Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed)

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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed)

Chapter 18Social Psychology

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

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Ch. 18: Social Psychology Social Thinking Social Psychology: scientific study of how we

think about, influence, & relate to one another Attribution Theory: How we “attribute” something to

someone…to us…or to others… tendency to give a causal explanation for someone’s

behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition… situational vs. dispositional factors

Fundamental Attribution Error tendency for observers, when analyzing others’

behaviors, to underestimate how much of the situation is to blame…& to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Attitude belief & feeling that influences us to respond in a

particular way to objects, people & events

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Social Thinking How we explain someone else’s behavior

affects how we react to it … “It’s because…..”

Negative behavior

Situational attribution“Maybe that driver is ill.”

Dispositional attribution“Crazy driver!”

Tolerant reaction(proceed cautiously, allowdriver a wide berth)

Unfavorable reaction(speed up and race past theother driver, give a dirty look)

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Social Thinking NOW….Relates to Biopsychosocial Our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes

as well as by external social influences: Internal attitudes + External attitudes = Behavior effects

Internalattitudes

External socialinfluences

Behavior

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Social Thinking Attitudes follow behavior…

which follow attitudes…

which follow behavior...etc..

Cooperative actions feed mutual liking…

...encouraging us to like another…

So...Smile at someone!

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Social Thinking Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

If you ask ppl 1st agreed for a small request…then later make a larger request = more compliance (going along..)

Role (aka “social roles”): set of expectations about a social position how ppl in a particular position should behave

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment: Looked at social roles in his “prisoner/guard” study using college students (p. b-700) D-M video

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Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Leon Festinger We try to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel

when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistentEX: When we become aware that our attitudes & our

actions clash, we reduce resulting dissonance

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Dilbert Cartoon: “Dogbert” strikes again...this time using

Cognitive Dissonance! changing our attitudes…Clemson/Carolina???

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Cognitive Dissonance: Another Ex:

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Social Influence: Effects of others on us…Be sure you can differentiate! Obedience: following orders from someone in a

position of authority over us Compliance: going along w/ a request from

someone who is NOT in a position of authority…you just choose to do so

Conformity: adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard…there’s no request…you just choose to

Normative Social Influence: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

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Social Influence: Asch’s experiment on conformity… Informational Social

Influence: Conforming: influence resulting

from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

Participant shows confusion RE: his answer vs. others answers…

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Milgram’s Obedience Study: Yale University

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Social Influence

Milgram’s follow-up obedience experiment

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Social Influence Some individual resist social coercion (force). Student stands up to tank in Tiananmen

Square in Beijing, China (translates literally to Gate of Heavenly Peace)

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Individualistic cultures vs. Collectivist in Social Psy:

Discovering Psy Video: Prg. 26: Cultural Psych

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Social Facilitation vs. Social Loafing: Social Facilitation: improved performance of

tasks in the presence of others… -We do better around others…if ppl we know are

watching occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with

tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered Social Loafing: tendency for people in a group to

exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable… do worse around others

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Social Facilitation: When others are working hard, we don’t wanna’ be the “slacker” so we work harder, too!

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Social Loafing: aka “Water cooler effect:” Others can influence us to goof off in order to be “one o’ the gang...”

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Social Facilitation ALSO relates to: What we do well, we do better in front of an audience …especially a friendly audience: Home court advantage!!

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Social Influence The chameleon effect: Human see, human do… If 1 shakes foot, etc., others around will copy (Yawning??) Moods & chameleon effect: we also “catch” others’ moods

Participant Participant rubs face shakes foot

Confederate rubs face Confederate shakes foot

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

Numberof times

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DeindividuationLoss of self-awareness & self-restraint in group

situations that foster arousal & anonymity (mob

behavior..Halloween?) Can lose individual idea of responsibility…& feel no

one will know it was you…”It was ALL of us…” “But EVERYbody was doing it!” “Nobody knows me here... “

Group Polarization: “Twelve Angry Men” enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes

through discussion within the group Tend to pull toward the group attitudes What can pull them over? If 1 will communicate w/

others & hold fast to convictions, others may “change poles”

Groupthink: mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives Leaders & “Yes-men”: big problem w/ powerful

people who only want those who agree w/ them

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Social Influence p. 711)If we can just DISCUSS an issue, maybe we can get good ideas??

Group Polarization: If a group is like-minded, discussion makes those ideas stronger…

”See we’re right!!”

