Page 1 of 38 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT MRP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT BY VIBHASH MANUFACTURING CAN BE A HIGHLY DETAILED, HIGHLY COMPLEX PROCESS THAT REQUIRES SPECIFIC PLANNING. MATERIAL REQUIREMENT PLANNING (OR MRP) IS AN INVENTORY SYSTEM THAT IS COMPUTER BASED AND USED TO MANAGE THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS. IT IS DESIGNED TO ASSIST IN THE SCHEDULING AND FILLING OF ORDERS FOR RAW MATERIALS THAT ARE MANUFACTURED INTO FINISHED PRODUCTS. WHAT DOES MRP DO? THE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF MRP IS TO MANAGE DEPENDENT DEMAND ITEMS. THESE ARE THE RAW MATERIALS AND UNFINISHED GOODS USED IN THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS. RAW MATERIALS MUST BE KEPT AS INVENTORY STOCK. AS THEY ARE USED, STOCK MUST BE REPLENISHED THROUGH RE-ORDERING. MRP FULFILLS THREE MAINS FUNCTIONS: MRP MAKES SURE THAT DEPENDENT DEMAND ITEMS ON KEPT IN STOCK. MRP MAINTAINS THE OPTIMAL LEVEL OF INVENTORY THAT IS MOST COST EFFECTIVE FOR A COMPANY. MRP IS USED TO PURCHASE NEW STOCK, DELIVER FINISHED PRODUCTS, AND PLAN THE DAILY MANUFACTURING PROCESSES. WHAT MAKES MRP EFFECTIVE IS THAT IT WORKS BACKWARD FROM A PLAN FOR PRODUCING FINISHED PRODUCTS IN ORDER TO DEVELOP THE AMOUNT OF RAW MATERIALS THAT A COMPANY NEEDS. HOW THIS WORKS IS MRP BREAKS DOWN INVENTORY REQUIREMENTS INTO SEPARATE STAGES. THIS HELPS TO MANAGE PRODUCTION AND KEEP IT FLOWING AT AN EVEN LEVEL. IT ALSO HELPS TO KEEP INVENTORY COSTS TO A MINIMUM. THE DRAWBACK IS THAT MRP SYSTEMS CAN BE EXPENSIVE TO IMPLEMENT AND THE COSTS CAN BE QUITE HIGH, OFFSETTING THE AMOUNT OF MONEY THAT A COMPANY COULD SAVE IN INVENTORY COSTS. LARGER COMPANIES THAT PRODUCE LARGE VOLUMES OF FINISHED PRODUCTS MAY FIND IT BENEFICIAL BUT THE SAME MAY NOT BE TRUE FOR SMALLER COMPANIES. PLUS, FOR MRP TO PRODUCE ACCURATE RESULTS, YOU NEED TO HAVE ACCURATE DATA. INFORMATION SUCH AS ORDERS, BILLS, ITEM NUMBERS, AND RECORDS MUST BE ACCURATE OR THE RESULTS WILL BE OFF. HISTORY OF MRP THE ROOTS FOR MRP HAVE BEEN AROUND SINCE THE EARLY 1950’S. MRP IS ONE OF THE PREDECESSORS FOR ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING (OR ERP), A COMPUTER SOFTWARE SYSTEM THAT IS WIDELY USED TO LINK A COMPANY’S ENTIRE INFRASTRUCTURE TOGETHER.
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Page 1 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
MRP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
BY VIBHASH
MANUFACTURING CAN BE A HIGHLY DETAILED, HIGHLY COMPLEX PROCESS THAT REQUIRES SPECIFIC PLANNING. MATERIAL REQUIREMENT
PLANNING (OR MRP) IS AN INVENTORY SYSTEM THAT IS COMPUTER BASED AND USED TO MANAGE THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS. IT IS
DESIGNED TO ASSIST IN THE SCHEDULING AND FILLING OF ORDERS FOR RAW MATERIALS THAT ARE MANUFACTURED INTO FINISHED
PRODUCTS.
WHAT DOES MRP DO?
THE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF MRP IS TO MANAGE DEPENDENT DEMAND ITEMS. THESE ARE THE RAW MATERIALS AND UNFINISHED GOODS USED
IN THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS. RAW MATERIALS MUST BE KEPT AS INVENTORY STOCK. AS THEY ARE USED, STOCK MUST BE
REPLENISHED THROUGH RE-ORDERING. MRP FULFILLS THREE MAINS FUNCTIONS:
MRP MAKES SURE THAT DEPENDENT DEMAND ITEMS ON KEPT IN STOCK.
