Posted: Thu Nov 29, 2007 3:19 pm Route of Naga MigrationR.B. Thohe Pou Note: Introduction to Nagas (Please read Affinities between Nagas and the Indigenous People Southern Seas) The exact route of migration is difficult to delineate but i t may be traced through the study offolksongs, folktales and legends of different tribes of Nagas. According to the oral tradition, they did not migrate from Brahmaputra valley (Assam) to the Naga Hills. But the myths oforigin traced the route of migration to Southeast. In ancient times, the migration took place mainly along the river corridors. So it is quite possible that they migrated from mainland ofChina and followed the route along the rivers to Myanmar and retreated to Naga Hills. According to Keane, the migration of the people undoubtedly first took a southward turn from the Asiatic mainland, then from the Archipelago eastward to the Pacific. Contrary to eastward movement to the Pacific, the Nagas followed the southward movements from the Asiatic mainland and after reaching the Moulmein Sea coast (Myanmar) they migrated northwestward and lived in Irrawaddy and Chindwin Valley for some period of time and finally migrated to the present Naga Hills. It is also written by Kaith Buchanan that over hundreds of years the pre- Chinese people of central Asia were displaced into the upland areas of Indo-Chin ese lands far to the south. It is possible that Nagas were one such group who were displaced from central Asia and migrated to the Southeast Asia. The route of Southward movements from China by the Nagas would be difficult to delineate due to lack of written history. But geographically and from a geographical perspective, the Southward movement (migration) from main land China is possible following along the three rivers like Salween (Nu-Jiang), Mekong and Irrawaddy River. It is believed that the Nagas migrated from Mainland China and followed the southward movement along the route of Salween River and eventually reached the Southern Seas in Moulmein (Myanmar). It is because the Salween River originated from the mainland of China near Tanglha Range and flowed to Southern Seas in Moulmein (southern Myanmar) and the other tributary near Bangkok. Diagram 3.1 Route of Nagas Migration (Diagrammatical Representation) Nagas from Mainland of China Yunnam Province Salween River (China) (China & Myanmar) Moulmein Irradwaddy & Chindwin River Imphal River (Myanmar) (Myanmar) (Manipur)
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Note: Introduction to Nagas (Please read Affinities between Nagas and the Indigenous
People Southern Seas)
The exact route of migration is difficult to delineate but it may be traced through the study of
folksongs, folktales and legends of different tribes of Nagas. According to the oral tradition,
they did not migrate from Brahmaputra valley (Assam) to the Naga Hills. But the myths of
origin traced the route of migration to Southeast. In ancient times, the migration took place
mainly along the river corridors. So it is quite possible that they migrated from mainland of
China and followed the route along the rivers to Myanmar and retreated to Naga Hills.
According to Keane, the migration of the people undoubtedly first took a southward turn fromthe Asiatic mainland, then from the Archipelago eastward to the Pacific. Contrary to eastward
movement to the Pacific, the Nagas followed the southward movements from the Asiatic
mainland and after reaching the Moulmein Sea coast (Myanmar) they migrated northwestward
and lived in Irrawaddy and Chindwin Valley for some period of time and finally migrated to the
present Naga Hills. It is also written by Kaith Buchanan that over hundreds of years the pre-
Chinese people of central Asia were displaced into the upland areas of Indo-Chinese lands far
to the south. It is possible that Nagas were one such group who were displaced from central
Asia and migrated to the Southeast Asia.
The route of Southward movements from China by the Nagas would be difficult to delineate
due to lack of written history. But geographically and from a geographical perspective, the
Southward movement (migration) from main land China is possible following along the three
rivers like Salween (Nu-Jiang), Mekong and Irrawaddy River.
It is believed that the Nagas migrated from Mainland China and followed the southward
movement along the route of Salween River and eventually reached the Southern Seas in
Moulmein (Myanmar). It is because the Salween River originated from the mainland of China
near Tanglha Range and flowed to Southern Seas in Moulmein (southern Myanmar) and the
other tributary near Bangkok.
Diagram 3.1 Route of Nagas Migration
(Diagrammatical Representation)
Nagas from Mainland of China Yunnam Province Salween River
The Irrawaddy River and Chindwin River do not originate from mainland of China. The Mekong
River originated from mainland of China but it runs through Laos, Cambodia and eventually to
the Southern Seas in Mytho City in Vietnam. It is not proved by the historical facts that the
Nagas took the route of migration along the Mekong River.
