TITLE PAGE NIGER DELTA CRISIS: A RECURRING NATIONAL QUESTION. A CASE STUDY OF THE RISE OF MILITANCY IN THE REGION FROM THE YEAR 2007-2009. BY NWAKUDU IFEANYI SAMUEL REG. NO: 05293145 DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.sc Hons) IN POLITICAL SCIENCE. DECEMBER, 2009 1
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TITLE PAGE
NIGER DELTA CRISIS: A RECURRING NATIONAL QUESTION. A CASE STUDY OF THE RISE OF MILITANCY IN THE REGION FROM
THE YEAR 2007-2009.
BY
NWAKUDU IFEANYI SAMUEL
REG. NO: 05293145
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.sc Hons) IN POLITICAL SCIENCE.
DECEMBER, 2009
CERTIFICATION
This project report was written by Nwakudu Ifeanyi Samuel, and has been examined and approved as having satisfied the requirement of the Department of Political Science and International Relations, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Abuja, for the Award of Bachelor of Science (B.sc Hons) degree in Political Science
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Dr. Usman Mohammed DateProject Supervisor
Dr. Y.A Zoaka Date
Head of Department
External Examiner Date
DECLARATIONI, Nwakudu Ifeanyi Samuel, hereby do declare that this project was written by me under the supervision of Dr. Usman Mohammed of the Department of Political Science and International Relations, University of Abuja.
I also declare that similar work, as far I am aware, has not been written before as at the time of putting together this piece of research work.
All information contained in this project that is not original to this research, has been duly acknowledged by way of references.
I therefore, do take sole responsibility for any error contained therein.
DEDICATIONThis research work is dedicated first and foremost, to God Almighty who made me to see the “four walls” of the University and who also gave me the inspiration to write this particular research work.Also, I dedicate this work to my lovely family, my father, Mr. Anthony A. Nwakudu, who made sure I made it into the University and who provided for my everyday needs; my mother, Mrs. Patricia I. Nwakudu, who gave me the
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required spiritual training and teachings to enable me move forward in life; and my six sisters, Amarachukwu Nwakudu, Udochukwu Nwakudu, Onyinyechukwu Nwakudu, Oluchukwu Nwakudu, Nkechukwu Nwakudu and Uchechukwu for their love and support.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The completion of this research work which is my scholarly contribution to the search for knowledge and academic excellence would not have been possible without the assistance and contribution of some concerned personalities.
I am most grateful to God for sparing my life and for the grace he bestowed upon me to see the end of my degree programme successfully and victoriously.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Usman Mohammed, who saw it fit to assist me in writing this project despite his extremely tight schedule. I am also thankful to the entire staff, both academic and non-academic of the Department of Political Science in University of Abuja.
My heartfelt gratitude and thanks goes to my parent Mr. and Mrs. Anthony Nwakudu, who made sure I got all the needed materials to enable me write this project. My father who made sure he bought no less than three newspapers everyday for me to source for materials for my project, and my mother who made sure I had access to the internet in order for me to write this research work.
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I would also like to thank my friends who made my stay in school fun filled; this group of people also assisted me in writing this research project by asking important questions and arguing with me when they felt my point did not make any sense, they are: Godfrey Nwaokolo, Bukata Demand Ishaku (small but mighty), Innocent Ataba Enesi, Gabriel Folorunsho, Olamilekun Olalekan, Israel O. Pender, Nenfwot Peter Dimka, Ugorji Junior, Audu Ezekiel, Lawal Kehinde, Longinus Ikechukwu Okafor, Abdulrahma Mohammed Okhatahi Suleiman, Andrew Haruna, Kabiru Yakubu, Salihu (smally), and a host of my other friends who are too numerous to mention, for their support and encouragement.
I am sincerely overwhelmed by the efforts of the NIFES Publicity, Prayer Units and the Final Year Brethrens (FYB), for their spiritual support and encouragement.
Inspite of the contribution of the aforementioned individuals, I wish to state that I am solely responsible for any acts of omission or commission contained in this project.
I say may the Almighty God reward all mentioned and unmentioned who one way or the other contributed to the success of my research work and my degree course in the Name of Jesus (Amen).
ABSTRACT
The Niger Delta crisis has continued to remain a “thorn” in the “flesh” of the Nigerian state. Although, the area is rich in mineral and natural resources, it has not in anyway experienced development with respect to the amount of money generated from the exploration and exploitation of crude oil in the area.
Due to the neglect the people of the Niger Delta experiences, the people are disillusioned and disoriented, this has actually led to the rising wave of militancy in the region; with the people crying for resource control and increase in revenue allocation in the Niger Delta.
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The rise of militancy in the region changed the norm in the struggle for resource control in the region, with the youths carrying arms and engaging in acts of violence which are kind of nefarious in the Nigerian state; the militants and youths in the region don’t see their acts of aggression as violence, but as liberation struggle.
This study does not only analyze the act of militancy in the Niger Delta but the ways the Nigerian government is doing in order to solve the problem; and the ways forward in solving the crisis in the Niger Delta Region which has remained a lingering sore in the Nigerian State.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TITLE PAGE iCERTIFICATION iiDECLARATION iiiDEDICATION ivACKNOWLEDGEMENT vABSTRACT viiTABLE OF CONTENT viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTIONBACKGROUND TO THE STUDY……………………………………..1STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM…………………………………….4OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY………………………………………...6SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY……………………………………...7RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS………………………………………......8RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………..….9SCOPE AND LIMITATION……………………………………….……9ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY……………………………..……10CONCEPTUALIZATION OF TERMS……………………………...…11
REFERENCES…………………………………………….................16CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
FRAME WORK2.1LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………172.2 NIGER-DELTA AND THE NIGERIAN STATE………………….182.3 OIL AND NIGERIA’S DEVELOPMENT……………… ………...22
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2.4 OIL AND NIGER DELTA DEVELOPMENT………………..........252.5 OIL RESOURCE EXPLOITATION IN THE NIGER-DELTA........282.5.1 OIL RESOURCE EXPLOITATION AND PRODUCTION…......282.5.2 PRODUCTION FOR EXPORT…………………………………..302.5.3 PEASANT AGRICULTURE IN THE NIGER-DELTA…………312.6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPLICATION OF INTENSIVE RESOURCE
EXPLOITATION IN THE NIGER
DELTA………………………...........................................................342.6.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM………………………………...352.6.2 SOCIAL IMPACT………………………………………………...382.7 HOST COMMUNITIES AND OIL REVENUE…………………...402.8 IMPACT OF OIL INDUSTRY ON HUMAN RIGHT……………..412.9 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………..42 REFERENCES………………………………………………….44
CHAPTER THREE: NIGER DELTA AND MILITANCY3.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE RISE OF MILITANCY IN