MRP MAINTAINS THE OPTIMAL LEVEL OF INVENTORY THAT IS MOST COST EFFECTIVE FOR A COMPANY.
MRP IS USED TO PURCHASE NEW STOCK, DELIVER FINISHED PRODUCTS, AND PLAN THE DAILY MANUFACTURING PROCESSES.
WHAT MAKES MRP EFFECTIVE IS THAT IT WORKS BACKWARD FROM A PLAN FOR PRODUCING FINISHED PRODUCTS IN ORDER TO DEVELOP
THE AMOUNT OF RAW MATERIALS THAT A COMPANY NEEDS. HOW THIS WORKS IS MRP BREAKS DOWN INVENTORY REQUIREMENTS INTO
SEPARATE STAGES. THIS HELPS TO MANAGE PRODUCTION AND KEEP IT FLOWING AT AN EVEN LEVEL. IT ALSO HELPS TO KEEP INVENTORY
COSTS TO A MINIMUM.
THE DRAWBACK IS THAT MRP SYSTEMS CAN BE EXPENSIVE TO IMPLEMENT AND THE COSTS CAN BE QUITE HIGH, OFFSETTING THE AMOUNT
OF MONEY THAT A COMPANY COULD SAVE IN INVENTORY COSTS. LARGER COMPANIES THAT PRODUCE LARGE VOLUMES OF FINISHED
PRODUCTS MAY FIND IT BENEFICIAL BUT THE SAME MAY NOT BE TRUE FOR SMALLER COMPANIES. PLUS, FOR MRP TO PRODUCE ACCURATE
RESULTS, YOU NEED TO HAVE ACCURATE DATA. INFORMATION SUCH AS ORDERS, BILLS, ITEM NUMBERS, AND RECORDS MUST BE ACCURATE
OR THE RESULTS WILL BE OFF.
HISTORY OF MRP
THE ROOTS FOR MRP HAVE BEEN AROUND SINCE THE EARLY 1950’S. MRP IS ONE OF THE PREDECESSORS FOR ENTERPRISE RESOURCE
PLANNING (OR ERP), A COMPUTER SOFTWARE SYSTEM THAT IS WIDELY USED TO LINK A COMPANY’S ENTIRE INFRASTRUCTURE TOGETHER.
MRP WAS ESPECIALLY POPULAR DURING THE 1980’S. MANUFACTURERS NEEDED BETTER RESOURCES TO MANAGE THEIR PROCESSES AND
INVENTORY REQUIREMENTS. MANUFACTURING MANAGERS REALIZED THAT COMPUTERS COULD KEEP TRACK OF INVENTORY QUICKER AND
WITH MORE ACCURATE RESULTS. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS THAT RAN ON CUSTOM SOFTWARE WERE BUILT THAT COULD EXTRACT
INFORMATION FROM A LIST OF RAW MATERIALS AND CREATE A PRODUCTION PLAN.
Page 2 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
AS MRP PROVED SUCCESSFUL, IT WAS EVENTUALLY USED TO INCLUDE INFORMATION FEEDBACK LOOPS SO THAT MANAGERS COULD MODIFY
THE INPUTS INTO THE SYSTEM FOR BETTER PRODUCTION RESULTS.
INPUTS FOR MRP
TO GET RESULTS, YOU HAVE TO INPUT INFORMATION INTO THE MRP SYSTEM. THERE ARE THREE MAIN SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR
INPUT: A BILL OF SALE FOR MATERIALS, A MASTER SCHEDULE, AND AN ACCURATE RECORD OF EXISTING INVENTORY.
THE BILL OF SALE FOR MATERIALS IS A LIST THAT CONTAINS ALL OF THE RAW MATERIALS, COMPONENTS, SUBCOMPONENTS, AND OTHER
MATERIALS NEEDED TO COMPLETE THE FINISHED PRODUCT. THE BILL IS USUALLY ARRANGED INTO SEPARATE SECTIONS SO THAT COMPANIES
CAN SEE WHAT MATERIALS ARE USED FOR EACH STAGE OF PRODUCTION. THIS HELPS TO DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF MATERIALS NEEDED.
A MASTER SCHEDULE IS A PRODUCTION PLAN THAT COVERS ALL ASPECTS OF THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS. THE SCHEDULE STATES THE
AMOUNT OF FINISHED PRODUCTS THAT CAN BE PRODUCED AND THE TIME FRAME IN WHICH THEY CAN BE FINISHED. MASTER SCHEDULES
DO NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT AVAILABLE INVENTORY. THEY ONLY COVER HOW MANY FINISHED PRODUCTS ARE NEEDED.