The custom and tradition of Nagas resemble those of the Tribes of Thailand, Myanmar,
Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia than to the tribal people in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
Perhaps the Nagas took the route of migration along the Salween River to reach the southern
seas of Moulmein (Myanmar).
Fig. 1.1 Map of South East Asian Peninsula
Showing the possible route of Nagas migration
It is supported by historical facts that once the Nagas lived in Irrawaddy valley in the
periphery of Salween River. One of the tributaries of Irrawaddy River from Mandalay,
(Myanmar) also has a confluence with Salween River near Loi-Kaw (Myanmar), and it is
possible to migrate through this river.
However, the researchers believed that the Nagas migrated further south to Moulmein Sea,
where marine shells are found. It is supported by their (Nagas) fondness of marine shells in
decorating their dresses (kilt) and the marine shells are not found in the hills. They were alsovery familiar with the cowries and conches since time immemorial. The Nagas are basically
from the mainland of China most probably from the Yunnam province taking southward
migration along the Salween River to the south of Moulmein (Myanmar) and lived there for
some period of years. It is also believed that some of their (Naga) clans (brothers) were left in
Moulmein and they retreated to the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Valleys.
Those who were left in the vicinity of seas coast continued to press further southward through
the south of Myanmar to Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines. Once the Naga are believed to
have lived near the seas but the reason for their migration from the Southern Seas to the
Nagas Hills is still obscure. It is difficult to ponder on this matter and give a reasonable
reason.
Some of the probable reasons for their retreat may be mentioned as-
i) The plains people who were more civilized with better equipment in warfare in Moulmein or
near the seacoast might have pressed the Nagas to push up the Irrawaddy Valley.
ii) There could be frequents waves, tornados and pestilence living near the seacoast.
iii) Another reason may be; they felt safe from their enemies’ attacks, living in the hills
than living in the plain, where there is not much protection.
iv) As they were basically from the mainland, they may not be adapted to the coastal
environment and may liked to pursue other occupations like hunting, gathering fruits;
cultivation etc which might have made them shift to the hills of Chindwin and Irrawaddy River
valleys near Monywa (Myanmar).
There was not historical record like, when did they reach the southern seas, how long they
lived there, when did they live near the seacoast or when did they migrate to the Naga
Hills.The Naga Scholar R.R. Shimray suggested that Nagas lived near the seas coast during
the Neolithic Age, and migrated to the hills during the Bronze Age or early Iron Age and, thus,
he wrote,
“There is a legend of a huge tiger which had blocked the gate way and with great difficulty
they could cross it after having the tiger by adopting various ingenuities. This ingenuity of
killing the said tiger includes use of arrows. It, therefore, appears that after roaming in the
Irrawadi valley and the south East Asian countries in the Neolithic Age, the Naga group had
reached the hole in the Bronze Age (3100-2000BC) or early Iron Age (1200BC).†50
Some of the authorities on Nagas like Hutton; Pearl; Capt. Steel etc showed the evidence of
Neolithic culture in Nagaland with the studied of those smooth stones found in Nagaland,
which is still preserved in Oxford University. The recent discoveries of pebble chopper in
Maring Naga village and the Khangkhui cave materials at Ukhrul by an Archaeologist O.K.
Singh proved the evidence of Paleolithic culture in Naga country.
However according to S.K. Chatterjee, the presence of the Nagas in the Naga Hills was felt by
the 8th century B.C (700 BC) 51 The Nagas after they lived near the Seas Coast for
generations, they retreated north- west from Moulmein along the Irrawaddy River to the
confluence of Chindwin and Irrawaddy River near Monywa (Myanmar).
According to some stories, the valley where once the Nagas lived was too warm for permanentsettlement and also there were too many mosquitoes. But most probably the aboriginal
settlers in Irrawaddy valley might have pressed the Nagas to the Hills where they are
occupying now. In ancient time the more powerful races in warfare usually drive out the
weaker races. For instance, the Dravidians were suppose to be the first settler in Indian
Gangetic plain, but later the Aryans drove them from the valley and migrated to the south.
