“Mussolini and Fascism in Italy.How Mussolini affected the Italian football: special references to 1934s and 1938s World Cups”

EVANGELIA DETSIOU matriculation number: 1114755-2nd semester

Contents

1. Introduction

3

2. Mussolini and Fascism in Italy

4

2.1. Historical overview of Italian Fascism

4

2.2. Commentary on the rise of fascism in Italy

6

3. The politicization of Italian Football

8

3.1. Football as a propaganda tool in Mussolini’s

hands 8

3.2. From Mussoli… to the Present (a route across

time) 10

4. Mussolini and 1934s World Cup

11

4.1 Organising the 1934 World Cup…new aspects of the

tournament 11

4.2 An overview… 11

4.3 The Big Final 12

4.4 The Aftermath 13

4.5 Facts about the World Cup of 1934

14

5. Mussolini and 1938s World Cup

15

5.1 The underlying political spread

15

5.2 The Big Final

16

5.3 The Aftermath 16

6. Conclusion 17

7. Bibliography 18

.

Introduction

In this assignment I will present the topic about Mussolini

and Fascism in Italy and how Mussolini affected the Italian

Football. Initially I will outline the underlying political

developments in Italy during the interwar era describing

Mussolini’s road to power and giving the reasons for the rise

of fascism in Italy as reserachers and historians have

submitted them. Moreover I will present the criticism about

the “success” of Mussolini’s dictatorship which is an object

of vivid debate amongst historians because this research

aspect could give a deeper understang of the fascist regime

in Italy. Following that I will focus on the politicization

of Italian football during Mussolini’s time but also

nowadays. How and why did Mussolini use the Italian foootball

as a propaganda tool and why are the football stadia places

for political representation in modern Italy? These research

dimensions will make clearer the causes of politicized

Italian football over the decades. In addition to this, I

will make special references to the World Cups of 1934 and

1938 when Italy won the cup for two following times under the

dark cloud of fascism. To this point, many reserachers and

scholars proved that Mussolini’s “contribution” was

determining to the result in both occasions! Therefore giving

details for the underlying political spread during the both

World Cups and describing the both big finals and the

aftermath of both tournaments will be more understandable how

Mussolini affected the Italian Football using it to grow the

prestige of his fascist regime.

Mussolini and Fascism1 in Italy

Historical overview of Italian Fascism

World War I – or the Great War as it was also called –

elevated some of Italy's young men who were proud to be

combatants for their nation. The war also elevated national

pride in people and a sense that Italy was one nation with a

common cause rather than divided by class antagonisms. And

one Italian so elevated and proud to have fought in the war

was Benito Mussolini

(http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm/09.07.2014).

But the war had not been going as well as for Italy as

Mussolini had hoped, and the nation was suffering

economically. Italy emerged from the war still a

constitutional monarchy. And it emerged with inflation, a

huge debt and unemployment aggravated by demobilization of

thousands of soldiers. To stave off uprisings among the poor,

the government subsidized bread. Its expenditures were three

times its revenues, yet it refused to tax the wealthy

(http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12muss2.htm/09.07.2014). People

were casting about for targets of blame, and in February

1918, Mussolini joined those who spoke with disgust about

parliamentary squabbling. Mussolini described parliamentary

1 Fascism refers to a movement which suppresses social, political and economic traditions, in the interest of creating a ‘new national order’ through tactical and radical indoctrination. Such a movement flourishes under a totalitarian regime, exercising dictatorial control which may be implemented and maintained by the use of force and aggression (https://suite.io/terri-russell/2x4e2bh/09.07.2014).

democracy as "effete."  Italy, he claimed, should set things

right by making a clean sweep. Italy, he said, needed a

dictator. And in advocating soldierly patriotism and Italian

nationalism, he attacked what he called the "sickly

internationalism" of Lenin and Wilson

(http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm/09.07.2014).

Following that the fascist movement emerged in Italy in

March 1919 and was composed of fascist combat groups formed

by Benito Mussolini. The first meeting of the movement, in

March 1919, was attended mainly by war veterans, various

malcontents, some believers in a strong, machine-oriented

Italy, and a few pro-war, nationalist-minded socialists. But

in elections in Milan in late 1919, Mussolini and his

Fascists won nothing. The voters were more concerned with

domestic issues than they were with the international issues

that Mussolini had been addressing. In the elections,

Catholic reformist politicians and Mussolini's enemy, the

Socialist Party, were the clear victors. And like some other

losers in politics, Mussolini resorted to acts of terrorism.