THE NIGER DELTA……………………………………………….453.2 UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE OF THE CONFLICT………563.3 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF RESOURCE CONTROL…………..593.4 POLITICAL DIMENSION OF THE NIGER DELTA CRISIS……633.5 CORRUPTION, RESOURCE LIBERATION AND ETHICAL
DIMENSION OF THE NIGER DELTA…………………………...653.6 RESOURCE EXPLOITATION AND CORROLARY DAMAGE TO THE
ENVIRONMENT……………………………………………..683.7 FORMS OF VIOLENCE IN THE NIGER DELTA………………..693.7.1 HOSTAGE AND KIDNAPPING…………………………...........703.7.2 OIL BUNKERING……………………………………………......723.7.3 PIPELINE VANDALIZATION………………………………......763.7.4 PIRACY…………………………………………………………..783.8 GENDER DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL DEPRIVATION………….793.9 POVERTY AS VIOLENCE AGAINST THE NIGER DELTA
POPULACE………………………………………………………...803.10 MILITANTS ACTIVITIES IN THE NIGER DELTA REGION FROM
2007-2009………………………………………………….82 REFERENCES…………………………………………………99CHAPTER FOUR: NIGER DELTA AND THE NIGERIAN
GOVERNMENT4.1 GOVERNMENTAL RESPONSE TO THE CLAMOUR FOR RESOURCE
CONTROL………………………………………..102
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4.1.1 THE INCLUSION OF THE NIGER-DELTA IN YAR’ADUA’S 7-POINT AGENDA……………………………………………..103
4.1.2 THE TECHNICAL COMMITTEE OF THE NIGER DELTA...1054.1.3 JOINT MILITARY TASK FORCE ON N/D…………………..1104.14 THE CREATION OF THE MINISTRY OF NIGER DELTA
AFFAIRS…………………………………………………………1124.1.5 THE NIGER DELTA DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION……...1154.2 NIGER DELTA AND ITS FOREIGN POLICY
IMPLICATION…………………………………………….….1184.3 NIGER DELTA AND FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT…….128
4.4 NIGER DELTA DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION AND NIGER DELTA DEVELOPMENT……………………………………......135
4.4.1 ELECTRIFICATION PROJECTS……………………………....135
4.4.2 FREE HEALTH PROJECTS……………………………………137
4.4.3 HOSPITAL PROJECTS………………………………………..139
4.4.4 ROAD PROJECTS……………………………………………...140
4.4.5 SCHOOL PROJECTS…………………………………………..141
4.4.6 WATER PROJECTS……………………………………………142
4.4.7 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT MASTERPLAN………………145
REFERENCES………………………………………………….148
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS……………………………………150
5.2 CONCLUSION………………………………………………….152
5.3 RECOMMENDATION………………………………………….156
REFERENCES…………………………………………………..159
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………..160
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The Niger-Delta question is an old political and economic situation, to which the
various government since 1960 have not found a permanent solution. The problem
with Niger-Delta region takes its root from the search of Oil in 1908 when the
German firm known as Nigerian Bitumen Company started drilling and exploring for
Oil within the Okitipupa Area, about 200 kilometres east from Lagos. The search was
unsuccessful as Oil was not found in commercial quantities.
However, David Oluwagbami, Erudite scholar and author of the “Genesis of the
Nigerian Oil Industry”, states that in 1937, Shell Petroleum Development Company
of Nigeria Limited (then known as Shell D’Arcy and later Shell B.P), which was then
based in Warri, pioneered a fresh search for Oil. The Royal Dutch Shell group of
companies and the British Petroleum group jointly financed the company. It took
almost 20years before Oil was found in commercial quantities, Oil in commercial
quantity was first discovered at Oloibiri in the then Rivers state, present Bayelsa
state, by Shell , in January 1956, Towards the end of the same year, a second 8
discovery was made at Afam, also in Rivers state. Until 1956, Shell was the principal
company undertaking the search, although there had been sporadic exploration by
others before that year. Pipeline connections between Oloibiri and Port-Harcourt
made it possible for the first cargo of Crude Oil to leave Nigeria in February 1958
when production stood at 6,000 barrels per day (bpd).
Due to the reason that the region which is a home to millions of Nigerians is a
naturally difficult terrain to access; for that reason the Henry Willinks Commission of
1958 identified the region as being poor, backward and neglected. The
recommendation of the commission was that, special attention should be devoted to
developing the Niger-Delta. That concern was raised years before commercial oil
exploration and the attendant environment hazards went full blown in the region.
That was at a time when the region had relative autonomy over their revenue.
Political solution has been tried to solve the Niger-Delta crisis, There was the Henry
Willinks commission report of 1957; The Niger-Delta Development Board of 1960;
River Basin Development Authority of 1993; Oil mineral Producing Areas
Commission of 1998; Oladayo Popoola committee of 2002( a product of the political
reform conference); General Alexandra special committee on Oil Producing
Communities; Recommendation of the James Ibori Presidential Standing Committee
on the Niger-Delta and the NNPC-Niger Delta Youths Standing Committee. There
was also the Major-General Muhammad Presidential Committee on Peace and
Reconciliation in the Niger-Delta; the Niger-Delta Peace and Security Strategy
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(PASS); The Petroleum Standing Committee headed by Dr. Edmund Daokoru, as
well as the Economic Development Council for the coastal states of the Niger-Delta.
Just before he left office in 2007, Obasanjo produced what was known the Niger-
Delta master-plan and in 2008 the Niger-Delta Technical Committee (NDTC) headed
by Ledum Mitee was inaugurated by the Yar’Adua administration.
The early stages of the agitation in the Niger-Delta were cries for attention and
development. The legitimate demand for the development in the area arose from the
fact that poverty is manifested in different form; Lack of necessities for modern
living such as electricity, Plentiful portable water, Roads, Adequate educational
facilities and enough jobs for the multitudes of youths in the area. Despite the efforts
put in place by the Nigerian Government and various stakeholders. The Niger-Delta
crisis has refused to abate instead it has become more violent than previously. Since
2006, the agitation for Socio-Economic development of the Oil-Bearing Niger-Delta
region took a disturbing twist with the incessant cases of violence as typified of
kidnapping and hostage-taking of expatriates, children and even the very elderly.
Added to the known cases of illegal bunkering, arms deals, cult clashes, maiming and
killings, the already scarred face of the Niger-Delta agitation has become uglier.
There is a breakdown of law and order in many parts of the Niger-Delta, threatening
lives and development efforts of the region and the Nation at large to the epilepsy of
power supply.
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And for so long, an effective solution of the problem seems to have eluded the
government. No doubt, the strategic importance of the region must have made
President Umaru Yar’Adua, to name the Niger-Delta as an item in his 7-Point
agenda. But since he came to office in the year 2007, the government, it seemed, had
been nibbling at the problem. Plans to hold the region’s summit had suffered several
postponement and modification. But with the eventual composition of the Niger-
Delta Technical Committee (NDTC) , the establishment of the Ministry of Niger-
Delta Affairs and the granting of the Amnesty package to repentant militants, the
Federal Government, it appears, has found the kick on the matter
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The violence in the Niger-Delta, no doubt, has far-reaching implications for oil and
gas development in Nigeria. But more importantly is the economy as a whole, since
Nigeria gets its foreign exchange earning which is over ninety percent (90%) from
the sales of crude oil and natural gas. Indeed, Oil for more than four decades now, has
been the pivot upon which the Nigerian economy is driven. The area is turbulent due
to the activities of cultists, criminals and agitators for more shares of the Oil and Gas
revenue. The restiveness in the region has negatively affected the oil and gas
industry.