The wave of migration from Irrawaddy valley took along the Imphal River and corridor of
Indo-Myanmar to reach Manipur. As the Manipur valley was swampy and filled with water in
those days, they moved to the hills. One of the Manipur historians J.Roy wrote, “Though
the sea receded from that area, the valley portion of Manipur remained under the water for a
long time. The Manipuri Purans also refer to this fact that everything was under the water inthe beginning.†52
From Imphal River, (which is linked to Irrawaddy River) they moved further to the north of
Kangpokpi (Imphal River rises from Kangpokpi) and then to Karong (Senapati District). From
Karong, most probably they took the route along the Barak River and eventually settled at
Makhel (near Nagaland border) Senapati District Manipur, which the Nagas consider to be the
cradle of dispersion. In ancient time, the people from Makhel go to Imphal along the Barak
Today, it is widely accepted as a term with long historical background. Interestingly, in popular perception,the term is not exclusionist in the sense that it does not refer to any particular clan group in a restrictive way.Thus, it is widely believed that all the people who cook rice on three stone pillars. "Lungthu", are all Mizo.More recently, some leaders from within the community have tried to replace 'Mizo' by 'Zomi', on theargument that 'Zo' should come first and 'mi' later. It does not make any substantive difference, the twoterms, 'Mizo' and 'Zomi', may be taken to refer to the same people.
Hornbills
(Bucerotidae)
Class Aves
Order Coraciiformes
Suborder Bucerotes
Family Hornbills (Bucerotidae)
Thumbnail description
Medium to large-sized, stocky, highly vocal birds with long, slightly decurved bills
topped by casques of various shapes, sizes, and colors
Size
11.8–47.3 in (30–120 cm); 0.22–13.2 lb (100g–6 kg)
In his classic work The Hornbills published in 1995, Alan Kemp wrote "Trying to decide
what other groups of birds are most closely related to hornbills is not quite so easy." Time
has not made that decision any easier; the classification of these bizarre, large-billed birdsis still debated. Most modern taxonomic treatments place hornbills within the order
Coraciiformes together with their closest relatives: the hoopoe (Upupidae) and the
woodhoopoes and scimitarbills (Phoeniculidae). This classification is based primarily onsimilarity in foot and jaw morphology, and a prolonged retention of quills by nestlings,
which gives them a prickly "pin-cushion" look. All birds of these families nest in tree
holes, but only hornbills seal the entrance to their cavities.
As of 2001, science recognizes 54 species of hornbills grouped within 14 genera and twosubfamilies. All but two species are classified within the subfamily Bucerotinae. The
exceptions are the terrestrial ground-hornbills, which fall within the subfamily
Bucorvinae. The distinction between Bucerotinae and Bucorvinae is based on uniquefeather lice and anatomical and behavioral differences such as a greater number of neck
vertebrae and the lack of nest-sealing behavior in the Bucorvinae. In 2001, S. Huebner
and colleagues conducted detailed molecular studies of the two groups. They found thatground-hornbills were probably the earliest form.
All 54 hornbill species display unique anatomical features that clearly identify their
affinities. These include being blessed with long, sweeping eyelashes on their upper lids
and a fusion of the first two cervical vertebrae to provide support for large bills. Allhornbills lack carotid arteries as well as the short feathers under the wings that cover the
primary and secondary flight feathers of other birds. Finally, hornbills have unusual
kidneys in that they are two-lobed instead of three, and the Z chromosome, one of a pair
of sex chromosomes, is oversized.
Physical characteristics
Hornbills are among the most flamboyant birds of their habitat. The oversized, slightly
decurved bills topped by sometimes outlandish casques shaped as bumps, ridges, or horns
make hornbills an unforgettable component of any landscape. Hornbills varytremendously in size and shape, starting with the large, long-legged southern ground-
hornbill ( Bucorvus leadbeateri) weighing up to 13.2 lb (6 kg), and going down to the
0.26 lb (120 g) red-billed dwarf hornbill (Tockus camurus). Males are always larger andstouter than females but the greatest dimorphism often occurs in bill length with males
having up to 30% longer bills. Horn-bill plumage is described as "drab," lacking the
brilliant colors of relatives such as the kingfishers (Alcedinidae) and rollers (Coraciidae).