However like those veterans in Germany who committed crimes

from "patriotic" motives, Mussolini received a light sentence

and he spent only a couple of days in prison. By the end of

1919, Mussolini's movement had fewer than a thousand members.

Discouraged, Mussolini considered giving up politics to

travel the world playing his violin. But he decided to stick

it out, and 1920 would be a big year for him, thanks largely

to agitation from the Left

(http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12muss2.htm/09.07.2014).

Mussolini had already been receiving financial support from a

few rich admirers, and in the 1920s that support increased

substantially, mainly from industrialists and landowners.

Mussolini abandoned his leftist programs. He abandoned his

stands against the Church, which he realized had not helped

his movement. He faced accusations of being a tool of the

capitalists from the anti-capitalists within his movement,

but he could afford to ignore or turn against his movement's

Left – as Hitler would in Germany – in exchange for increased

power. Coming into the Fascist movement in the place of anti-

capitalists were young men from the lower middle class, from

civil service, from respectable bourgeois families, and

students from the universities – some who had been junior

officers during the war

(http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12muss3.htm/10.07.2014).

Mussolini’s fascist movement was growing in number, to around

250,000 in 1921 and gaining support became a political party

in November 1921 known as the PNF (National Fascist Party).

In October 1922, the march on Rome by the Fascists to bring

order and good government to Italy appeared imminent, and the

government responded to this threat by moving toward the

declaration of martial law. The king's signature was required

for a declaration of martial law, but the king, Victor

Emmanuel III, refused. To avert a civil war, the king sought

the creation of a strong coalition government made up of

rightists, including the Fascists. The Socialists and the

Popular Party were to be ignored despite the majority that

they, together, had in parliament. Mussolini refused to join

the coalition unless he was made its leader, and the king was

obliging. He invited Mussolini to become prime minister.

Mussolini, at 39, accepted. Fascists from around Italy were

already arriving from the march on Rome, and Mussolini turned

what had been a threat to seize power into a victory parade.

Some among the Fascists believed that a new order, or

revolution, was in the making, while some others believed

that what was taking place was the restoration of what was

good about the past

(http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12muss4.htm/10.07.2014).

Initially, Mussolini, who was appointed prime minister at the

head of a three-member Fascist cabinet, cooperated with the

Italian parliament, but aided by his brutal police

organization he soon became the effective dictator of Italy.

In 1924, a Socialist backlash was suppressed, and in January

1925 a Fascist state was officially proclaimed, with

Mussolini as Il Duce, or "The Leader"

(http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/mussolini-founds-

the-fascist-party/11.07.2014).

In 1935 when Mussolini initiated the Ethiopian War, which

many believe was a waged war for unjustifiable reasons; many

became skeptical of his interests. This, coupled with the

alliance with Nazi Germany, was affecting the popularity of

Mussolini and his regime. For many, liberties declined as

fascism was abolishing parties, free press, the public

accountability of government, and every free expression of

public opinion

(https://suite.io/terri-russell/2x4e2bh/10.07.2014).

In July 1943, the failure of the Italian war effort and the

imminent invasion of the Italian mainland by the Allies led

to a rebellion within the Fascist Party. Two days after the

fall of Palermo on July 24, the Fascist Grand Council

rejected the policy dictated by Hitler through Mussolini, and

on July 25 Il Duce was arrested. Fascist Marshal Pietro

Badoglio took over the reins of the Italian government, and

in September Italy surrendered unconditionally to the Allies.

Eight days later, German commandos freed Mussolini from his

prison in the Abruzzi Mountains, and he was later made the

puppet leader of German-controlled northern Italy. With the

collapse of Nazi Germany in April 1945, Mussolini was

captured by Italian partisans and on April 29 was executed by

firing squad with his mistress, Clara Petacci, after a brief

court-martial. Their bodies, brought to Milan, were hanged by

the feet in a public square for the entire world to see

(http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/mussolini-founds-

the-fascist-party/10.07.2014).