The Niger-Delta region accounts for the majority of Nigeria’s Foreign Exchange
earnings, yet its people have known nothing but underdevelopment, poverty and
deprivation. Its youths have become restive, and militant, and had for years been 11
attacking oil installations, taking oil workers-and recently indigenes-hostage and
disrupting oil production in the process. On June 19th 2008, The Movement for the
Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) attacked the Bonga Oil Field belonging to
the Shell Producing Development Company, SPDC. The result of the numerous
attacks on oil workers and installations has been reduction in the amount of oil
produced by the Nigerian State, a development that has led to a dip in the economic
fortunes of the Nigerian state. The region has suffered from a lot of
underdevelopment. The region is still severally in a condition of pandemic poverty
and abysmal state of arrested development, notwithstanding the $600billion that has
accrued to the Nigerian State through revenue from oil and gas since February 17,
1958. The high level of poverty and underdevelopment in the region has led to the
proliferation of militant organizations who claim they are fighting for the
development of the area. The militant organizations have become more violent and
they have begun to engage in Hostage Takings, Pipeline Vandalization, Oil
Bunkering, Oil Theft e.t.c. This has continued to affect the Nigerian State and has
continued to serve as a problem to the government.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study seeks to understand the reason why the Niger-Delta has remained a
lingering sore in the Nigerian state despite the efforts put by the Nigerian government
and international organizations in order to find a lasting solution the incessant
uprising of armed groups and militant organizations in the region.
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Previous attempts to solve the problems of the petroleum industry, the region and
Nigeria were not probably doomed to fail, but frustrated by limited knowledge, issues
at stake in the crisis, lack of political will and limited funds. The rise of militancy in
the Niger-Delta has affected the Nigerian state in a lot of ways. This study seeks to
find a panacea to the Niger-Delta crisis in order to foster peace through development.
Militancy has continued to be on the rise despite all summit, conferences and
seminars that has been put in place; The conflicts in the region seems to be on the
rise; the study seeks to understand why militant acts in the region has been on the
rise. The rising wave of Kidnapping, Hostage taking, Oil theft and Oil bunkering, and
pipeline Vandalization is affecting the Nigerian state, and the aim of the study is to
find a lasting solution through understanding the factors that led to the rise of
militancy in the region, because, if the foundation of the problem is addressed all
other things would follow.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The level of militant activities in the Niger-Delta has taken a new twist and it is pertinent to know that the Nigerian state is really affected especially during this period of global economic crisis and falling crude oil prices.
This research work promises to serve as a beacon light that would light the path of
everyone, particularly stakeholders, still searching for potent solutions. By every
standard, this is a reliable research work. It is not a research work on Niger-Delta
alone, but for the Niger-Delta, Petroleum industry and Nigeria for all Nigerians,
Africans and the International community.13
Due to the dimensions in which the Niger-Delta crisis has taken, it is pertinent for
citizens of Nigeria to have the required information that would enable them know the
facet of the crisis and the way through wish it can be solved. This research project
brings to the fore the pathologies of Nigeria’s federalism which involves a whole lot
of complex of motivations, orientations and actions which work against the interest
and aspiration of the Niger-Delta people.
This research project is being written in a crucial period of the democratic
dispensation, the timing is apt as the present government is determined to tackle
deep-rooted problems.
The examination of many important issues such as Location and History, Oil Politics
and Environment Conflicts, Employment and Multinational Corporations, Meltdown
and Crisis, Governmental response to the clamour of resource control and the way
forward provides a refreshing insight, which could assist in conflict resolution.
The lucidity of this research work and its careful elucidation of the underlying
problems and the crisis of the Niger-Delta region of the country would play an
important role in solving the crisis in the Niger-Delta. The research project would be
essential for people who seek to discover the manifold problems of the Niger-Delta
region which finds itself ensconced in the mystery of the Nigerian Nation.
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1.5 RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS
For the purpose of this research work, relevant research propositions have been
outlined to serve as a directional guide and articulation of the research findings or
work.
However, these propositions focus more on the major problems to be
investigated and could possibly lead to other minor research questions in
subsequent research works. The following propositions are relevant and
essential/instructive to this research work:-
i. The rising wave of militancy in the Niger-Delta region has not affected the
revenue generation capacity of the Nigerian state.
ii. The rising wave of militancy in the Niger-Delta region has affected the revenue
generation capacity of the Nigerian state.
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research project would make use of secondary method of data collection.
Content analysis would be made use of in order to be able to analyse the problem
from different view-point. The data would be gotten from Books, Journals,
Newspapers, Magazines, The internet, Government publications and from other
sources.
1.7 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
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This research project would cover areas in which the act of militancy has affected the
Niger-Delta region of the Nigerian state. This work would study the act Sabotage,
Hostage taking, Oil bunkering, Pipeline vandalization, Piracy, Kidnapping, and other
areas of militancy in the region. This research work also covers the victims of
militant activities and the response of the Nigerian government to the crisis. The
effect of militant activities on the revenue generation capacity of the Nigerian state
and the factors that led to the quest for resource control would also be understudied.
This research work is subject to some limitations and it would be a blatant lie to say
that the writing of this project has been and would be a bed of roses. Money and time
are the two major constraint to which this research work has been subjected to. The
time frame of this research work is also a major problem, because the period in which
this research is based is from the year 2007/09 and the year is still ongoing, so, there
is likely going to be some changes in the quest for peace in the region.
1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This research work is divided into five (5) chapters, and each chapter deals with a
different aspect of the Niger-Delta crises.
Chapter One is the introduction to the subject of research; The chapter one contains
the background to the study, The statement of the problems, Objectives and
significance of the study, Research hypothesis and research methodology, Scope and
limitation, Organization of the study and Conceptualization of the terms.
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Chapter Two is the Literature review and it deals with writings of different authors
that are similar to that of the research topic. This chapter contains issues bordering on
Nigeria’s unity like Niger-Delta and the Nigerian state, Niger-Delta as a national
question, Oil and the Nigerian state, and how the discovery of Oil has impacted on
the Nigerian state.
Chapter Three contains the Historical background of the rise of militancy in the
Niger-Delta region and it involves the study of the quest of resource control and
ownership by the Indigenes of the Niger-Delta region. It states the nature of conflict
and the reason why the quest for resource control and ownership has taken a new
twist, and it involves violence against the people and the Nigerian state.
Chapter Four studies the relationship between the Niger-Delta region and the
Nigerian Government. It involves the manner through which the government of
Nigeria has responded so far to the quest for resource control. This chapter also deals
with the way the Niger-Delta crisis has affected Nigeria’s external relations and
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
Chapter Five is the concluding part of this research project and it contains the
summary of findings of this study, the recommendation of the research to find a
lasting solution to the Niger-Delta which has become a lingering sore on the Nigerian
state and the conclusion.