However, the bold black-and-white patterns of many forest hornbills and the delicategray pied patterns of many Tockus species are far from dull. Add in bills and casques of
brilliant orange, yellow-gold, deep crimson, or shiny black, and patches of bare skin
around the eyes and throat in a kaleidoscope of garish hues, and you have a colorfulgroup of birds.
Plumage color and size and shape of the casque identify the age and sex of an individual.
underdeveloped casques and small bills, but after the first year of life, appearances
converge on that of their adult counterparts. In species where sexes differ in color as
adults, determining the gender of the young can be difficult. For example, in almostall Aceros, Rhyticeros, Penelopides, and Tockus species, the young, regardless of their
sex, resemble their fathers for the first year of life. The opposite is true for
the Bycanistes and Ceratogymna who resemble the adult female. Young of the northernground-hornbill ( Bucorvus abyssinicus) and a few Tockus species show plumage true to
their sex while chicks of the rufous hornbill ( Buceros hydrocorax) are radically different
from both parents.
Numerous authors have described the noise produced by flying hornbills as that of anapproaching train. This incredible "whooshing," produced in different pitches depending
on the species' size, is a result of wing structure. Because horn-bills lack the small
feathers that normally cover the shafts of the primary and second flight feathers, each powerful stroke of the wing allows air to pass through and vibrate the large feathers.
The most outstanding feature, and the one from which hornbills acquire their commonname, is the casque on the top of the bill. Casques vary from the mere ridge of the
redbilled hornbill (Tockus erythrorhynchus) to the wash-board bumps of the wreathedhornbill ( Rhyticeros undulatus) and the elaborate banana of the rhinoceros hornbill
( Buceros rhinoceros). The function of casques, which may take up to six years to
develop, is the topic of many debates. It is possible that casques provide structuralsupport for a long bill. Casques may also serve an acoustic function by helping amplify a
horn-bill's call. Additionally, casques may be attractive to the opposite sex. The helmeted
hornbill uses its casque in bizarre, aerial displays where individuals of either sex collide
in midair, casque-to-casque. The head-butting competitions always occur near fruiting figtrees ( Ficus spp.). Although Gustav Schneider once reported that helmeted hornbills
perform this comical ritual when they are intoxicated on fermented figs, observationsfrom Sumatra indicate that this acrobatic act may be in defense of clumped foodresources.
Distribution
Hornbills occur across sub-Saharan Africa, through India and southern Asia, across the
Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos, and east to the Solomon Islands. There are nohorn-bills in the New World. Within the hornbill family, 23 species inhabit Africa, while
the remaining 31 are found in Asia. The largest and most widespread genus in
Africa, Tockus, is represented by 13 species. The most ubiquitous of the Tockus species is
the African gray hornbill (Tockus nasutus), a medium-sized gray and white bird with populations occurring from the shores of Mauritania in the west, east to the Red Sea, and
as far south as Namibia and South Africa. In Asia, Aceros and Rhyticeros hornbills
dominate with five genera each, occurring from Bhutan and northern India in the west tothe Solomon Islands in the east. Two species of the genus Ocyceros, the Malabar gray
hornbill (Ocyceros griseus) and Indian gray horn-bill (Ocyceros birostris), occur
exclusively in India while the third species, the Sri Lankan gray hornbill (Ocyceros
gingalensis), is restricted, as its name implies, to the island of Sri Lanka. Several hornbill
species, especially those occupying oceanic islands, have restricted distributions. The
tarictic hornbills are a prime example. The Luzon ( Penelopides manillae), Visayan
( Penelopides panini), and Mindanao ( Penelopides affinis) tarictic hornbills occur only ona few neighboring islands within the Philippine archipelago. A fourth Philippine species,
the Mindoro tarictic hornbill ( Penelopides mindorensis) is endemic to the small island of
Mindoro while the fifth species of the genus, the Sulawesi tarictic hornbill ( Penelopidesexarhatus) is found only on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. Several other species are
endemic to single islands, including the Sulawesi red-knobbed hornbill ( Aceros cassidix),
the Sumba hornbill ( Rhyticeros everetti), and the Narcondam hornbill ( Rhyticeros
narcondami).
