Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (6th Ed) Chapter 9 Memory James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers
Dec 26, 2015
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(6th Ed)
Chapter 9
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University
Worth Publishers
Droodles and Common Cents
http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/index.html
Memory
Memory persistence of learning over
time via the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment or event
Memory
Memory as Information Processing similar to a computer
write to filesave to diskread from disk
Encoding the processing of information into
the memory system
Memory
Storage the retention of encoded
information over timeRetrieval
process of getting information out of memory
Memory
Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording
of sensory information in the memory system
Working Memory focuses more on the processing
of briefly stored information
MemoryShort Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten
Long Term Memory the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
A Simplified Memory Model
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Sensory inputAttention to importantor novel information
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieving
EncodingAutomatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental informationspacetimefrequency
well-learned informationword meanings
Encoding
Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious
effortRehearsal
conscious repetition of informationto maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage
Encoding
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the
fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long
term retention than massed practice
Encoding
20
15
10
5
08 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
Encoding-Serial Position Effect
12
Percentage of
words recalled
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
What Do We Encode?
Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words
Visual Encoding encoding of picture images
Encoding
Imagery mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
Encoding
Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable
unitslike horizontal organization-
1776149218121941
often occurs automatically use of acronyms
HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, SuperiorARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding
(automatic or effortful)
Imagery(visualEncoding)
Meaning(semanticEncoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
Storage-Retaining InformationSensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting less
than a second. Registration of exact representation of a scene
Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Storage-Short Term Memory
0102030405060708090
3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentagewho recalledconsonants
Storage-Long Term Memory
How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learn mazelesion cortex test memory
Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and
retention
Storage-Long Term Memory
Amnesia- the loss of memoryExplicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory retention without conscious recollection motor and cognitive skills dispositions- conditioning
Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems
Types oflong-termmemories
Explicit(declarative)
With consciousrecall
Implicit(nondeclarative)
Without conscious recall
Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)
Personally experienced
events(“episodic memory”)
Skills-motorand cognitive
Dispositions-classical and
operant conditioning
effects
Retrieval- Getting Information Out
Recall the ability to retrieve info learned
earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test
Recognition the ability to identify previously
learned items-like on a multiple choice test
Retrieval
Relearning amount of time saved when
relearning previously learned information
Priming activation, often
unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Retrieval Cues
Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall
Guides to where to look for info Context Effects
memory works better in the context of original learning
Retrieval Cues
0
10
20
30
40
Water/land
Land/water
Water/water
Different contexts for hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Land/land
Percentage ofwords recalled
Retrieval Cues
Deja Vu- (French) already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before"
Mood Congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent
with one’s current mood memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues State Dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
Retrieval Cues
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Forgetting
Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the memory
systemAttention is selective
we cannot attend to everything in our environment
William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing
Forgetting as Encoding Failure
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting
Forgetting Ebbinghaus-
forgetting curve over 30 days initially
rapid, then levels off with time
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning
Forgetting The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retentiondrops,
then levels off
1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage oforiginal
vocabularyretained
RetrievalForgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term memory
Externalevents
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failureleads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Forgetting as Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interferencedisruptive effect of new learning on
recall of old information
Forgetting
Retroactive Interference
Without interferingevents, recall isbetter
After sleep
After remaining awake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentageof syllables
recalled
Forgetting
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.
Forgetting
Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some itemsare altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cuesmoods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t Information bits
Forgetting- InterferenceMotivated Forgetting
people unknowingly revise historyRepression
defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our
learning of new information knowledge of Latin may help us to learn
French
Memory Construction
We filter information and fill in missing pieces
Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information
into one's memory of an eventSource Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”
Memoryconstruction
Memory Construction
People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions
Imagining events can create false memories
Children's eyewitness recall Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false
accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony
Memory Construction
Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occurSome adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory Construction
Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs
are unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Improve Your Memory
Study repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the materialMake material personally
meaningfulUse mnemonic devices
associate with peg words- something already stored make up story chunk-acronyms SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review