Commentary on the rise of fascism in Italy

Democracy as an institution was unstable and novel to the

Italians, with universal male suffrage only having been

granted in 1912. This made it easier for Mussolini to

capitalize on the reaction to chaos and bring his party,

representing rigid order, to power. Mussolini's strength lay

in his ability to harness the anger and disillusionment of

the returning soldiers and the lower middle class. Soldiers

returned to a broken homeland after World War One, filled

with misery and poverty. Moreover, they were not thanked for

their sacrifices but jeered as the cause of Italy's hard

times. These jeers seemed to be coming from more than

anywhere else, the liberal left, which was in control of the

Chamber of Deputies early in the inter-war years. Under their

rule, conditions only worsened, and in many instances it

seemed like they were doing nothing as Italy collapsed. The

Fascist party appealed to the frustrations of these soldiers,

and to the culturally instilled conservatism of the middle

class. Rather than preaching liberalism and newly emerging

liberal values, the Fascists offered a return to traditional

politics and traditional values, promising to undo the

changes made by the liberals and lift poor, crippled Italy to

a position of glory once more. Most importantly, they offered

the masses a type of government in which the leaders could

and would do something about deteriorating conditions. To

many, it did not matter what exactly the Fascists did, but

only that they acted, and acted within the framework of a

stable and strong government.

(http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/interwaryears/

section6.rhtml/10.07.2014)

Mussolini's rule as dictator fell nicely into the established

totalitarian mold of an omnipotent state apparatus that

controlled thought and suppressed dissent, demanding

obedience and uniformity. Mussolini's ascent to power is also

a perfect example of the means by which dictators during the

inter-war years commonly rose to power, by literally beating

the legal state apparatus down through brutality and

intimidation until it had no choice but to legally accept the

imposed government. Though Mussolini's means of ascension to

power were by no means legal, in the end, he was granted

control of the government by the king himself. This

legitimization of totalitarian government was seen commonly

throughout the twentieth century

(http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/interwaryears/

section6.rhtml/10.07.2014)

Nevertheless the success of Mussolini’s dictatorship is an

object of vivid debate amongst historians. In his defense

some praise his charisma that shone through in his speeches,

drawing on popular slogans of the time such as “Mussolini’s

Italy,” “Mussolini is always right,” and Mussolini as the

“face” of fascism. Mussolini is considered to have been a

skilled orator, speaking of creating “something new,” the

“unification of Italy,” exclaiming in one of his many

speeches that “The short monosyllable will show the world

that Italy is Fascist and Fascism is Italy”

(https://suite.io/terri-russell/2x4e2bh/09.07.2014).

Some believe that although Mussolini spoke of uniting

Italians with fascism, he failed to clearly outline what the

movement composed, inevitably limiting the possibility for

national unification of fascist ideology. Despite acceptance

and admiration of Mussolini and his regime, critics argue

that “for all his charisma, however, Mussolini was not a

great leader of men,” describing him as a “failed dictator.”

A common perception is that of Mussolini being a “dictator

minor” who, although aggressive in words, was “minor” in

practice compared to the atrocities committed by other

dominant dictators of the time, such as Hitler or Stalin

(https://suite.io/terri-russell/2x4e2bh/09.07.2014).

“Mussolini’s many compromises on the road to power denied him

the opportunity of creating a truly fascist state, whatever

that might have been, but they made it easier for most

Italians to live in harmony with the inefficient conservative

state that Italy continued to be. Fascist social police was a

laughable failure in terms of controlling and ordering

society for some great fascist purpose but for many years it

did have the great merit of winning tha Italians’ acceptance

of the regime” (Townley, 2002: 95-96).

The politicization of Italian Football

Football as a propaganda tool in Mussolini’s hands

Institutionalized as a fascist game in Mussolini's Italy,

football was exploited domestically in an attempt to develop

a sense of Italian identity and internationally as a

diplomatic tool to improve Italy's standing in the global

arena. In this time, Italian Fascism fully exploited the

opportunities, football provided to shape public opinion,

penetrate daily life, and reinforce conformity. By

politicizing the game, Fascism also sought to enhance the

regime's international prestige and inculcate nationalist

values

(http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/FootballStudies/2003/F

S0602k.pdf.html/10.07.2014)