THE RECORD OF EXISTING INVENTORY LISTS HOW MUCH INVENTORY IS ALREADY AVAILABLE. THIS IS USEFUL FOR DETERMINING HOW
MUCH, IF ANY, ADDITIONAL INVENTORY IS NEEDED TO FULFILL PRODUCTION ORDERS.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MRP
MRP HAS SEVERAL BENEFITS AS WELL AS DRAWBACKS. AS FOR BENEFITS, MRP HELPS MANAGERS WITH THE FOLLOWING:
KEEP INVENTORY LEVELS TO A COST-EFFECTIVE MINIMUM
KEEPS TRACK OF INVENTORY THAT IS USED
TRACKS THE AMOUNT OF MATERIAL THAT IS REQUIRED
SET SAFETY STOCK LEVELS FOR EMERGENCIES
DETERMINE THE BEST LOT SIZES TO FULFILL ORDERS
SET UP PRODUCTION TIMES AMONG THE SEPARATE MANUFACTURING STAGES
PLAN FOR FUTURE NEEDS OF RAW MATERIALS
HOWEVER, MRP ALSO HAS ITS SHARE OF DRAWBACKS. THEY ARE:
INFORMATION USED AS INPUT MUST BE ACCURATE. INACCURATE INFORMATION CAN RESULT IN MISPLANNING, OVERSTOCK, UNDERSTOCK,
OR LACK OF APPROPRIATE RESOURCES.
THE MASTER SCHEDULE MUST BE ACCURATE IN ORDER TO PROVIDE APPROPRIATE LENGTHS OF TIME FOR PRODUCTION.
Page 3 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
MRP SYSTEMS CAN BE COSTLY AND TIME-CONSUMING TO SET UP.
THERE MAY BE PROBLEMS WITH EMPLOYEES WHO, BEFORE MRP, WERE NOT DISCIPLINED IN THEIR RECORD KEEPING. ALSO, SOME
DEPARTMENTS MAY HOARD RAW MATERIALS FOR THEIR OWN USE.
WHAT IS MRP II?
THE ORIGINAL MRP SYSTEM WAS EVENTUALLY EXPANDED TO THE PLANNING FOR ALL COMPANY RESOURCES USED IN MANUFACTURING.
THIS NEW SYSTEM WAS CALLED MANUFACTURING RESOURCE PLANNING (OR MRP II). WITH THE SUCCESS OF MRP, MANUFACTURING
COMPANIES REALIZED THE SAME PRINCIPLES COULD BE USED TO SCHEDULE AND PLAN OTHER AREAS. WHILE MRP DEALT MOSTLY IN RAW
MATERIALS, MRP II WAS CONCERNED WITH AREAS SUCH AS HUMAN RESOURCES, FINANCING, MARKETING, AND ENGINEERING.
WHAT IS INVENTORY CONTROL?
BY VIBHASH
INVENTORY CONSISTS OF THE GOODS AND MATERIALS THAT A RETAIL BUSINESS HOLDS FOR SALE OR A MANUFACTURER KEEPS IN RAW
MATERIALS FOR PRODUCTION. INVENTORY CONTROL IS A MEANS FOR MAINTAINING THE RIGHT LEVEL OF SUPPLY AND REDUCING LOSS TO
GOODS OR MATERIALS BEFORE THEY BECOME A FINISHED PRODUCT OR ARE SOLD TO THE CONSUMER.
INVENTORY CONTROL IS ONE OF THE GREATEST FACTORS IN A COMPANY’S SUCCESS OR FAILURE. THIS PART OF THE SUPPLY CHAIN HAS A
GREAT IMPACT ON THE COMPANY’S ABILITY TO MANUFACTURE GOODS FOR SALE OR TO DELIVER CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ON ORDERS OF
FINISHED PRODUCTS. PROPER INVENTORY CONTROL WILL BALANCE THE CUSTOMER’S NEED TO SECURE PRODUCTS QUICKLY WITH THE
BUSINESS NEED TO CONTROL WAREHOUSING COSTS. TO MANAGE INVENTORY EFFECTIVELY, A BUSINESS MUST HAVE A FIRM
UNDERSTANDING OF DEMAND, AND COST OF INVENTORY.