1.9 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF TERMS
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(A) NIGER- DELTA- This is said to be the world’s largest wetland. This 36,000 square
kilometres or about 14,000 square miles of marchland, creeks, tributaries and
lagoons, drain the mass of the River Niger in to the Atlantic Ocean at the Bight of
Biafra. About 12,000 square kilometres of this area is fragile mangrove forest,
probably the largest mangrove forest in the world. In terms of Biodiversity, the area
contains exotic and unique flowers, diverse plant and animal species. Implied in its
ecology is the fact that it is a highly fragile environment which can be easily
disequilibrated. Because of the nature of the ecosystem, transportation is difficult,
and for local communities, it is usually through the numerous Rivers and Creeks
which snake through the Delta. There is however, a serious scarcity of arable land
and fresh water.
The discovery of Oil (black gold) has brought both fame and curse for the area. It was
in 1956, that the Anglo-Dutch group, Shell D’Arcy discovered Oil in commercial
quantities at Oloibiri, a small town in the Niger-Delta. Since then, other
multinationals has joined Shell, namely, Mobil, Elf Aquitane, Chevron and Agip.
Nigeria’s prime export, the Bonny light, is low in sulphur content, and therefore
environmental friendly. Crude Oil is currently produced in nine (9) states of Nigeria,
namely, Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta, Edo, Imo, Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross-River and Ondo
states. These states constitute what is today known as Niger-Delta.
(B). NATIONAL QUESTION- These are old political and economic situations, to which
the various governments since 1960 have not found a permanent solution. There are a
lot of problems that has plagued the Nigeria state from independence till date.
National questions are does things that the government of Nigeria finds it difficult to
find a solution to it. National questions that have plagued the Nigerian state for
sometime are Revenue allocation formulae, Resource control, State creation,
Tribalism\Ethnicity, Religious conflicts, Corruption, Indigeneship and settler 18
dichotomy, Niger-Delta and a host of other problems. In fact, The Niger-Delta
conflicts seems to have taken the fore in the Nigerian state, although, there has been
pockets of uprising in different part of the Nigerian state but the Niger-Delta crisis
seems to be a priority to the Yar’Adua\Goodluck administration.
(C).MILITANCY -According to the Oxford advanced learners dictionary, a militant
is somebody who uses, or is willing to use, force or strong pressure to achieve their
aims, especially to achieve political or social change. Militancy is the act of using
violence in order to achieve a political or social change. Militancy in the Niger-Delta
came about due to the activities of Oil companies and Oil exploration activities in the
region. The Niger-Delta militants are of the opinion that the Oil that was taken from
their region are used to develop other parts of the Nigerian state while the Niger-
Delta region is left to rot and under develop in the midst of plenty. The militant in the
region resorted to the use of violent acts like Hostage-taking, Oil theft, Pipeline
vandalization, e.t.c to drive home their point.
(D).RESOURCE CONTROL-This means ownership and control of the natural
resources that is produced in an area by the people of that particular area. In a
nutshell, the Niger Deltans wants to control their resources.
(E).FISCAL FEDERALISM-This has to do with the allocation of resources to the
various components of a federal state. Since the Federal government is in charge of
all the natural resources that is accrued to the Nigerian state; the government is in
19
charge of the disbursement of resources from the federal government to the state and
local government.
(F).DERIVATION PRINCIPLE-It is a trite principle of Federalism that a people must
enjoy derivation from resources coming from their land. This is recognized by the
constitution of Nigeria and the Mineral Act. Derivation is the percentage sum given
to the areas that produces a particular natural resource. The Niger-Delta is given 13%
derivation for the Oil exploited in the region; this is not enough according to the
people who seeks to increase it from 13% to 25%, and subsequently to 50%
(G).DEVELOPMENT-The word “DEVELOPMENT” involves so many parts in human
endeavour, as a transformation process from one state to another. Development is
people centred, people inspired and citizens anchored. Whichever way, development
project, or policy, or planning intends to improve their lives, by a process of growth
better than the previous stage, in other words, the emphasis on development should
be on its effects on the quality of life and well-being of human kind.
(H).OIL FIELD- This is an area where Oil is found in the ground or under the sea.
(I).OIL RIG- This is a large structure with equipment for getting oil from the ground
or under the sea.
(J).OIL BUNKERING- This is the act of stealing or siphoning oil from oil pipeline
or storage tank.
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(K).REFINERY-This is a factory where a substance such as Oil is made pure by
having other substance out of it.
(L).HOSTAGE TAKING- This is the act by which a person is captured and held
prisoner by a person or group, and who may be injured or killed if the people do not
do what the person or group is asking. This is one of the methods used by Niger-
Delta militants.
(M).EXPLORATION- This is the act of travelling through a place in order to find out
about or looking for something in it. Oil exploration has to do with search for oil in
the ground or under the sea.
(N).PIPELINE VANDALIZATION- This is the act of rupturing pipelines used to
transport petroleum or gas from one place to another for political or economic
reasons.
REFERENCES
Ahamefula Ogbu (Sunday, April 5, 2009). Why N’Delta’s underdeveloped.
Thisday, Page 9..
Worgu Stanley Owabukeruyele (January, 2009). Hydro Carbon exploitation,
environmental degradation and poverty in the Niger Delta. Being a paper
presented at Lund University LUMES program, Lund, Sweden.
21
Alexander I. Moro (2008). The Niger Delta Crisis: Beyond employment and
physical development. The critical issues involved . Mind quest resources, Port
Harcourt.
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999).
Okechukwu Ibeanu (2007). “Petroleum, Politics and Development in Niger
Delta”, In Okello Oculi and Yakubu Nasidi (Eds) Brain Gain for African
Renaissance Issues in Governance. ABU Press, Zaria.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
22
The purpose of this literature review is to introduce the readers to the existing
secondary data materials relevant to the research topic. It seeks to indicate who has
done the work on the subject matter, when, where latest research studies were
completed and for what purpose. It identifies specific books, monographs, bulletins,
journals, research reports and articles as well as unpublished materials such as
dissertations, thesis, papers presented at recent professional meetings and host of
other literature available.
The Niger-Delta crisis has become a source of National discourse in the Nigerian
Socio-Political environment. Every other day, there is breaking news of the crisis in
the Niger-Delta region. This literature review would be based on the writings of
several authors based on the relationship between the Niger-Delta and the Nigerian
state, Oil and Nigeria’s development, Oil and Niger-Delta, Environmental and social
implication of intensive resource exploitation in the Niger-Delta, the impact of Oil
revenue on the Host communities as well as the impact of the Oil industry on human
right.
2.2 NIGER-DELTA AND THE NIGERIAN STATE
Prior to its official amalgamation into a singular Nation by the military forces of the
British Empire in 1914, the territory of Nigeria was a loose collection of autonomous
states, villages, and ethnic communities. Many of these established themselves as
23
pillars of art, trade, and politics in West Africa as late as the 1800s: four of these
cultural entities, Hausa-Fulani, The Igbo (sometimes called the Ibos), The Yoruba
and the Efik grew extremely prominent in the region before the arrival of foreigners,
dictated by British colonial policies, and dominate national politics in the Nigerian
state to this day.