Benito Mussolini not only did his fascist movement travel

places, the very moot idea of using Football   as a

propaganda in politics  is what separated him and his German

counterpart, Adolf Hitler from the rest of the pack. The

journalist turned Prime-Minister established his fascist

empire in the 20′s, and colonized the game in an attempt to

shore up his agenda. Benito Mussolini was not the first

leader to recognize the political potential of sports, but he

placed more emphasis upon them. In the words of Bill Murray,

“Mussolini’s Fascist regime was the first to use sports as an

integral part of government”.Mussolini was acutely aware of

the powers of propaganda in shaping public opinion. He

recognized that as the sport of the masses, he could use

football to gain the support of a nation

(http://www.thehardtackle.com/2013/how-mussolini-affected-

world-cup-and-italian-football/.html/10.07.2014). Many of

the techniques that Mussolini originated were later imitated

by Hitler in Nazi Germany. Stalin, on the other hand, though

earlier to utilize sport domestically, was unwilling to put

the Soviet athletes to the test of international competition

until he was sure that they would win

(http://sites.duke.edu/wcwp/research-projects/football-and-

politics-in-europe-1930s-1950s/mussolinis-football/

#sthash.pU6Kqw7A.dpuf/11.072014).

In some respects, the usefulness of sport for a Fascist or

totalitarian regime is obvious. The values of sport can be

used rhetorically to reflect the values of a Fascist regime

without much stretching. For example, after Italy’s victory

in the World Cup final Il Popolo D’Italia—the newspaper that most

directly served as a mouthpiece for Mussolini’s regime—

referred to the “vision of harmony, discipline, order, and

courage” shown by the national team on the pitch

(http://sites.duke.edu/wcwp/research-projects/football-and-

politics-in-europe-1930s-1950s/mussolini

football/#sthash.pU6Kqw7A.dpuf/11.07.2014).

Additionally, dominance on the sports field can be

extrapolated to a wider context of supremacy. This was most

directly seen with Hitler and his Arian athletes at the 1936

Olympic Games, but Mussolini also sought to assert national

dominance through sporting achievements. The Italians took

special relish in their competitions against political and

cultural rivals in Europe such as France, Spain, and England.

It is also commonly argued that sport is used by Fascist

regimes both as an extension of military training and as an

opiate of the masses. Tunis points to both of these

motivations for Mussolini and his regime, stating that,

“sport becomes just one branch of army training,”and, “It

keeps the younger and naturally insurgent elements of the

community from thinking too much about internal political

conditions and lack of employment.”The Italian Fascists had

all of these and more as goals when they set out to both

control and nurture the sport domestically with an eye to

international competition

(http://sites.duke.edu/wcwp/research-projects/football-and-

politics-in-europe-1930s-1950s/mussolini

football/#sthash.pU6Kqw7A.dpuf/11.07.2014).

The hand the Fascist regime played in the rapid expansion of

organized football in Italy can be seen most concretely in

the proliferation of Fascist funded and built football

stadiums. “In addition to draining marshes and building

roads, the stock in trade of dictatorial regimes, the

Fascists built modern soccer stadiums as monuments to their

glory.”Stadiums were built throughout Italy.These stadiums

were put forward as a “sign of a fascist will to work and

achieve power.” These stadiums served a dual purpose, as they

both asserted the industrial might of the fascist regime and

helped Italian football grow and flourish, not to mention the

fact that it was an essential part of the regime’s push to

host the 1934 cup. The influence of Mussolini on Italian

football was felt not just in the physical realm of stadiums,

but also at the organizational level. The Fascist regime was

prone to directly controlling the administrative bodies of

even the smallest elements of Italian society, and football

was certainly not immune from this tendency

(http://sites.duke.edu/wcwp/research-projects/football-and-

politics-in-europe-1930s 1950s/mussolini

football/#sthash.pU6Kqw7A.dpuf/11.07.2014).

From Mussolini... to the Present (a route across

time)

“In Italian football stadia, political representation has

been evident for decades; politics has been integral to all

realms of Italian society and culture since the origin of the

nation. As one of the most significant of cultural practices,

footbal has not been an exception. A combination of political

theory and the will to action to achieve these goals or

resist the opponent inspires tens of thousands of young male

football supporters. The Italian football stadium might be

interpreted as a 21st – century social agora (ancient Greek

term conceptualizing the place where ancient Athenians

participated actively in political life) where political

opinions otherwise ghettoised in society are freely expressed

in pursuit of a wider consensus” (Testa & Armstrong, 2010:

3).