Habitat
Arid deserts, scrubby woodlands, cool mountains, and steamy rainforests all constitute
hornbill habitat. In general, however, hornbills are birds of the forest. Of the 30 speciesfound in India and Southeast Asia, only the Indian gray horn-bill lives in open savanna.
In Africa, where forests are less extensive, the proportion of savanna-dwelling speciesincreases accordingly; 13 of 23 species reside in savannas and woodlands while the
remaining 10 inhabit forests. Species occupying savannas tend to have more extensiveranges but, like the red-billed hornbill, may be separated into many distinct populations
by imposing bands of woodland. Endemic species are, by default, limited to habitats
available within their restricted range. This is particularly true of insular species like theSumba hornbill, which occupies all forest types on its native island.
There are key features that must be present in all hornbill habitats—an ample number of
large trees for nesting, an adequate year-round supply of food, and enough habitat area to
support a viable population. Each species has a particular set of requirements, which may
help explain why several species can simultaneously occupy the same habitat. In theforests of Thailand, where nine hornbill species may occur together, a small Tickell's
brown hornbill ( Anorrhinus tickelli) is able to use nest holes of smaller dimensions thanthe larger great hornbill ( Buceros bicornis). On Sumatra, where a similar number of
species coexist, they generally forage on different diet items; when diet overlap occurs, as
with rhinoceros and helmeted hornbills, they partition their habitat by feeding at differentheights in the canopy. Habitat quality will influence the number of hornbills an area can
support. Habitat size also limits hornbill populations. On the island of Sumba, hornbills
are rare or absent from forest patches less than 3.6 mi2 (10 km2) in size.
Behavior
Hornbills generally wake at dawn, preen their feathers, then begin their search for food.
Normally, hornbills move about in pairs, but some species are found in family groups of
three to 20 individuals. Some hornbills gather in large flocks around clumped food
resources. The Sulawesi redknobbed hornbill is occasionally seen in groups of more than100 individuals at large fruiting figs. In Thailand, wreathed hornbills roost in flocks of
over 1,000 individuals. The plain-pouched hornbill ( Aceros subruficollis) takes the record
for the largest aggregations; over 2,400 individuals were counted in Malaysia in 1998
traveling to roost. Roosts may serve as "information centers" where individual birds can
reduce foraging time by following a knowledgeable, long-term resident. As Alan Kempsummarizes, these massive gatherings are "wonderfully noisy and visually stunning, and
must surely rate among the foremost spectacles of the bird world."
Hornbills are believed to be monogamous. The only research on the faithfulness of
hornbills failed to find evidence
of extra-pair paternity in Monteiro's hornbill (Tockus monteiri), boosting confidence in
their monogamous behavior. Monogamy may have many variations on the theme.
Among cooperative social groups, there is generally one monogamous breeding pair and
a number of offspring who become "helpers" during the nesting season, deliveringmorsels to their mother and siblings and defending a mutual territory. Cooperative
breeding occurs more often in hornbills than any other bird family, and may characterize
up to one-third of all hornbill species.
Many hornbills range widely but none of these movements is considered migratory. Most
hornbills are sedentary and many are territorial. The majority of Tockus and small-bodied
forest hornbills are territorial throughout the year. Larger hornbills such as
the Aceros and Rhyticeros that rely on scattered fruit resources, may range over 21 mi2 (58km2) and only defend temporary territories around nest sites.
Hornbills communicate through a wide range of spectacular calls and each species can be
identified by its vocalizations. Loud calls announce territories, or in the non-territorial
species, aid in maintaining contact. Territorial ground-hornbills "boom" when their boundaries are invaded and non-territorial wreathed hornbills bark like dogs while
coordinating flocks. While calls are important in dense forest habitats, visual displays aremore prevalent in open grasslands. For example, the Hemprich's hornbill (Tockus
hemprichii) has an elaborate territorial display that resembles the mechanical movements
of a wind-up toy; the bill is pointed skyward, while the bird whistles, and lifts and fans its
tail over its back.