The Niger-Delta region, which is roughly synonymous with the Niger-Delta province
in location and contemporary heart of petroleum industry, is and was a zone of dense
cultural diversity and is currently inhabited by roughly forty (40) ethnic groups
speaking an estimated two hundred and fifty (250) dialect. Some of the more relevant
ethnic groups in the Western part of the region include the Ijaw, Itsekiri, and Ogoni.
The Ijaw (sometimes spelled Ijo), the fourth most populous tribe in Nigeria and by far
the largest in the Delta region, lived during late medieval times in some fishing
villages within the inlets of the Delta; however by the sixteenth century, as the slave
trade grew in importance, Ijaw port cities like Bonny and Brass developed into major
trading states which served as major exporters of fish and other goods regionally.
Other states such as those of Itsekiri domain Warri sprang up at this time as well.
The Eastern Niger-Delta region has the Efik people (Annang/ Efik/Ibibio who are all
related with a common language and ancestors were all referred to as Efik or
Calabar people in early Nigerian history). Their capital city at Calabar located at the
coastal south-east of Nigeria (Eastern Niger-Delta) served as the major trading and
shipping centre during the pre-colonial and colonial period. Calabar also served as
24
first capital of Nigeria and point of entry of western religion and western education
into South-Eastern Nigeria. The combined population of the Ibibio, Annang and Efik
people is the Fourth language group in Nigeria.
Even before the consolidation of British control over all present day Nigeria’s
borders in 1914 from the protectorate of Southern and Northern Nigeria, British
forces had begun imposing drastic political and economic policies on the area.
Originally, this was done primarily through the government-owned Royal Niger
Company. The company was crucial in securing most of Nigeria’s major ports and
monopolized coastal trade; this resulted in the severing of ties which linked the area
to the flourishing West-Africa regional trade network, in favour of the exportation of
cheap natural resources and cash crops to industrializing nations. Most of the
population eventually abandoned food production for such market-dependent crops
(peanuts and cotton in the North, Palm oil in the East, and cocoa in the West). From
the beginning, divide and rule tactics were employed by both traders and
administrators by highlighting Ethno-Religious differences and playing groups
against one another. After the 1914, the North was permitted a system of indirect rule
under authoritarian leaders, while in the South the British exercise control directly.
25
Interest in Nigeria’s Oil originated in 1914 when an ordinance making any oil and
mineral under Nigerian soil legal property of the Crown. By 1938, the colonial
government had granted the state-sponsored company, Shell (Then known as Shell
D’Arcy) monopoly over exploration of all minerals and petroleum throughout the
entire colony. Commercially viable oil was discovered by Shell roughly 90km west
of the soon-to-be Oil capital of Port-Harcourt at Oloibiri (now in Bayelsa) in 1956;
initially a 50-50 profit sharing system was implemented between the company and
the government. Until the 1950s concessions on production and exploration
continued to be the exclusive domain of the company, then known as Shell-British
Petroleum. However, other firms became interested and by the early 1960s Mobil,
Texaco and Gulf had purchased concessions.
The state of Nigeria that is supposed to be for all the citizens of Nigeria, to promote
the attainment of social goods for the entire country, had been hijacked. The Nigerian
state, with all coercive powers that go along with statehood, have been used by the
beneficiaries of state powers to oppress and subjugate the Niger-Deltans, in
contradiction of the purpose for the existence of a modern state. The Niger-Deltans
are worse than when they had stayed alone without the Nigerian Union. In essence,
the Nigerian state has failed the Niger-Deltans. Its operatives even as at now, when
things have assumed a frightening dimension in the Creeks of Oil production, are still
very unresponsive, and always resort to the unacceptable method that have been
26
employed, to tackle the Niger-Delta imbroglio, and which have been answered with
monumental failures.
The Nigerian state has manifestly failed the Niger-Delta, in the performance of its
inescapable obligations of protecting, respecting and preserving the human and
property rights of the Niger-Deltas. The annihilation of Odi by a wonderful
supposedly civilian democracy in Nigeria is an eloquent testimony of the mutilation
of the rights of the Niger-Delta; a tyrannical violation of the obligations the state
owned its citizens.
2.3 OIL AND NIGERIA’S DEVELOPMENT
As of 2000, Oil and gas export accounted for more than 98% of export earnings and
about 83% of Federal government revenue, as well as generating more than 4% of its
G.D.P. It also provides 95% of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65% of
government budgetary revenues.
Nigeria’s proven Oil reserves are estimated by the U.S United States Energy
Information Administration (EIA) at between 16 and 22 billion barrels (3.5x109m3)
but other sources claim there could as much as 35.3 billion barrels (5.61x109m3). Its
resources make Nigeria the Tenth most Petroleum-Rich Nation, and by far the most
affluent in Africa. In mid-2001, its Crude Oil production was averaging around 2.2
million barrels (350,000m3) per day (bpd).
27
Much of Nigeria’s petroleum is classified as “light “or “sweet” meaning the Oil is
largely free of sulphur. Nigeria is the largest producer of sweet oil in OPEC. The
sweet oil is similar in constitution to petroleum extracted from North Sea. This crude
oil is known as “Bonny Light”. Names of other Nigerian crudes, all of which are
named according to export terminal are: Qua Iboe, Escravos, Blend, Brass River,
Forcados, and Pennington Afam.
In terms of exportation, the U.S remains Nigeria’s largest customer of crude oil,
accounting for 40% of the country’s total oil exports, Nigeria provides about 10% of
overall U.S oil imports and ranks as fifth largest source for U.S imported oil.
There are six petroleum exportation terminals in the country; Shell owns two (2),
while Mobil, Chevron, Texaco, and Agip own one each. Shell also owns the Forcados
Terminal, which is capable of storing 13 million barrels (2,100,000m3) of crude oil in
conjunction with the nearby Bonny terminal. Mobil operates primarily out of the Qua
Iboe Terminal in Akwa-Ibom state, while Chevron owns the Escravos Terminal
located in Delta state and has a storage capacity of 3.6 million barrels (570,000m3).
Agip operates the Brass terminal in Brass, a town 113km south-west of Port-Harcourt
and has a storage capacity of 3,558,000 barrels (565,700m3). Texaco operates the
Pennington Terminal.
28
Since the commercial discovery of Oil in 1956, the Nigerian state has been depending
on the oil revenue for development while neglecting the agricultural and solid
mineral sector. Oil money has been used to develop various parts of the Nigerian
state and it is the oil revenue that enabled the Nigerian state to join various
International Organizations and to embark on various Peace Keeping missions.
During the Oil boom of the 1970s, Yakubu Gowon said that “….the problem of
Nigeria is not lack of money but how to spend it….” This actually led to spending
money recklessly on various projects.
Oil has played a very important role in the Nigerian and it has enabled the Nigerian
state to assume it present economic status as the “Giant of Africa”. Various parts of
the country were developed with the Oil money , the present capital of the Nigerian
state was developed from a mere virgin land to a potential mega city in less than 35
years while Oil that was discovered in the Niger-Delta region was more than 50years
has experienced little or no form of development.