Mussolini and 1934s World Cup

According to David Goldblatt:

“The preparations for the tournament coincided with a steadily more expansionist

and aggressive Italian foreign policy that would culminate after the World Cup in

the invasion of Abyssinia, intervention in the Spanish Civil War and relentless

pressure on Albania and Central Europe. In this context the 1934 World Cup

became an explicitly political as well as sporting exercise” (Kraba, 2010:33).

Organising the 1934 World Cup… new aspects of the

tournament

“By 1934, 32 teams wanted to take part in the second World

Cup. A qualifying round determined 16 finalists who competed

for the title in Italy. Still, it was not quite a world

tournament yet. Powerful England once again refused to

participate. So did defending Champion Uruguay. It refused to

show up after so myna European countries skipped the first

World Cup. One team that made the trip was Egypt. Now

countriers from Africa, Europe and South and North America

were represented. Other aspects of the tournament grew as

well. All of the 1930 games were held in one city. Eight

cities hoted games in Italy,in 1934. However fans did not

have to travel to be close to the action. That is because the

tournament was broadcast on radio to 12 of the 16 countries

taking part. There was a dark cloud over the 1934 World Cup,

though. Italy Dictator Benito Mussolini hoped to use the

tournament for political gain” (Monnig, 2013: 18 & 19).

An overview…

The 1934 football World Cup took place between May 27 and

June 10, 1934 in eight Italian cities: Bologna, Florence,

Genoa, Milan, Naples, Rome, Trieste, and Turin. Thirty-two

teams, including the host nation who did not yet

automatically qualify, entered the qualifiers.Sixteen teams

made it through to the actual tournament. Italy eventually

won the final against Czechoslovakia with a two to one come

from behind victory at the Stadio Flaminio or Fascist

National Party Stadium in Rome on June 10. This World Cup

triumph would be but one in a string for Italy who went on to

win the gold medal in football at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin

and become the first repeat champions in World Cup history

with a victory in 1938. The World Cup victory in 1934 has

entered into the world of Italian legend, “In truth, however,

very little is known about the games themselves.” Without

television, except for those who saw matches in person, the

reality of the games was largely shaped by the media

personalities and press that reported on the matches. In

Italy, this largely meant a very nationalistic interpretation

of the events by the Fascist controlled media

(http://sites.duke.edu/wcwp/research-projects/football-and-

politics-in-europe-1930s-1950s/mussolinis-football/the-1934-

world-cup/10.07.2014).

The Big Final

June 10 dawned on Rome with the country in a patriotic

fervor.  The hosts marched into the Stadio Nazionale PNF

wearing blue with white shorts and black socks, their

opponents red with white shorts and blue socks. The occasion

was a pageant for the fascist party.  Mussolini himself

appeared in full uniform.  All Italian players were required,

as had become customary, to make the fascist salute before

the game.  It surprised some to see Swedish referee Ivan

Ekland do so as well. This highlighted questions that some

had asked as to what influence Mussolini had over the referee

(http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1924518-italy-world-cup-

rewind-the-first-title-1934-final-vs-czechoslovakia/

11.07.2014).

The first half went by goalless.  The Czechoslovakian keeper,

Frantisek Planicka, had to deal with a steady diet of balls

into the box by the Italians.  On the other end, Antonin Puc

had a penalty appeal controversially waved away.  Some

players complained to Ekland about the lack of whistles

despite several hard tackles. The physicality continued to

escalate as the game went on.  Midway through the second half

Puc was carried off the field after he cramped.  With

substitutions not permitted at the time, Czechoslovakia

played with 10 men until Puc managed to get to the back on

the field.  Moments after he was allowed back on, the ball

fell to him after a corner.  His long shot beat Italian

captain Gianpiero Combi to stun the Italian crowd with 19

minutes left. Moments later the Czechoslovakians nearly

doubled their lead, but Frantisek Svoboda struck the woodwork

instead. The situation was becoming more and more desperate

for the Italians.  Then in the 81st minute, Raimundo Orsi

scored one of the most legendary goals in the history of the

tournament.   What seems to be universal is that he dummied

more than one defender with his left foot and then scored on

a chip with his right. The equalizer sent the game into extra

time.  It was here that Pozzo showed his tactical acumen and

ordered Angelo Schiavio and Enrique Guaita to switch

positions.  It was this duo that decided the game. Guaita

took a ball from Meazza and fed Schiavio, who tucked a

snapshot past Planicka in the fifth minute of the extra

session.  Czechoslovakia had no response.  Italians were

champions. (http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1924518-italy-

world-cup-rewind-the-first-title-1934-final-vs-

czechoslovakia/11.07.2014).