UNCERTAINTY IN DEMAND
METHODS TO CONTROL INVENTORY CAN DEPEND ON THE KINDS OF DEMAND A BUSINESS EXPERIENCES. DERIVED DEMAND, OR THE
DEMAND OF RAW MATERIALS FOR PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURE, CAN BE MET THROUGH CALCULATIONS IN MANUFACTURING OUTPUT,
BALANCED WITH DEMAND FORECASTS FOR A GIVEN PRODUCT. INDEPENDENT DEMAND COMES FROM CONSUMER DEMAND, MAKING IT
MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO MARKET FLUCTUATIONS AND SEASONAL CHANGES. BY COORDINATING THE SUPPLY CHAIN BUSINESSES CAN REDUCE
UNCERTAINTY IN THIS AREA.
INVENTORY COSTS ARE CONTROLLED THROUGH DIFFERENT MODELS THAT WILL APPLY TO VARYING PRODUCTS. ITEMS THAT ARE IN
CONTINUOUS SUPPLY BENEFIT FROM THE ECONOMIC ORDER QUANTITY MODEL (EOQ). PRODUCTS AVAILABLE FOR A LIMITED PERIOD ARE
BEST SUITED TO NEWS VENDOR MODELS.
INVENTORY COSTS
Page 4 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
THERE ARE THREE MAIN TYPES OF COST IN INVENTORY. THERE ARE THE COSTS TO CARRY STANDARD INVENTORIES AND SAFETY STOCK.
ORDERING AND SETUP COSTS COME INTO PLAY AS WELL. FINALLY, THERE ARE SHORTFALL COSTS. A GOOD INVENTORY CONTROL SYSTEM
WILL BALANCE CARRYING COSTS AGAINST SHORTFALL COSTS.
SAFETY STOCK
SAFETY STOCK IS COMPRISED OF THE GOODS NEEDED TO BE KEPT ON HAND TO SATISFY CONSUMER DEMAND. BECAUSE DEMAND IS
CONSTANTLY IN FLUX, OPTIMIZING THE SAFETY STOCK LEVELS IS A CHALLENGE. HOWEVER, DEMAND FLUCTUATIONS DO NOT WHOLLY
DICTATE A COMPANY’S ABILITY TO KEEP THE RIGHT SUPPLY ON HAND MOST OF THE TIME. COMPANIES CAN USE STATISTICAL CALCULATIONS
TO DETERMINE PROBABILITIES IN DEMAND.
ORDERING COSTS
ORDERING COSTS HAVE TO DO WITH PLACING ORDERS, RECEIVING AND STOWAGE. TRANSPORTATION AND INVOICE PROCESSING ARE ALSO
INCLUDED. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY HAS PROVEN ITSELF USEFUL IN REDUCING THESE COSTS IN MANY INDUSTRIES. IF THE BUSINESS IS IN
MANUFACTURING, THEN TO PRODUCTION SETUP COSTS ARE CONSIDERED INSTEAD.
THE COST OF SHORTFALLS
STOCKOUT OR SHORTFALL COSTS REPRESENT LOST SALES DUE TO LACK OF SUPPLY FOR CONSUMERS. HOW THESE COSTS ARE CALCULATED
CAN BE A MATTER OF CONTENTION BETWEEN SALES AND LOGISTICS MANAGERS. SALES DEPARTMENTS PREFER THESE NUMBERS BE KEPT
LOW SO THAT AN AMPLE STOCK WILL ALWAYS BE KEPT. LOGISTICS MANAGERS PREFER TO ERR ON THE SIDE OF CAUTION TO REDUCE
WAREHOUSING COSTS.
SHORTFALL COSTS ARE AVOIDED BY KEEPING AN AMPLE SAFETY STOCK ON HAND. THIS PRACTICE ALSO INCREASES CUSTOMER
SATISFACTION. HOWEVER, THIS MUST BE BALANCED WITH THE COST TO CARRY GOODS. THE BEST WAY TO MANAGE STOCKOUT IS TO
DETERMINE THE ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF CUSTOMER SERVICE FOR THE BUSINESS. ONE CAN THEN BALANCE THE NEED FOR HIGH SATISFACTION
WITH THE NEED TO REDUCE INVENTORY COSTS. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION MUST ALWAYS BE CONSIDERED AHEAD OF STORAGE COSTS.
INVENTORY COUNTS
RETAIL BUSINESSES RELY HEAVILY ON COUNTING TO MANAGE INVENTORY. COUNTS ARE COMPARED WITH RECORDS TO IDENTIFY
SHORTAGES, ERRORS OR SHRINKAGE. IN MANY CASES, COUNTS MUST BE RETAKEN TO ENSURE THE DISCREPANCY IS ACCURATE BEFORE THE
SOURCE OF THE PROBLEM CAN BE TRACKED.
