibility of diverse fabrica-
tion shapes, such as membrane-like structures having
tailorable porosities and surface chemistries, BC and
CNCs are inherently suitable for tissue engineering scaf-
folds [145], such as coatings [158], membranes and hydro-
gels [150,159–161], electrospun nanofibers [149,162], and
all-cellulose nanocomposites [148].
Another hot topic is nanocellulose-based materials
for drug delivery [163], in the form of membranes
[164–166], tablet coatings [167], and in composite-bio-
polymer delivery systems [168,169]. These materials can
be loaded with the drug of choice, and provide good drug
stability as well as a controlled release profile [170,171]. In
addition, CNC surface modification has been used to
design novel carriers [172–174]; a particularly versatile
modification of CNCs uses an aromatic linker to facilitate
both binding and controlled release of amine-containing
drugs [174]. Furthermore, nanocellulose is a promising
candidate for protein immobilization, preserving the
structural integrity of the protein, and enhancing activity
and long-term storage stability [175��].
Nanocellulose per se does not possess properties for tissue
regeneration and healing. However, it does provide a
versatile platform when used in combination with other
biomaterials, such as collagen, to support and promote
cellular activities for tissue regeneration and repair. Exam-
ples are found for both hard and soft tissue regeneration
[143,176,177], with skin repair being the most explored and
clinically advanced in the field [146,175��,178]. Moreover,
the ability of BC/BC-biocomposites to absorb exudate and
be easily removed, coupled with their hydrophilic nature,
make these materials superior compared to conventional
dressings [178]. In fact, several BC-based products are
already available on the market (e.g. XCell1 and BioFill).
Nanocellulose BC wound dressings can also play a role in
antimicrobial treatment, since the porous network pro-
vides a physical barrier against external infections while
allowing release of pre-loaded antimicrobial agents. Both
inorganic [179–185] and organic [135,186–191] antimicro-
bials have been employed to this end, with loading into
the nanocellulose structures based either on physical
adsorption or chemical conjugation.
Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2016, 39:76–88
The mechanical properties, water contents and good
biocompatibility, make BC the most attractive form of
nanocellulose for tissue replacement. While several
examples show early stage results for soft tissue applica-
tions [147,159,192–194], blood vessel replacements are by
far the most promising and relevant with significant
benefits compared to clinically available synthetic mate-
rials [195–199].
Fluorescent labeling of nanocellulose with a variety of
fluorophores is of emerging interest in bio-imaging, target-
ing and sensing applications [33,81,82,200]. Finally,
CNC-based systems are also compelling as mechanically
adaptive materials for intracortical microelectrode applica-
tions. The first report of this nature described CNC-based
microprobes which exhibited switchable mechanical prop-
erties from wet to dry [201�].
ConclusionsAlthough the topic of nanocellulose (CNCs, CNFs, and
BC) has been intensively researched over the past
2+ decades, the room for new developments, particularly
in the fields of coatings and medical devices, clearly
exists. Pushing the boundaries of nanocellulose further
into flexible electronics, optical devices, and high perfor-
mance functional plastics, to create organic materials with
tunable, ‘smart’, and biomimetic characteristics will be of
particular interest for the future, especially as cost-effective
commercial sources of nanocellulose continue to emerge.
Currently, the applications of nanocellulose may be some-
what limited by availability and cost, however the outlook
is promising as more and more companies and researchers
look toward these particles for solutions to existing chal-
lenges.
AcknowledgmentsThe authors thank David Ernst Weber for design of the table of contentsgraphic, and the Minerva Center for Biohybrid Complex Systems forsupport. TA is grateful to the Azrieli Foundation for the award of an AzrieliFellowship, and YC and EA acknowledge the PBC post-doctoral fellowshipfor funding. This work was partially supported by a Minerva Grant and twoFP7 programs: BRIMEE (608910) and NCCFOAM (604003-2). In addition,the authors would like to thank the Hebrew University Center forNanoscience and Nanotechnology.
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