The Aftermath

All three podium finishers—Italy, Czechoslovakia and third

place Germany—were present for the trophy presentation after

the match.  A jubilant Mussolini presented the silverware to

the winners.  Aside from the Jules Rimet Trophy, Mussolini

presented his own Coppa Del Duce, a massive trophy he had

commissioned that dwarfed FIFA's award. Pozzo was the coach

of the national team until 1948.  Two years after his triumph

in Rome he led Italy to the Olympic gold medal, and then

defended his World Cup title in 1938.  There was only one

holdover on the roster—Meazza.  Pozzo remains the only

manager in history ever to win two World Cups

(http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1924518-italy-world-cup-

rewind-the-first-title-1934-final-vs-czechoslovakia/

11.07.2014).

As for as Mussolini is concerned, Professor (at the

University of London) John Foot claims, “The victory in Rome,

more than anything else, cemented the popularity of

Mussolini.” The entire tournament was surrounded by the feel

of warfare – Pozzo constantly used the analogy of his team of

“soldiers” going into the “battlefield” to ultimately win the

“War” of Football. Even the closing ceremony was a fascist

dominated occasion, featuring fascist themes alongside

Giovinezza’ – the fascist theme that proudly echoed around

the walls of Stadio Nazionale, amidst the prominently

fluttering Italian flag. It all came across as an event that

was much more than the closing ceremony of a World Cup. It

seemed to be the glorious parade of the acceptance of fascist

principles by a nation. The meek acceptance of then FIFA

President Jules Rimet all but confirmed that the 1934 FIFA

World Cup was a misnomer – it was actually the 1934 Fascist

World Cup. Therefore the “mission” was successful for

Mussolini. Through the success in the World Cup, he was able

to unite the people of Italy in his movement to present Italy

as a truly fascist empire.

(http://www.thehardtackle.com/2013/how-mussolini-affected-

world-cup-and-italian-football/09.07.2014).

Facts about the World Cup of 1934

“Mussolini knew exactly the power of propaganda. He

wanted to project the image of a new Italian man, who

would have excellent physical condition, strong and

athletic.” said Professor John Foot, who teaches modern

Italian history at the University of London.

The National team of Italy in the World Cup of ’34 was

nicknamed “Azzurri’s of Mussolini” which revealed the

influence that the dictator had on every issue in the

country. Of course, by the start of the event, Mussolini

was the one who decided who would be the referee of

every match, showing his desire to see Italy conquers

the trophy…

The situation got out of control in the quarterfinals

against Spain, where the referees passed Italy in the

next phase to meet Austria in semifinals. “Mussolini had

placed a young Swedish referee in that game against

Austrians. It is said that one night before, they had a

‘special dinner’ to discuss tactics…” says Foot.

Despite the fact that Mussolini had arranged the referee

in this game, the Italians threatened and finally scored

with one ‘suspected’ offside goal to qualify for the

final. The final opponent would be Czech in a game which

Mussolini would put back the same Swedish referee to

“lock” the trophy.

Despite the brainwashing of Italian players and their

favorite referee, Italy stayed at 1-1 at the final

against Czech, after overtime. At penalties, Italy won

and got the first World Cup in its history.

The World Cup of 1934 will be remembered as the event

where football used in propaganda and underhanded manner

by Mussolini in order to manipulate the masses. Many

wondered if the same could have been done if another

country conducted the event. Four years after, they

received their answer when Italy celebrated again about

winning the trophy, this time in France

(http://www.betshoot.com/blog/facts-about-the-world-cup-

of-1934/11.07.2014).

Mussolini and 1938s World Cup

The underlying political spread…

Italy came into the 1938 World Cup in France with just one

thing in mind: to show the world that their victory, four

years earlier was no fluke. The team was greeted with boos

and jeers everywhere they went and anti-fascist protests

became that tournament’s Mexican wave. Why? Because the team

was a representative of the fascist regime and was reaping

the rewards of the seeds sowed by fascism a decade earlier.If

the World Cup was decided by virtue of popularity, there is

no doubt that the Italians would have finished

last(http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/iconic-world-cup-

moments-mussolini-italy-win-second-straight-world-cup/

11.07.2014).