WHEN LOW STOCK IS IDENTIFIED, ORDERING LEVELS CAN BE INCREASED TO ADJUST FOR CHANGES IN DEMAND. PAPERWORK ERRORS WILL
BE MORE DIFFICULT TO FIND, REQUIRING CHECKING AND RECHECKING OF RECEIVING SLIPS WITH INVENTORIES TAKEN WHEN THE GOODS
WERE RECEIVED. SHRINKAGE PROBLEMS ARE OFTEN THE RESULT OF EMPLOYEE THEFT, REQUIRING A THOROUGH INVESTIGATION.
CYCLICAL COUNTING
Page 5 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
CYCLICAL COUNTING IS PREFERRED BECAUSE IT ALLOWS FOR OPERATIONS TO CONTINUE WHILE INVENTORY IS TAKEN. IF NOT FOR THIS
PRACTICE, A BUSINESS WOULD HAVE TO SHUT DOWN WHILE COUNTS WERE TAKEN, OFTEN REQUIRING THE HIRE OF A THIRD PARTY OR USE
OF OVERTIME EMPLOYEES. CYCLICAL COUNTING USUALLY UTILIZES THE ABC RULE, BUT THERE ARE OTHER VARIATIONS OF THIS METHOD
THAT CAN BE USED.
THE ABC RULE SPECIFIES THAT TRACKING 20 PERCENT OF INVENTORY WILL CONTROL 80 PERCENT OF THE COST TO STORE THE GOODS.
THEREFORE, BUSINESSES CONCENTRATE MORE ON THE TOP 20 PERCENT AND COUNTER OTHER GOODS LESS FREQUENTLY. ITEMS ARE
CATEGORIZED BASED ON THREE LEVELS:
A CATEGORY: TOP VALUED 20 PERCENT OF GOODS, WHETHER BY ECONOMIC OR DEMAND VALUE
B CATEGORY: MIDRANGE VALUE ITEMS
C CATEGORY: CHEAPER ITEMS, RARELY IN DEMAND
WAREHOUSE STAFF CAN NOW SCHEDULE COUNTING OF INVENTORIES BASED ON THESE CATEGORIES. THE “A” CATEGORY IS COUNTED ON A
REGULAR BASIS WHILE “B” AND “C” CATEGORIES ARE COUNTED ONLY ONCE A MONTH OR ONCE A QUARTER.
CYCLICAL COUNTING CAN ALSO TAKE PLACE BY PHYSICAL LOCATION WITHIN THE WAREHOUSE DURING SLOW HOURS, AS LONG AS
TRANSACTIONS CAN BE TRACKED DURING THE INVENTORY TAKING.
FLOW MANAGEMENT
MANUFACTURERS ARE LESS LIKELY TO USE CYCLICAL COUNTING AND OFTEN RELY ON FLOW MANAGEMENT, BY ANALYZING CYCLE TIMES IN
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS. THIS INVOLVES CALCULATING LEAD TIMES FOR RAW MATERIALS AND THE MANUFACTURE TIME IN WHICH
THE MATERIALS ARE USED TO CREATE THE PRODUCT. BY ANALYZING THE TIME CYCLE, MANUFACTURERS LEARN WHEN THE OPTIMAL
ORDERING TIMES ARE FOR RAW MATERIALS.
BUSINESSES THAT PROCESS RAW MATERIALS FOR OTHER INDUSTRIES ARE NOT LIKELY TO EMPLOY INVENTORY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES,
OTHER THAN ENSURING THERE IS SUFFICIENT SPACE TO STORE PROCESSED MATERIALS UNTIL THEY ARE SHIPPED OR PICKED UP BY THE
MANUFACTURER THAT WILL USE THEM.
SPECIAL CONCERNS FOR RETAIL
RETAIL BUSINESSES HAVE A GREATER RISK OF LOSS TO GOODS THAN OTHER BUSINESSES. THEY SUFFER FROM SHRINKAGE DUE TO EMPLOYEE
AND THIRD PARTY THEFT ON A REGULAR BASIS. BECAUSE OF THIS, HIRING PRACTICES PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN INVENTORY CONTROL
FOR THESE BUSINESSES. BY SCREENING POTENTIAL EMPLOYEES FOR CRIMINAL RECORDS AND DRUG USE, RETAILERS ARE ABLE TO REDUCE
SHRINKAGE.