Nigeria played host to various International Organizations such as: Hosting the
Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC ’77), the establishment of the Economic
Community of West-African States (ECOWAS), the establishment of the National
29
Youths Service Corps (NYSC) and various other development projects while
neglecting the Niger-Delta region.
The Abacha administration established the Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF) for the
development of the Nigerian state with the crude oil money, yet the Niger-Delta
region is not developed, instead, the money was used to develop other parts of the
Nigerian state where there are good road network even in the remote parts of the
areas, but a single tarred road in the Creeks would be hard to come by.
2.4 OIL AND NIGER-DELTA DEVELOPMENT
The Niger-Delta region is perhaps the most underdeveloped portion of the country
despite fifty-three years of exploiting its non-renewable oil wealth. It is a region that
is at once rich and poor; rich in mineral resources and impoverished by the oil
companies and the Federal Government which expropriates its entire resources. With
this state of affairs, lack of jobs, non-siting of industries and a near lack of
infrastructure; the Niger-Delta has become synonymous with squalor and mass
poverty. In a scientific survey published in 1997, The Niger-Delta Environmental
Survey (NEDES) reported that;
“Poverty is prevalent in the Niger-Delta and has been linked to degradation of
agricultural lands and fishing waters. Affected people became impoverished. In many cases,
30
they tend either to migrate to become part of the urban poor or to remain in their
villages to grapple with the low yielding lands and poor sources of water.”
Perhaps no other part of the Niger-Delta presents what the future holds for the area
more than Oloibiri, the first place where Oil was stuck in commercial quantities in
1956; it remains at the state of nature. With 75% of the Niger-Delta people living in
rural areas without Pipe borne water, electricity and roads, and their lands devastated
by oil exploration, their water polluted by almost daily oil spillage and the air
poisoned by external gas flares, the temper of the people was bound to short. It is
estimated that over 600billion U.S dollars has been accrued the Nigerian state from
sales of crude oil from over 50 years of oil exploration. With exception of three and
half years of civil war time, Nigeria and Her several Federal Governments have
enjoyed relative peace times with unrestricted access to resource exploration in the
area. However, due to development of retrogressive laws (1. The Petroleum Act of
1969 and 1991, II. The Nation Waterways Decree of 1997, III. The Land Use Act of
1978 and 1993) and corruption by unjustifiable unitary republics and Military
governments, the people of the Niger-Delta have suffered gross social economic
infrastructure neglect, poverty, frustrations, ecological catastrophes and other
deprivation despite their contributions to the Nigerian prosperity. There are no
standing legislative histories behind these laws mostly decreed by military
governments (some have been amended by elected legislature).
31
People in the Niger-Delta generally feel marginalized, cheated, and left out in the
lurch from concomitant largesse of contemporary “Petro-Naira”. These people
perceive a profound sense of alienation and see themselves as being far removed
from the concrete realities of a prosperous nation whose financial strength is
continuously rejuvenated from the enormous petroleum resources from the bowels of
the Niger-Delta. For a reference, they constantly visualize the enormous resources
committed to the beautified fly-over bridges in metropolitan Lagos, the emergent
high-rise architectural master-pieces in the Nation’s capital, Abuja, and the
characteristic profligacy of the typical Nigerian political who squanders “Petro-
Naira” at the slightest opportunity and they bemoan the stark discrepancy in life
chances and opportunities between THEM and US. THEM represents multinationals
and agents of the Federal government who together constitute Joint Venture partners
for oil exploration; US represents indigenous peoples in oil bearing communities;
those who pays social and health costs to several years of plunderous oil exploration
oil exploration.
Niger-Delta indigenes are not bemused at the turn of events that development for
them has remained of rhetoric. Discrepancy in the level of development in other areas
of Nigeria and the immediate milieu of the Niger-Delta has become a constant source
of turmoil and conflict, and these have translated into a trenchant and systematic
advocacy of resource control.
32
2.5 OIL RESOURCE EXPLOITATION IN THE NIGER-DELTA
2.5.1 OIL RESOURCE EXPLOITATION IN THE NIGER-DELTA The effect of oil resource extraction on the environment of the Niger-Delta
has been very glaring in terms of its negative effect on the region. Eteng 1997, P.4 stated that “Oil exploration and exploitation has over the last five decades impacted disastrously on the socio-physical environment of the Niger-Delta oil-bearing communities, massively threatening the subsistent
peasant economy and the environment and hence the entire livelihood and basic survival of the people”.
Suffice it to note that, while oil extraction has caused negative socio-economic and
environmental problems in the Niger-Delta, the Nigerian state has benefitted
immensely from petroleum since it was discovered in commercial quantities in 1956.
The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) 1981 annual report stated as follows,
“….oil which was first discovered in 1956 and first exported
In 1958 accounted for more than 90% of Nigerian export by
Value and about 80% of government revenue as at December
31, 1978…….The overall contribution of the oil sector to the
National economy also grew from an in significant 0.1% in
1959 to 87% in 1976.”
There is no doubt that the Nigerian oil industry has affected the country in a variety
of ways at the same time. On one hand, it has fashioned a remarkable economic
landscape for the country, however on the negative side, petroleum exploration and
production also have adverse effects on fishing and farming which are the traditional
33
means of livelihood of the people of the oil producing communities in the Niger-
Delta.
If the oil industry is considered in view of its enormous contribution to foreign
exchange earning, it has achieved a remarkable success. On the other scale, when
considered in respect of its inhabitants, it has left a balance-sheet of ecological and
socio-political disaster. This rightly provides a framework to evaluate the work of
neo-classical economists who argue that the development of primary resource
material for export in the periphery is the basis for development in the periphery
countries.
2.5.2 PRODUCING FOR EXPORT
Nigeria like most other less developed countries in the early part of the 70’s, were
engaged in intensive natural resource exploitation as a way of stimulating economic
growth. It was projected by several multilateral funding organizations such as the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank that export drive of primary
resource materials will eventually lead to economic growth and subsequently a
significant reduction in the level of poverty. The projection was that the long term
gain of such a process would set the stage for a sustained economic development.
34
As at 1976, about 10 years from the start of the oil export drive. Figures available
from the Federal Office of Statistics stated that oil has come to account for about 14%
of the Nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Nigeria, 95% of the total export
and over 80% of government annual revenue. Total export peaked at two million
barrels of oil per day (bpd) with price range of 18-20 dollars per barrels. This created
more opportunities for the development of new oil fields, increase granting of mining
licenses and the intensive exploitation of oil mineral resources in the Niger-Delta.
The multinational oil companies made huge investments in the oil sector, which was
quite technological and capital intensive. New laws were made which includes the
Petroleum Act of 1969 and the Land Use Decree\Act of 1978. This legislation
regulated community access to communal or open access to such land, while at the
same time making it possible for the multinational investors to have unrestricted
access to explore for oil unchallenged even on sacred land.
These changes have led to a series of social conflict between the community people
and the state\oil companies as would be discussed hereafter.