It was a tournament in which, football took a back seat from

politics. And it was the politically charged Italians who

were running away with it. After a 2-1 extra-time victory

over Norway, Italy came up against France in the quarter-

final. This match was probably one of the best examples of

how the underlying political current spread through onto the

football pitch. As both countries played in blue, one had to

change. As Italy lost the toss, or what passed for a toss in

those days, everyone expected them to wear their change strip

of white. Instead, the Italians emerged in an all-black

outfit. One that proved that the Italian national team was

nothing but an extension of Mussolini’s men and that in fact

the side was controlled by Mussolini himself. A comfortable

3-1 victory over the hostile crowd was unmistakably one of

the biggest achievements of the fascist regime thus far

(http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/iconic-world-cup-

moments-mussolini-italy-win-second-straight-world-cup/

11.07.2014).

The Big Final

And by the time the final against emerging power house

Hungary arrived, the Azzurri were one result away from

clinching their third-consecutive major honor, after winning

the 1934 World Cup and the 1936 Olympics Gold Medal. Having

seen off Brazil 2-1 in the semifinal, the Italians knew that

they were up against their toughest opponent yet in the form

of the Hungarians who had destroyed Sweden 5-1 in the semi-

finals. With the tie on a knife edge at 1-1, Italy’s dynamic

inside-forward partnership of Giovanni Ferrari and Giuseppe

Meazza took control and set up two goals in 20 minutes and

ensured that Italy went into half-time with a commanding 3-1

advantage. The game ended 4-2 and each squad member was

rewarded with an 8,000 Lire win bonus (about three months’

salary) and a fascist Gold Medal. All of which was presented

by Mussolini himself in the Palazzo Venezia in Rome

(http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/iconic-world-cup-

moments-mussolini-italy-win-second-straight-world-cup/

11.07.2014).

The Aftermath

With fascism at an all-time high, the Azzurri had already set

their eyes on their third consecutive World Cup trophy, but

the outbreak of the Second World War meant that the World Cup

underwent a 12-year hiatus. For all of their undeniable

talent, the 1938 World Cup in France will always be

remembered as one that saw overtly political gestures like

the black shirt and double-Roman salute take center stage and

encapsulated how Italian football had risen, thanks to

fascism. While the trophy and the way they achieved it, might

be lost as a foot note in history, the circumstances they

achieved it in make it one of the most iconic and least

edifying moments in the history of the FIFA World Cup

(http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/iconic-world-cup-

moments-mussolini-italy-win-second-straight-world-cup/

11.07.2014).

Sadly, “the 1938 tournament would also mark the end of

something special. Hitler had petitioned FIFA to host the

1942 World Cup, but that tournament would never be played.

Ironically, 14 months after the final, Hitler’s tanks rolled

into Poland. Europe and soon the rest of the world, headed to

war and the World Cup would go on a twelve year hiatus”

(Lisi, 2011: 43).

Conclusion

To sum up we could say that the popularity of football,

coupled with a climate of social tension that brought Fascism

to power, ensured that football would come to the attention

of the ruling regime and it was the most practical choice for

communicating with the masses as fascists recognised football

for what it is: a sport enjoyed by the masses. It was the

only way really that they could effectively reach mass

society, be it through people actually watching the game, or

by reading papers, or listening to other people reading the

newspapers. Subsequently the 1934s World Cup was a perfect

opportunity for Mussolini and the rest fascists to have

political gain. They wanted to win. They weren’t too worried

about how they did it, or with whom. Ultimately what they

wanted was to win, to provide the propoganda opportunity to

say 1) how well organised the fascist State was,and 2) how

they were regenerating not only Italy, but also Italians, and

victory was evidence of it. They repeated their victory

during the 1938s World Cup and then they believed that

Italian fascist regime grew internationally its prestige.

Bibliography

Kraba, Milile (2010): The story has been told, United

States of America: Xlibris Corporation

Lisi, Clemente Angelo (2011): A History of the World Cup

1930-2010, United States of America:Scarecrow Press, Inc

Monnig, Alex (2013): World Cup, Minneapolis: ABDO

Publishing Company

Testa, Alberto and Armstrong Gary (2010): Football,

Fascism and Fandom: The Ultras of Italian Football,

London: A and C Black Publishers Ltd, an imprint of

Bloansbury Publishing Plc

Townley, Edward (2002): Mussolini and Italy, Oxford:

Heinemann Educational Publishers Halley Court, Jordal

Hill

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