My Seminar@ Kl University

8/9/2019 My Seminar@ Kl University

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ENDEAVOR OF CERN VIA LHC TO UNVEIL THE

HISTORY OF UNIVERSE

VISWANATH YAKKALA

Y7ME318

III/IV MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K.L.UNIVERSITY


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CONTENTS

About the UNIVERSE About the CERN About the LHC CONCLUSION


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Etymology

The word Universe derives from the Old French word Univers, whichin turn derives from the Latin word universum. The Latin word was

used by Cicero and later Latin authors in many of the same senses as

the modern English word is used.

The Latin word derives from the poetic contraction Unvorsum firstused by Lucretius in Book IV (line 262) of his De rerum natura (On

the Nature of Things) .

It connects un, uni (the combining form of unus, or "one") with vorsum, versum (a noun made from the perfect passive participle of vertere,

meaning "something rotated, rolled, changed").


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DEFINITION OF UNIVERSE

The Universe is defined as everything that physically exists: the entiretyof space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the

physical laws and constants that govern them.

The cosmos, The world or Nature are the different names of universeused in different contexts.

Current interpretations of astronomical observations indicate that theage of the Universe is 13.73 ( 0.12) billion(109)years, and that the

diameter of the observable Universe is at least 93 billionlight years,

or 8.80 1026 meters.

(1 light year= 9.4607 10 12 km (nearly 6 trillion miles))


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SIZE of the universe:

The Universe is very large and possibly infinite in volume; the observablematter is spread over a space at least 93 billion light years across. For

comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is only 30,000 light-years,

and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is only 3

million light-years.

As an example, our Milky Way galaxy is roughly 100,000 light years indiameter.

There are probably more than 100 billion (1011) galaxies in theobservable universe.

Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107)stars up to giants with one trillion (1012) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's

center of mass.


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Composition of universe:


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size... The Universe is old and evolving. The most precise estimate of the Universe's age is

13.730.12 billion years old, based on observations of the cosmic microwavebackground radiation.

Independent estimates (based on measurements such as radioactive dating) agree, althoughthey are less precise, ranging from 1120 billion years to 1315 billion years.

The universe has not been the same at all times in its history; for example, the relativepopulations of quasars and galaxies have changed and space itself appears to have expanded.

This expansion accounts for how Earth-bound scientists can observe the light from a galaxy

30 billion light years away, even if that light has traveled for only 13 billion years; the veryspace between them has expanded.

This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light from distant galaxies has beenredshifted.

the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency duringtheir journey. The rate of this spatial expansion is accelerating, based on studies of Type Ia

supernovae and corroborated by other data.


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composition

The present overall density of the Universe is very low, roughly9.9 1030grams per cubic centimeter.

This mass-energy appears to consist of 73% dark energy, 23%cold dark matter and 4% ordinary matter.

The universe is believed to be mostly composed of dark energyand dark matter . Only 4% of the universe is ordinary matter, a

relatively small perturbation.

The properties of dark energy and dark matter are largelyunknown. Dark matter gravitates as ordinary matter, and thus

works to slow the expansion of the Universe; by contrast, dark

energy accelerates its expansion.


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construction

The elementary particles from which the Universe isconstructed are Six leptons and six quarks, which

comprise most of the matter; for example, the protons and

neutrons of atomic nuclei are composed of quarks, and theubiquitous(omnipresent) electron is a lepton.

These particles interact via the gauge bosons, eachcorresponding to a particular type of gauge symmetry. The

Higgs boson (as yet unobserved) is believed to confer masson the particles with which it is connected. The graviton,

a supposed gauge boson for gravity.


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12 things that makes up

matter:


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construction....

According to the prevailing Standard Model of physics, allmatter is composed of three generations of leptons and

quarks, both of which are fermions.

These elementary particles interact via at most threefundamental interactions: the electroweak interaction

which includes electromagnetism and the weak nuclear

force; the strong nuclear force described by quantum

chromodynamics; and gravity, which is best described at

present by general relativity.


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relative fractions:

The relative fractions of different chemical elements particularly the lightest atoms such as hydrogen,

deuterium and helium seem to be identical

throughout the universe and throughout its observablehistory.