Page 6 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
ONLINE INVENTORY TOOLS
BY VIBHASH
ONLINE INVENTORY TOOLS ARE AVAILABLE TO HELP YOUR BUSINESS REDUCE COSTS THROUGH STRUCTURED INVENTORY CONTROL AND
ACCOUNTING. SUCH TOOLS ARE REALLY JUST ACCOUNTING SOFTWARE THAT HAS BEEN MODIFIED TO SERVE THE NEEDS OF MANUFACTURERS
AND RESELLERS. GONE ARE THE DAYS OF TRACKING YOUR INVENTORY IN A SPREADSHEET. TODAY, WEB APPLICATIONS ARE AVAILABLE THAT
GIVE YOU THE FLEXIBILITY THAT INVENTORY SOFTWARE OFFERS, WITHOUT THE CONSTANT UPGRADES. BECAUSE ONLINE INVENTORY TOOLS
ARE WEB BASED APPLICATIONS, THEY ARE ABLE TO HELP YOUR BUSINESS STAY ON THE CUTTING EDGE OF INVENTORY MANAGEMENT IN
MANY WAYS.
THE ADVANTAGE OF WEB-BASED SOFTWARE HAS LONG BEEN SEEN IN BACK OFFICE FUNCTIONS, SUCH AS DAY TO DAY ACCOUNTING AND
CASH FLOW MANAGEMENT. WITH THE INCLUSION OF INVENTORY MANAGEMENT, YOU END UP WITH A FULL SUITE OF TOOLS THAT CAN ALL
BE ACCESSED ONLINE. FOR A LOW MONTHLY COST, COMPANIES CAN USE BROWSER-BASED APPLICATIONS TO HANDLE ALL ASPECTS OF THE
BUSINESS FASTER AND MORE ACCURATELY. THESE APPLICATIONS MAKE REPORTS EASILY ACCESSIBLE TO ANY PERSON IN YOUR
ORGANIZATION THAT NEEDS THEM AT ANY LOCATION.
IN THE OLD DAYS, A COMPANY’S BUYER WOULD PERIODICALLY CHECK STOCK FOR INVENTORY ITEMS IN SHORT SUPPLY AND THEN PLACE AN
ORDER BASED ON HIS BEST GUESS OF HOW MUCH OF A STOCK WILL BE NEEDED. SUCH METHODS RESULTED IN OVERSTOCK AND SHORTAGES
ON A REGULAR BASIS. TODAY THINGS ARE DIFFERENT. NOW WE CAN GO ONLINE FOR THE TOOLS WE NEED TO ACCURATELY TRACK AND
REPLENISH SUPPLY.
JUST AS COMPUTERS REVOLUTIONIZED THE BUSINESS WORLD IN THE 80’S, THE INTERNET IS CHANGING EVERYTHING TODAY. THIS EVERY
CHANGING MEDIUM HAS EVOLVED TO A LEVEL WHERE ALL YOUR BUSINESS NEEDS CAN BE HANDLED IN ONE WEB BASED APPLICATION. THE
EASY AND SPEED OF SUCH APPLICATIONS HAVE GIVEN RISE TO NEW THINKING ABOUT THE SUPPLY CHAIN AND HOW INVENTORY IS
MANAGED. THESE NEW METHODS ARE INCREASING CUSTOMER SATISFACTION AND THE ABILITY FOR
WEB BROWSER INTERFACE
ONE OF THE BEST ASPECTS OF THESE APPLICATIONS IS THAT THE USER INTERFACE IS YOUR WEB BROWSER. THERE IS LESS TRAINING NEEDED
FOR MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES BECAUSE THEY ARE ALREADY FAMILIAR WITH WEB BROWSERS. THIS UNIVERSAL INTERFACE GIVES YOU
EASY ACCESS TO YOUR INFORMATION FROM ANY LOCATION IN THE WORLD, WHETHER IT IS ON YOUR DESKTOP, LAPTOP, CELL PHONE OR
PDA.
BROWSER INTERFACE MEANS THAT YOU NO LONGER NEED TO WORRY ABOUT THE OPERATING SYSTEM YOU ARE WORKING WITH. ALL
PLATFORMS LIKE WINDOWS, MAC, LINUX OR UNIX ARE COMPATIBLE WITH INTERNET BROWSERS.