Feeding ecology and diet
Hornbill diets span the spectrum from animals to fruits and seeds but most are
omnivorous, mixing meat and fruit in their meals. AmongTockus, diets tend more toward
insects, scorpions, lizards, snakes, and small mammals, while Ocyceros
and tarictic diets include more fruit. Omnivory is the rule among the territorial, group-living hornbills. Because animal prey often occurs at low density and is available year-
round, hornbills may develop defendable territories in which dietary needs for the pair or
group are satisfied. Additionally, these species maximize exploitation of their territories by using abundant but ephemeral fruit resources as they become available. The
availability of fruit resources within a habitat may determine the degree of omnivory
Heavy reliance on fruits requires that hornbills have large home ranges, and may affect
reproductive rates. Fruit diets combined with large home ranges have important
consequences for forest ecology. As hornbills travel, they disperse seeds of the fruits theyrelish, playing a role in regenerating the forests in which they live.
Reproductive biology
Hornbill reproduction tends to coincide with rainfall and increased food supply. In
seasonal African savannas, Tockus species begin courtship and reproduction with therains, when invertebrates and fruits are plentiful. The opposite occurs on Sulawesi where
lack of rainfall stimulates reproduction in the Sulawesi red-knobbed hornbill, so the burst
in fruit supply occurs immediately after fledging. In aseasonal Bornean rain-forests,reproduction appears to be supra annual, tied to highly cyclical peaks in food supply.
Breeding in these populations may be controlled by the rate at which pairs regain
condition between reproductive cycles. In fig-rich forests of North Sulawesi, hornbills breed every year, usually returning to the same nest tree.
The hornbill's unique nesting behavior is the feature that has most fascinated students of
nature. All hornbills are hole-nesters, preferring natural cavities in trees or rock crevices.
Unlike any other group of birds, the female hornbill seals the entrance to her nest cavity,leaving only a narrow slit through which she, and later her chicks, receive food from her
mate. In most species, the male ferries mud to the female who then works for several
days to seal the cavity entrance. Where mud is a rare commodity, the female uses her
own feces as building material.
Nest sealing is believed to have evolved as a form of predator defense, for protection
against other intruding hornbills, and to enforce male fidelity. Nest sealing has been
described as an example of male chauvinism in which the male cloisters his female,forcing her to depend on him for survival. In reality, the female incarcerates herself and
later frees herself, forcing the male to provide for her and their offspring. Because the
male is busy provisioning his family, he is incapable of maintaining two nests, and the
female can be sure of his complete attention.
The onset of breeding begins with courtship. When in flight, courting pairs act as though
they are attached by an invisible rubber band, reacting swiftly to each other's movements.
They perch in cozy proximity, engage in mutual preening, and exchange food gifts as ademonstration of their ardor. Other clues of the onset of breeding include the
intensification in color of the exposed fleshy areas around the face and throat, reflecting
hormonal changes. Nest inspection increases in frequency until copulation occurs and thefemale enters the nest cavity.
The number of eggs, their size, and the length of incubation are all correlated with body
size. Clutch size ranges from two to three eggs in large hornbills and up to eight for
smaller hornbills. Incubation runs from 23-49 days in small and large species,
respectively. Eggs hatch in intervals and the emerging chicks are naked and translucent
pink with closed eyes. Feather growth begins within a few days and as chicks develop,
the skin blackens and begging calls change from feeble cheeps to loud, insistent calls.
The timing of female emergence varies tremendously; some females accompany their chicks from the nests and others leave well before chicks fledge. Research on Monteiro's
hornbill suggests that females emerge to ensure survival when their body conditionreaches its lowest point.
Male hornbills can be impressive providers. Although many Tockus species carry itemsto the nest one-by-one, most hornbills collect multiple food items, stuffed into a bulging
gullet before delivering a load to the nest. A Sulawesi redknobbed hornbill once delivered
162 fruits in one trip, a load equivalent to nearly 20% of his body weight.
Nesting success is high for those species studied. In southern Africa, chicks fledged from90–92% of the nests of four Tockus species and in Thailand, 80% of great hornbill nests
monitored fledged young. Sulawesi red-knobbed hornbills averaged 80% nesting success
over three years, but this figure plummeted to 62% during the 1997 El Niño/ENSO fires.Smaller hornbills fledge up to four chicks, but large hornbills rarely fledge more than one
chick per year.