2.5.3 PEASANT AGRICULTURE IN THE NIGER-DELTA.
Agriculture forms the most dominant economic activity in the Niger-Delta. Federal
Office of Statistics (F.O.S) in 1985 stated that crop farming and fishing activities
account for about 90% of all forms of activities in the area. They also estimated that
about 50%-68% of the active labour force is engaged in one form of agricultural
35
activity or the other including fishing and farming. Agricultural technology has
remained relatively unchanged over the years and over 90% of farmers are subsistent
farmers operating on traditional methods using basic tools. Azibolomari 1998, P.67
stated that-
“…….farming technique in the Niger-Delta has still
remained the use of land rotation of bush fallow -
system characterized by land and labour being the
principal unit of production.”
The organic farming techniques widely used in the Niger-Delta is highly susceptible
to environmental changes affecting the soil, water and or deforestation because it is
not technologically inspired, but rather land and labour intensive. Oil extraction and
production has led to adverse environmental impact on the soil, forest and water of
the Niger-Delta communities. This has ultimately affected peasant agriculture in a
variety of ways, which ultimately have caused problems of environmental refugees.
Some of the landless farmers migrate to other more fertile lands in other rural
communities, putting pressure on scarce fertile lands. While some of the displaced
farmers out-migrate to the urban areas in search of livelihood.
Various harmful and toxic organic compounds when introduced into the natural
environment during oil extraction such as during seismic work, oil spill, gas flares
and several other forms pollution, changes the geo-chemical composition of the soil,
36
rivers and other components of the environment. This in turn affects agriculture and
lead to a drastic decline in output in both fishing and farming activities. Stanley 1990,
P.67-79 noted that-
“……7.7% of the 797 people interviewed on the socio-economic
impact of oil in Nigeria identified farmland pollution as a major
problem.”
The peasants are very reactive to these changes because of the unavailability of
modern farming and fishing techniques to meet the challenges of a declining soil and
marine resources. The drastic fall in output of the agricultural product, led to
intensive exploitation of other fertile land. This long run effect of this is land
degradation and immigration to other rural areas, where pressures is exerted on the
often inadequate and dilapidated infrastructure, leading to increase poverty.
In addition, Ikporukpo 1981, P.23-26 stated that “most farmers are concerned with
problems of displacement without resettlement during oil spills”. Gbadegesin 1997, P.9 further
noted that
“Apart from loss of farms, oil spills have led to extensive deforestation
With no adequate replanting practices…….this in effect has shortened
Fallow periods, compounded land use degradation and led to a loss of
Soil fertility and consequently erosion of top soil.”
37
Elliot 1998, P.82 stated that-
“The slash and burn agriculture traditionally practiced by shifting
cultivators-up to 10% of world’s population is based on ecologically
sound principles. It minimizes threats to the forest by leaving land
fallow over a period of time long enough for regeneration…….landless
peasants whom have been forced from their own land, increases the number of
people pursuing such a subsistence lifestyle, this contributes to de-
forestation through further encroachment on forest lands and reduction
in fallow times.”
The out-migration of the rural displaced farmers in the Niger-Delta as a result of
environmental degradation caused by oil extraction in the region has led to a
significant percentage of the local inhabitants to remain in cyclical poverty and
penury. This has meant a greater environmental degradation as a result of the
intensive exploitation of the few remaining fertile lands in the region by the residents.
It has also led to increasing urban blight in the urban areas in the Niger-Delta as more
displaced rural inhabitant flood the urban areas in search of non-existent jobs.
2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPLICATION OF INTENSIVE
RESOURCE EXPLOITATION IN THE NIGER-DELTA
In this section, this paper will look more specifically at various environmental and
socio-economic problems that have been identified as a result of the intensive
extraction of natural oil resources in the Niger-Delta.
2.6.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
38
The Niger-Delta is comprised of 70,000 km2 of wetlands formed primarily by
sediment deposition. Home to Twenty million people and forty (40) different ethnic
groups, this flood plain makes up 75% of Nigeria’s total wetland mass. It is the
largest wetland and maintains the third largest drainage area in Africa. The Delta’s
environment can be broken down into four ecological zones; Coastal barrier islands,
Mangrove swamp forests, Fresh water swamps, and Lowland rain forests. This
incredibly well-endowed ecosystem, which contains one of the highest concentrations
of bio-diversity on the planet, in addition to supporting the abundant flora and fauna,
arable terrain that can sustain a wide variety of crops, economic trees, and more
species of fresh water fish than any ecosystem in West-Africa. The region could
experience a loss of 40% of its inhabitable terrain in the next thirty years because of
extensive dam construction in the region. The carelessness of the oil industry has also
precipitated this situation, which can perhaps be encapsulated by a 1983 report issued
by the NNPC in 1983; long perform popular unrest surfaced;
“We witnessed the slow poisoning of the waters of this country and
the destruction of vegetation and agricultural lands by oil spills which
occur during petroleum operations. But since the inception of the oil
industry in Nigeria, more than fifty years ago, there has been no concerned
and effective effort on the part of the government let alone the oil operators,
To control environmental problems associated with the industry.”
Nwankwo and Ifeadi 1988, P.58-64 identified the factors as some of the pollution
problems associated with oil exploration and production in the Niger-Delta.
39
1. Contamination of streams and rivers- In the course of oil exploration and
production in the Niger-Delta, various materials are released into the environment.
For example during exploration, drill cuttings, drill mud and fluids are used for
stimulation production
2. The problem of oil spills- Oil spills in Nigeria occur due to a number of causes
which; corrosion of pipelines and tankers (accounts for 50% of all spills), sabotage
(28%), and oil production operations (21%), with 1% of spills being accounted for by
inadequate or non-functional production equipment. The largest contributor to the oil
spill total, corrosion of pipes and tanks, is the rupturing or leaking of production
infrastructures that are described as, “very old and lacks regular inspection and
maintenance.,”
Oil spillage has a major impact on the ecosystem into which it is released. Immense
tracts of mangrove forests, which are especially susceptible to oil (this is mainly
because it is stored in the soil and re-released annually with inundation), have been
destroyed, an estimated 5-10% of Nigerian mangrove ecosystems have been wiped
out either by settlement or oil. The rainforest which previously occupied some
7,400km2 of land has disappeared as well.
40
3. Transportation and marketing, Damage to oil pipelines and Accidents involving
road trucks and tankers generate oil spills and hydrocarbon emissions which
according to Ikporukpo 1988, P.79 have a far more reaching effect, because the
toxicity of the soil adversely affect the soil, plant, animal and water resources.
4. Forest destruction and bio-diversity loss- The major constituent of drill cuttings
such as barites and bentonite clays when dropped or dumped on the ground prevent
plant’s growth until natural processes develop new top soil. In water according to
Nwankwo and Ifeadi (1988), these materials disperse and sink, killing marine
animals. The environmental effect of gas flaring- Nigeria flares more natural gas
associated with oil extracted than any other country on the planet, with estimates
suggesting that of the 3.5 billion cubit feet (99,000,000m3) of Associated Gas(A.G)
produced annually, 2.5 billion cubit feet (71,000,000), or about 70% is wasted via
flaring. This equals about 25% of U.K’s total natural gas consumption and it is the
equivalent of 40% of the entire African continent’s gas consumption in 2001.