The Universe appears to have no net momentum andangular momentum. The absence of net charge and

momentum would follow from accepted physical laws(Gauss's law and the non-divergence of the stress-energy-

momentum pseudo tensor, respectively).


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MULTIVERSE

Some speculative theories have proposed that thisuniverse is but one of a set of disconnected universes,

collectively denoted as the multiverse, altering theconcept that the universe encompasses everything.

By definition, there is no possible way for anything inone universe to affect another; if two "universes" could

affect one another, they would be part of a singleuniverse.


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multiverse


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PLANETS

Planets are lumps ofgas and rock held close to a star by the force ofgravity. We live on planet Earth going round star Sun, along with

eight other planets. Together these are called the solar system.

Because stars form in dark clouds of dust and molecules in open starclusters, it is difficult to watch them form. So the story of how planets

formed which we have just given has not been confirmed by

observation.

About 20 planets have been discovered near Sun-like stars, althoughthey are hard to see.

Looking for planets near a star is a bit like trying to watcha moth flying around a spotlight which is pointing at you --

you get dazzled by the light.


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GALAXY

Galaxy is an island ofbillions of stars, separated from other galaxies by avast ocean of almost empty space.

The Milky Way Galaxy,is the one we know best, the one where we live.But we should not forget that, scattered far and wide across the Universe,there are billions of other galaxies, probably very similar to ours.

Galaxies are either spiral (about 70% of galaxies - similar to the MilkyWay) or elliptical (about 30%). A few are other shapes. It is not clear how

the different shapes arose.

Spirals are probably more interesting than elliptical, since stars are formedcontinuously in them. It is probably this which has allowed life to form in

the spiral galaxy where we live.


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STARs

A star (such as the Sun) is a ball ofgas which has, at its heart, anuclear fusion reactor. It is important to know something about how

stars work, for several reasons.

One star, the Sun, is the source of almost all the energ y used byliving things, including humans. We could not survive without it.

If we could copy the energy of Sun in a small and controlled way,we believe we could obtain a great deal of energy on Earth without

creating a lot of pollution.

Stars are the places where large atoms are built. Past generations ofstars formed the gas and dust from which the planets and life were

made.


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cern

The name CERN:CERN is the European Organizationfor Nuclear Research. The name is derived from the

acronym for the French Conseil Europ_en pour laRecherche Nucl_aire, or European Council for

Nuclear Research, a provisional body founded in 1952

with the mandate of establishing a world-class

fundamental physics research organization in Europe.

At that time, pure physics research concentrated onunderstanding the inside of the atom, hence the word

nuclear.


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theme of cern

When the Organization officially came into being in 1954,the Council was dissolved, and the new organization was

given the title European Organization for Nuclear

Research, although the name CERN was retained. Today, our understanding of matter goes much deeper than

the nucleus, and CERNs main area of research is particle

physics ,the study of the fundamental constituents of

matter and the forces acting between them. Because of this,the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to

as the European Laboratory for Particle Physics.


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organization of cern

CERN is run by 20 European Member States, but many non-European countries are also involved in different ways. Scientists

come from around the world to use CERNs facilities. The current Member States are: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the

Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,

Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the

Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United

Kingdom.

Member States have special duties and privileges. They make acontribution to the capital and operating costs of CERNsprograms, and are represented in the Council, responsible for all

important decisions about the Organization and its activities.


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financial aid to cern

Some states (or international organizations) for which membership iseither not possible or not yet feasible are Observers. Observer status

allows non-Member States to attend Council meetings and to receive

Council documents, without taking part in the decision-making procedures

of the Organization. Scientists from some 580 institutes and universities around the world use

CERNs facilities.

Physicists and their funding agencies from both Member and non-MemberStates are responsible for the financing, construction and operation of the

experiments on which they collaborate. CERN spends much of its budget

on building new machines (such as the Large Hadron Collider), and it

only partially contributes to the cost of the experiments.


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cern in depth...

Observer States and Organizations currently involved inCERN programs are: the European Commission, India, Israel,

Japan, the Russian Federation, Turkey, UNESCO and the

USA. NonMember States currently involved in CERN programs:Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,

Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Croatia, Cuba,

Cyprus, Estonia, Georgia, Iceland, Iran, Ireland, Lithuania,

Mexico, Montenegro, Morocco, New Zealand, Pakistan,

Peru, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea,

Taiwan, Thailand, Ukraine and Vietnam.