Conservation status
Only 16% of all hornbill species are classified as being under some level of threat,ranging in increasing degree from Vulnerable to Critical and Endangered, according to
the IUCN. An additional 12 species, however, are considered Near Threatened and will
probably experience a decline in status within the twenty-first century. Africa presently
has no hornbills in danger of extinction; only two West African forest inhabitants, the
yellow-casqued hornbill (Ceratogymna elata) and the brown-cheeked hornbill( Bycanistes cylindricus), are classified as Near Threatened. All nine species suffering
endangerment reside in Asia, and most (77%) occur on small oceanic islands. The Sumbaand Narcondam hornbills, both single-island endemics, are classified as Vulnerable, with
total populations hovering around 4,000 and 300, respectively. The situation in the
Philippines is especially urgent. Rapidly dwindling forests contain two species ranked asthe most endangered hornbills in the world, the Visayan and Mindoro tarictic hornbills,
as well as two species classified as Critical, the Sulu ( Anthracoceros montani) and
rufous-headed ( Aceros waldeni) hornbills, and one Vulnerable species, the Palawanhornbill ( Anthracoceros marchei). There are no rigorous population estimates for these
species, but we assume populations are extremely small and may vanish within decades
unless conservation measures are adopted.
The underlying threat to hornbill populations is habitat alteration resulting in forest lossand fragmentation. As forests become smaller and more isolated, hornbill populations
decline, resulting in increased vulnerability to extinction from natural disasters such as
disease. Protection of hornbill populations and their habitats within conservation areas of
adequate size offer some hope for their long-term persistence. In the late 1990s, two parks were established on Sumba to aid in the conservation of the Sumba hornbill, and
the Philippines have proposed to establish the Central Panay Mountains National Park
(NP) for the Visayan tarictic hornbill. In India and Africa, vast tracts of savanna and
forest have been protected as parks for decades. The long-term success of hornbillconservation in these parks, however, depends on active management to ensure that they
are more than "parks on paper."
Unsustainable hunting for food, pets, and body parts is also a problem. Although illegal,
trade in helmeted hornbill ivory continues. Great and oriental pied hornbill casques arecommon souvenirs in Thai and Laotian markets. Traditions that require feathers or skulls
take a toll on living birds. Female Kenyalang dancers of Malaysia carry up to 10 hornbill
tail feathers in each hand, thus supplying a full complement of 20 dancers can cost up to80 hornbills.
The 1990s have seen a dramatic increase in awareness of hornbill ecology and
conservation needs. The number of horn-bill studies, especially those by range-country
biologists, escalated during this time and continues to increase. Developments in hornbill
research and conservation are quickly communicated to the global community throughthe IUCN Species Survival Commission's Hornbill Specialist Group and facilitated by
Internet communication. Only with such global attention are we able to finance localinitiatives and put pressure on a range of state governments to conserve these unusual
birds.
Significance to humans
Like many other groups of birds, hornbills are hunted for food and consumed for medicine. In Africa, parts of the ground-hornbill are eaten to improve health and sagacity,
whereas in India, the great hornbill, the Indian pied hornbill, and the Indian gray hornbill
are rendered into oils that supposedly aid in childbirth and relieve gout and joint pains. InIndonesia, the meat of the Sumba hornbill is roasted and eaten to relieve rheumatism and
asthma. Because they are easily tamed, horn-bills are captured and traded for pets or
exhibition. Unlike any other group of birds, however, hornbills play special roles in the
folklore and ceremonies of the countries where they occur. Long, elegant tail feathers arethe most sought-after hornbill part, but heads and casques are also coveted. The Nishis
people of Arunachal Pradesh, India, attach the upper beak of the great hornbill to
rattan bopiah caps as traditional male headgear. Neighboring Wanchos of easternArunachal use the warm, chestnut-colored neck feathers of rufous-necked hornbills to
cover caps. On Borneo, the helmeted and rhinoceros hornbills reach mythical proportions
in the eyes of the local inhabitants. The helmeted hornbill, in particular, is strongly
associated with headhunting. C. Hose, an early twentieth century naturalist and explorer,reported that only someone who has taken a human head is allowed to wear the
intricately carved earrings created from the "ivory" of the helmeted hornbill casque, or to
adorn themselves with the bird's long, central tail feathers. Helmeted hornbills are also believed to judge souls leaving their mortal existence.
Today, hornbills are increasingly highlighted as local mascots or state birds. This is
especially true in Asia. The great hornbill is the state bird of Arunachal Pradesh, northern