CENTRALIZED STORE FOR INFORMATION
THE REASON COMPUTERS HAVE BEEN SUCH A POWERFUL TOOL IN THE CORPORATE WORLD IS THAT THEY ALLOW COMPANIES TO KEEP ALL
OF THEIR DATA IN A CENTRALIZED LOCATION. THIS MEANS ANYONE IN YOUR BUSINESS, NO MATTER THEIR LOCATION, CAN ACCESS THE
Page 7 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
INFORMATION NEEDED TO GET BUSINESS DONE. YOUR INVENTORY DATABASE, INVENTORY PROCEDURES AND MARKET FORECASTS WILL ALL
BE IN ONE PLACE FOR YOU TO ACCESS.
SECURITY MANAGEMENT
ONLINE INVENTORY TOOLS TAKE CARE OF SECURITY FOR YOU. YOUR DATA IS KEPT ON SECURE SERVERS USING STATE OF THE ART
TECHNOLOGY. THIS WILL BE AN ENORMOUS BOOM FOR YOUR BUDGET, NO LONGER NEEDED TO INVEST IN IT AND SECURITY SYSTEMS TO
KEEP YOUR DATA SAFE. THESE SYSTEMS ALLOW YOU TO SET SECURITY LEVELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR USERS, SO ONLY THOSE EMPLOYEES
THAT TRULY NEED TO GET THE INFORMATION CAN HAVE ACCESS.
YOUR INFORMATION IS BACKED UP DAILY ON REMOTE SERVERS ENSURING YOUR DATA CAN BE RECOVERED SHOULD ANYTHING GO WRONG.
IN MOST CASES, YOU CAN ALSO CREATE YOUR OWN DATA BACKUP IF YOU PREFER TO HAVE THE INFORMATION ONSITE.
LESS DOWN TIME
WEB BASED APPLICATION UPGRADES ARE DONE AUTOMATICALLY AND REMOTELY, SAVING YOU THE TIME TO HAVE A SERVICE
REPRESENTATIVE COME IN TO RECONFIGURE YOUR SYSTEM. THIS ALSO MEANS THAT YOU DO NOT NEED TO SERVICE AND MAINTAIN
SERVERS AT YOUR LOCATION IF YOU PREFER NOT TO. THIS SAVES ON IT INFRASTRUCTURE AND LABOR COSTS. BECAUSE YOUR DATA IS ALL
ONLINE, THE NEED TO INTEGRATE SOFTWARE AND UPGRADES WITH YOUR CURRENT SYSTEM BECOMES OBSOLETE. ORGANIZATIONS WITH
REMOTE OFFICES WILL BENEFITS ENORMOUSLY FROM THIS FEATURE. MOST APPLICATIONS DO NOT CHARGE FOR THESE REGULAR UPGRADES.
MANAGE MULTIPLE LOCATIONS
ONLINE INVENTORY TOOLS ALSO ALLOW YOU TO MANAGE SEVERAL WAREHOUSES AT ONCE, LETTING YOU SET DIFFERENT REPLENISHMENT
LEVELS FOR EACH LOCATION AND PRODUCT. THE INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE TO THE USERS YOU CHOOSE, SO YOUR WAREHOUSE
MANAGERS CAN EACH ACCESS THE INFORMATION WHENEVER IT IS NEEDED. YOU CAN MONITOR INVENTORY NOT ONLY IN YOUR
WAREHOUSE, BUT AT ANY POINT ALONG THE SUPPLY CHAIN. YOU CAN LOOK AT DATA AS A WHOLE FOR YOUR BUSINESS, OR LOOK ONLY AT
SPECIFIC LOCATIONS OR GROUPS OF LOCATIONS.
WHETHER YOUR DISTRIBUTION CHAIN INVOLVES EXTERNAL CUSTOMERS OR INTERNAL DEPARTMENTS, YOU CAN ALLOW USERS TO VIEW THE
INVENTORY AVAILABLE WHEN PLACING ORDERS, ELIMINATING BACK ORDERS AND OTHER PROBLEMS. USERS CAN EASILY PRINT CATALOGS
OF YOUR MERCHANDISE AND PLACE ORDERS FROM REMOTE LOCATIONS.
MANY OF THESE APPLICATIONS ALLOW YOU TO CHECK YOUR STOCK LEVELS AND REORDER FROM THE SAME INTERFACE. YOU CAN MONITOR
DISTRIBUTIONS, RUN REPORTS AND FORECAST TRENDS ALL FROM ONE SIMPLE APPLICATION. YOU CAN LOOK AT THE INBOUND ORDERS AND
WHEN THEY ARE EXPECTED AT YOUR WAREHOUSE TO TRACK THE TIMELINESS OF YOUR SUPPLIERS. IT ALSO ALLOWS YOU TO CHECK YOUR
OUTBOUND ORDERS AGAINST SHIPPING ORDERS SO YOU KNOW WHEN THE MATERIALS WILL LEAVE THE WAREHOUSE, AND COORDINATE
WITH INBOUND ORDERS. YOU CAN EVEN VIEW OPEN ORDERS THAT REMAIN TO BE FILLED.