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employment at cern

CERN employs just around 2500 people. TheLaboratorys scientific and technical staff designs and

builds the particle accelerators and ensures their

smooth operation. They also help prepare, run, analyze

and interpret the data from complex scientific

experiments. Some 8000 visiting scientists, half of the worlds

particle physicists, come to CERN for their research.

They represent 580universities and 85 nationalities.


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lhc

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is being built in acircular tunnel 27 km in circumference. The tunnel isburied around 50 to 175 m. underground. It straddles

the Swiss and French borders on the outskirts of

Geneva.


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lhc-aim

To smash protons moving at 99.999999% of thespeed of light into each other and so recreate

conditions a fraction of a second after the big bang.

The LHC experiments trying and working out what

happened then.

In a search for signatures of supersymmetry, darkmatter and the origins of mass.


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briefly...

The LHC is designed to collide two counter rotating beams ofprotons or heavy ions. Proton-proton collisions are foreseen at an

energy of 7 TeV per beam.

The beams move around the LHC ring inside a continuousvacuum guided by magnets.

The magnets are superconducting and are cooled by a hugecryogenics system. The cables conduct current without resistance

in their superconducting state.

The beams will be stored at high energy for hours. During thistime collisions take place inside the four main LHC experiments.


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For most of the ring, the beams travel in two separate vacuum pipes,but at four points they collide in the hearts of the main experiments,

known by their acronyms: ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, and LHCb.

The experiments detectors will watch carefully as the energy ofcolliding protons transforms fleetingly into a plethora of exotic

particles.

The detectors could see up to 600 million collision events per second,with the experiments scouring the data for signs of extremely rare

events such as the creation of the much-sought Higgs boson.


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cryogenics in lhc:

To reach the high magnetic field required, highcurrents are needed. To avoid excessive resistive losses,

the magnets are superconducting. A huge cryogenicssystem is required to produce the liquid helium needed

to keep the magnets cold.

The cables of the magnets are of a very special designand conduct current without resistance in theirsuperconducting state


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india-contribution:

Superconducting sextupole and decapole spool piecesamounting to half of the total LHC requirement for

corrector magnet equipment are being supplied by INDIA.

In addition, India will supply LHC magnet support jacksand quench heater power supplies.

Circuit breakers are being supplied by Russia, but Indiaremains responsible for the necessary electronics.


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APPARATUS:

ATLAS ALICE CMS LHCb

TOTEM

LHCf


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ATLAS

A Toroidal LHC Apparatus. ATLAS is one of two general-purpose detectors at the

LHC. It will investigate a wide range of physics,

including the search for the Higgs boson, extra

dimensions, and particles that could make up dark

matter.


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ALICE

A Large Ion Collider Experiment For the ALICE experiment, the LHC will collide lead

ions to recreate the conditions just after the Big Bang

under laboratory conditions. The data obtained will

allow physicists to study a state of matter known as

quarkgluon plasma, which is believed to have

existed soon after the Big Bang.


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CMS

Compact Muon Solenoid

The CMS experiment uses a general-purpose detectorto investigate a wide range of physics, including the

search for the Higgs boson, extra dimensions, and

particles that could make up dark matter. Although it

has the same scientific goals as the ATLAS

experiment, it uses different technical solutions anddesign of its detector magnet system to achieve these.


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LHCb

Large Hadron Collider beauty The LHCb experiment will help us to understand why

we live in a Universe that appears to be composed

almost entirely of matter, but no antimatter.

It specialises in investigating the slight differencesbetween matter and antimatter by studying a type

of particle called the 'beauty quark', or 'b quark'.


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facts regarding lhc...

Research in particle physics can throw up a torrent ofexperimental data within a short space of time. For

example, the data recorded by each of the big

experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) will be

enough to fill around 100 000 DVDs every year!

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN nearGeneva is the largest scientific instrument on the planet.

When it began into operation in 2008, it produced

roughly 15 Petabytes(1015

) (15 million Gigabytes) of dataannually, which thousands of scientists around the world

were involved to access and analyze.


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The mission of the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid(WLCG) project is to build and maintain a data

storage and analysis infrastructure for the entire high

energy physics community that will use the LHC.


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THANQ

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