Gas flares can have potentially harmful effects on the health and livelihood of the
communities in their vicinity, as they release a variety of poisonous chemicals. There
are many human problems, which have been reported amongst many children in the
Delta but have apparently gone uninvestigated.
41
5. Effluent discharge and disposal- Refinery waste also contains very toxic
chemicals, which constitute potential land, water and air pollutants.
Atmospheric contaminants from refinery operations include oxides of nitrogen,
carbon and sulphur. Liquid refinery effluent usually contains oil and grease.
These compounds contain organic chemicals such as phenol cyanide; sulphide-
suspended solids, chromium and biological demanding organic matter on
getting in contact with land water pollute them.
2.6.2 SOCIAL IMPACT
The Niger-Delta communities have remained grossly socio-economically
underdeveloped and pauperized amidst the immense oil wealth owing to systematic
disequilibrium in the production exchange relationship between the State, the Trans-
National companies and the people. Enormous money had been derived from oil
export but the area has been subjected to severe land degradation, socio-economic
disorganization, increasing poverty, misery, militancy occupation and bloody
violence.
Oil exploration has impacted most disastrously on the socio-physical environment of
the Niger-Delta oil bearing communities massively threatening the fragile subsistent
42
peasant economy and bio-diversity and hence their entire social livelihood and very
survival. The oil producing communities have basically remained dependent and
underdeveloped, persistently dis-empowered, socio-culturally marginalized and
psychologically alienated. The wealth derived from oil resource exploitation and
exports benefit directly only the operators of the oil industry and the bureaucrats in
governments.
Conflicts between oil companies and host communities are also recurring phenomena
in the Niger-Delta region. Of the two most appropriating external systems, that is the
Government and the Trans-National oil companies, the TNC’s are in more direct and
physical contact with the communities and their expropriated inhabitants. The
deprived peasants currently make demand for social services from the oil companies,
than they can make from the often-inaccessible Nigerian state. This has often led to
conflict as the oil companies are engaged in the process of collaborating with the
Nigerian regime to use violence as a means of pacifying the protesting communities.
Oil exploration and exploitation over the last four decades has also instigated and
intensified bitter and bloody conflicts between emerging interest groups within and
between communities. These conflicts now range between elite groups and between
youths or organizations on one hand, between urban resident elite and village
community resident on the other scale. This conflict that has emerged in the Niger-
Delta as a result of the creation of oil has its roots in the violence of the rights of the 43
local community people as a people as a result of the promulgation of obnoxious
legislations, this has inevitably led to greater poverty and landless groups of the
people whose basis sustenance as peasants farmers have been negatively affected as a
result of oil extraction for export.
2.7 HOST COMMUNITIES AND OIL REVENUE
The Federal Government of Nigeria is accused of depriving the host communities of
the revenues accruing to them from Niger-Delta oil production. It must be
categorically pointed out that the crude oil is not produced out of the entire land-
scape of the Niger-Delta; rather some specific host communities are responsible for
the production of the crude oil that bestows the honour on the Niger-Delta, because
they are integral parts of the Niger-Delta.
The Federal Government has conceded at least 13% of the revenues derived from
crude-oil, even though, unjustly to the oil producing states, and crisis of the Niger-
Delta now, is a result of the deprivation arising from the expropriation of the oil
revenues by the centre, without a beneficial advantage to the swamps of the Niger-
Delta producing crude oil.
44
The oil bearing host communities of the oil companies are very poor, and they can
hardly fend for themselves. The host communities do not have economic activities
that generate enough money for them to be contended. The oil revenue accrued to the
Nigerian state has not in anyway impacted positively to the host communities.
2.8 IMPACT OF OIL INDUSTRY ON HUMAN RIGHT
One of the greatest threats facing the people of the Niger River Delta has actually
been their own government. The Nigerian government has total control over property
rights and they have the authority to seize any property for use by oil companies. A
majority of every dollar that comes out of the ground in the Delta goes to the
government of Nigeria. Despite the wealth flowing into the Nation from oil revenues,
many of Nigeria’s socio-economic factors are worse than they were 30 years ago.
According to the World Bank, most of Nigeria’s oil wealth gets siphoned off by 1%
of the population. Corruption in the government is rampant, in fact since 1960, it is
estimated that 300 -400 billion dollars has been stolen by corrupt government
officials. The corruption is found at the highest levels as well. For example, a former
Inspector General of the National Police was accused of stealing 52 million dollars.
He was sentenced to six years in prison for a lesser charge.
45
The situation is very bad and the people have engaged in protest. The problem is,
many of these protest have been met with unmitigated violence. One example of this
occurred in February 2005; there was a protest at Chevron Escravos Oil terminal in
which soldiers opened fire on the protesters. One man was killed and 30 others were
injured. The soldiers claimed that the protesters were armed, a claim the protesters
deny. Another, more extreme example happened in 1994, The Nigerian Military
moved into a region called Ogoniland in force. They razed 30 villages, arrested
hundreds of protesters and killed an estimated 2,000 people. In 1999, a band of
soldiers invaded a whole village down, killing the people and making them homeless.
The human neglect of the people of the Niger-Delta has been neglected because of
the Oil in the region. The people are treated like slaves and the government has made
sure that they don’t rise above that position.
2.9 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This research project would make use the System Theory in analyzing the crisis in
the Niger-Delta with the rise of militancy in the region.
David Easton is usually credited with pioneering the application of system approach
to the analysis of the political process. He defines the political system as “the system
of interactions in any society through which binding or authoritative decisions are
46
made or implemented.”He considers the political system as existing within an
environment of other systems. Physical, Biological, Social, Psychological, etc., which
affect and are in turn affected by the political system-through continuous transactions
and exchanges.
According to Easton, the political system functions by getting inputs from its
environment. The inputs are events in the environment which evokes response from
it. The inputs could be supports, that is, expressions of approval for particular
decisions. The inputs from the environment undergoes a conversion process with the
political system and come out as outputs, which usually are authoritative decisions
such as Government policies, Judicial decisions, Acts of Parliament etc., Promulgated
by the authorities. These authoritative outputs usually affect the environment as
outcomes and in turn excite some form of feedback, that changes in the intensity and
value of demands and support from the environment. The system theory would be
used to analyze the Niger-Delta crisis with the cry for resource control and increase
in derivative principles, the rise of militancy, and the response of the government and
other facet of the crisis.
47
REFERENCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Alexandra I. Moro (2008). “The Niger-Delta crisis: Beyond Employment and
Physical Development, The critical issues involved”. Mind quest publishers, Port-
Harcourt.
Alabi Williams (Sunday, June 29, 2008).”The Niger-Delta: Begging an old
question”. The Guardian, Page 18.
Worgu Stanley Owabukeruyele (January, 2000). “Hydro carbon exploration,
environmental degradation and poverty in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria”. Being
a paper presented at Lund University LUMES program, Lund, Sweden,
Clement Ikpatt; L. Glenn Scott, Esq. “The Niger-Delta problems and solutions: The
Equilateral Resource Control (ERC) model as an alternative dispute resolution