Low-prejudice groups tend to lessen prejudice…but hi-prejudice ones tend to increase prejudice…

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Social Relations Discrimination: actual acts against people of a

particular group b/c they are a part of that group Prejudice

an unjustifiable (& usually negative) attitude toward a group & its members

involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, & a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate, but often

over-generalized) belief about a group of people In-group

“Us”- people with whom one shares a common identity

Out-group “Them”- those perceived as different or apart

from one’s in-group

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Stereotypes USA??

IN vs. OUT Group

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Power of the individual vs. minority influence: When the few control ideas/actions of the many... A few committed ppl can have tremendous influence

on others...and can be for good—or not so good.. (See Margaret Mead quote...)

Gandhi, Jesus, Dr. ML King, Hitler, K. Marx—and then over-throw of czar in 1917...THEN down-fall of of communist USSR in 1989.

---Can also be Jim Jones...David Koresh...& other cult leaders (BTW: “cult” means to care strongly about something)

Committed ppl can convince others—and bring great changes

Group think: how we pull to majority—Minority influence: How some begin in smallCharismatic? Can equal very strong leadership ability

Central route to persuasion:

persuasion that occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

Peripheral route

to persuasion: persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness. 29

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Prejudice: KNOW Brown-eyes/Blue-eyes study Jane Elliot below, Left

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Social Relations Does perception change with race? If you think not, read Black like Me…

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Social RelationsAmericans today express much less racial & gender

prejudice …voting for women OR keeping minorities OUT… But subtle prejudice continues…

?: Do you think it is better to express it if you feel it…or to know it should not be stated?

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Social Relations

In-group Bias tendency people have to favor one’s own

group Scapegoat Theory

theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Just-World Phenomenon Tendency of people to believe the world is

just Do you believe ppl get what they

deserve... & deserve what they get? “If ppl are poor, it is their own fault b/c they

COULD fix it…there are no excuses!” BUT...if bad happens to me/mine, it is out of

my control! (situational vs. dispositional again??)

This can involve many aspects…If someone is successful, it is due to his/her

being a deserving personThink about Donald Trump…He deserves the

success he has, right?34

‘Course it didn’t hurt that he was a kid of a wealthy NYC real estate developer who supported his early business efforts and left him a bunch of $$

Do you think he had an early belief in his ability to succeed? Do you think this belief was supported and encouraged?

Would these ppl have the same chance for success in the USA?

A kid raised in a small mountain town with poor schools and an abusive parent?

A kid in a high crime area of a large city w/ a single parent who is hooked on drugs?

Do you believe these kids ever think they have a chance at a “regular, successful” life?

How might that be true? 35

Just-world-phenomenon is not just about the possibility of success—

It also addresses the idea that if bad things happen to you, you did something to bring it on yourself (EX: The Biblical Job—neighbors said he must have made God angry)

If a young woman is wearing revealing clothing and is flirtatious, is it her own fault if someone rapes her?

If someone is laid off of their job and loses their house and ends up homeless, is it his/her own fault?

(Ever hear that most ppl are about “1 paycheck away from homeless?”)

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Social Relations IF you get on a plane and you see 2 men who

look “Muslim, ” would you get nervous? Vivid cases (9/11 terrorists) feed stereotypes

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Violence and Aggression: Environmental effects on aggression in society:

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Social Relations and sexual violence: pp.723-725

Men who view porn are less likely to see a rape victim AS a victim

But does porn cause rape to increase?

Most studies do not directly support that idea

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Aggression: physical or verbal behavior that’s intended to hurt or to destroy

Video games and violence (pp. 725-6)Parallels betw. smoking/cancer & media

violence/aggression (top-726)Evidence has been increasing media violence and

violent behaviors in children and adolescents

Paul Boxer, ass’t prof. of psy., Rutgers University , Newark, involved since 2004 in research funded by the CDC into media violence & its relation to serious youth violence & criminal behavior:

“Even in conjunction with other factors, our research shows that media violence does enhance violent behavior,” Boxer states. “On average, adolescents who were not exposed to violent media are not as prone to violent behavior.”

http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/11/20/media-violence-linked-to-aggression/3379.html

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Frustration-Aggression Principle: idea that frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger, which can generate aggression

--NOT supported strongly by evidence: causes SOME...but NOT all

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Aggression notes: Genetics/biology: Aggression “markers” (like

genetic traits) have been found on Y the chromosome:

Affects temperament…autonomic (NS??) reactions… Environment: family? friends? Temperature? Aversive events: Frustration (frus./aggr. prin.) Sexual violence: War? Pornography? Group

factors? Catharsis Hypothesis? Remember this one? Media? What type (s) of learning could be

involved? Bobo… Group effects? De-individuation: Kitty

Genovese: By-stander effect? How did the Kitty Genovese story and the study of

those events lead to the study of WHY altruism comes about in other events?

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Doing good ...for goodness sake: Altruism: unselfish regard for the

welfare of others doing things for others… even if it

puts us at risk… EX’s: ?? Kitty Genovese: What happened?

Bystander Effect (p. 735) 1964: Kitty Genovese situation led

psy to study this phenomenon tendency for any given bystander to

be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

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Kitty Genovese & the places she was attacked…repeatedly.

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Social Relations

People were horrified & tried to blame it on “the city”…but it can be seen anywhere

So what should you do to keep this from happening?

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Diffusion of responsibility: Fact that when others are present, we feel less responsibility for others & for our own behavior

The decision-making process for bystander intervention… How to avoid the bystander effect:

BE WILLING TO TAKE RESPONSIBILITY…

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Social Relations: Social trap & game matrix:p. 727

Conflict: perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

Social Trap a situation in

which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

In Social traps... by pursuing our

own self-interest & not trusting others, we can ALL end up losers

Optimaloutcome

Probableoutcome

Person 1Choose A Choose B

Pers

on 2

Cho

ose B

Cho

ose A

Social Trap

Win-Win: Everyone wins!Win-Lose: One winner, other losesLose-Lose: Both end up losing

If you try to get yourself more, you may end up with lose-lose

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Extra Credit Opportunity!!I will give you an index cardDo not speak to anyone else or let them see what

you are writing.Write your name onto it.You will write one of the following things on your

card—IF the whole class writes "10" everyone gets 10

extra credit pointsIf one-to-three people write "15" ONLY THOSE

PPL. GET extra credit - the rest of class gets NONE

If FOUR or more people write "15" and get selfish: NO ONE IN THE CLASS GETS POINTS

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*IF the whole class writes "10" everyone gets 10 extra credit points-WIN WIN FOR ALL!*If one-to-three people write "15" ONLY THOSE PPL. GET extra credit - the rest of class gets NONE!  These students also have incentive of 15 points, not just 10! 

this is a WIN for the "15ers" and LOSE for those who wrote 10*If FOUR or more people write "15" and get selfish: NO ONE IN THE CLASS GETS POINTS (Lose-lose situation)

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PEACE Psychology:Enemy perceptions: **US vs. THEM... Great Satan? The evil

empire? Biased perceptions: On p. 728: How do the

following terms relate to this? Mirror-image perceptions (see ** above!) Self-serving bias Fundamental attribution error Stereotypes Polarizing Groupthink Self-fulfulling prophecy

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National & international Cooperation: Making a better world?Peacemaking Psychology: How can ppl make peace?

Cooperation, communication, & conciliation Can sometimes change antagonism that comes from prejudice, aggression, & conflicts into attitudes that promote peace…

Cooperation: Work for good of both on something—economics?

Communication: Talks: at least listen...does not require agreement

Conciliation: Each gives a bit to get closer to shared goal

NOTE: “Compromise” is NOT a 4-letter word!!

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Reciprocity Norm: If you give me a present, I feel I need to give you a present, too…

Social Exchange Theory: Win-win Lose-win Lose-lose

says our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits & minimize costs

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Super-ordinate Goals shared goals that override differences (are more

important than) among people & require their cooperation

“The need to solve this problem is bigger than both of us” EX: nuclear weapons?

G.R.I.T.: Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-reduction

Among nations: I give a bit, you give a bit… a strategy designed to decrease international

tensions one side announces recognition of mutual

interests & initiates a small conciliatory act… I’ll do a bit here…

opens door for reciprocation by other party… Me, too…& then I’ll even…

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LOVE & social relations: Forming Relationships: How we decide we like

or do not ppl Mere Exposure Effect: repeated exposure to

novel stimuli increases liking of them…more we are around others, more we are used to them & like them… Proximity…commonalities… WE PREFER WHAT WE ARE USED TO

Passionate Love an aroused state of intense positive absorption

in another usually present at the beginning of a love

relationship Companionate Love

deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

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Social Relations: What increases chances of strong relationships?

Equity: a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it--each person works just as hard to make

things good for the otherSelf-Disclosure: revealing intimate

aspects of oneself to others…..being willing to share things about ourselves

R-E-S-P-E-C-T each other…& TRUST

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Social Relations: Attractiveness Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture What is “average” for a culture tends to be

the most “attractive” This is thought to be “adaptive”

(evolutionary)…Why? --b/c familiar = usually safe