IMPROVED COMMUNICATION
Page 8 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
INTERNET BASED APPLICATIONS CAN ALSO ALLOW YOU TO COMMUNICATE MORE EFFECTIVELY WITH YOUR TEAM THROUGH MESSAGING. IF
YOU NOTICE A PROBLEM AT ONE LOCATION, YOU CAN EASILY CONTACT THE LOCATION MANAGER AND WORK OUT THE SOLUTION. THESE
APPLICATIONS GIVE YOU ACCESS TO EVERY BUSINESS FUNCTION YOU MAY NEED.
STREAMLINED ACCOUNTING
BECAUSE ONLINE INVENTORY TOOLS ALLOW YOU TO TRACK ALL ASPECTS OF YOUR BUSINESS IN ONE LOCATION, END OF YEAR ACCOUNTING
BECOMES MUCH EASIER. NOW YOU CAN CREATE A SEPARATE LISTING FOR ASSETS NOT FOUND INSTEAD OF PORING OVER REPORTS AND
INVOICES TO GET THE DATA. YOU WILL HAVE A CLEAR PICTURE OF YOUR ASSETS AND THE ABILITY TO TRACK THEM AT ALL TIMES. SYSTEMS
ALLOW YOU TO MANAGE BOTH TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE ASSETS.
INVENTORY ACCOUNTING
BY VIBHASH
INVENTORY ACCOUNTING IS THE METHOD BY WHICH A BUSINESS DETERMINES THE VALUE OF ASSETS BOTH FOR FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
AND TAX PURPOSES. INVENTORY IS COMPRISED OF FIXED ASSETS THAT ARE INTENDED FOR SALE OR BEING USED IN PRODUCTION. THE
VALUE OF YOUR INVENTORY IS DETERMINED BY TAKING THE VALUE OF THE BEGINNING INVENTORY, ADDING THE NET COST OF PURCHASES,
AND THEN SUBTRACTING THE COST OF GOODS SOLD. THIS RESULTS IN THE ENDING INVENTORY VALUE. RETAILERS AND MANUFACTURERS
CANNOT EXPENSE THE COST OF GOODS SOLD UNTIL THOSE GOODS HAVE ACTUALLY BEEN SOLD. UNTIL THEN, THOSE ITEMS ARE COUNTED AS
ASSETS ON THE BALANCE SHEET.
COMMON INVENTORY VALUATION METHODS
THE METHODS A COMPANY USES TO VALUE THE COSTS OF INVENTORY HAVE A DIRECT EFFECT ON THE BUSINESS BALANCE SHEETS, INCOME
STATEMENTS AND CASH FLOWS. THREE METHODS ARE WIDELY USED TO VALUE SUCH COSTS. THEY ARE FIRST-IN, FIRST-OUT (FIFO), LAST-
IN FIRST-OUT (LIFO) AND AVERAGE COST. INVENTORY CAN BE CALCULATED BASED ON THE LESSER OF COST OR MARKET VALUE. IT CAN BE
APPLIED TO EACH ITEM, EACH CATEGORY OR ON A TOTAL BASIS.
FIFO
FIFO OPERATES UNDER THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE FIRST PRODUCT THAT IS PUT INTO INVENTORY IS ALSO THE FIRST SOLD. AN EXAMPLE
OF THIS IN ACTION CAN BE MADE WHEN WE ASSUME THAT A WIDGET SELLER ACQUIRES 200 UNITS ON MONDAY FOR $1.00 PER UNIT. THE
NEXT DAY, HE SPOTS A GOOD DEAL AND GETS 500 MORE FOR $.75 PER UNIT. WHEN VALUING INVENTORY UNDER THE FIFO METHOD, THE
SALE OF 300 UNITS ON WEDNESDAY WOULD CREATE A COST OF GOODS SOLD OF $275. THAT IS, 200 UNITS AT $1.00 EACH AND 100
UNITS AT $.75 EACH. IN THIS WAY, THE FIRST 200 UNITS ON THE INCOME STATEMENT WERE VALUED HIGHER. THE REMAINING 400
WIDGETS WOULD BE VALUED AT $.75 EACH ON THE BALANCE SHEET IN ENDING INVENTORY.
Page 9 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
LIFO
LIFO ASSUMES INSTEAD THAT THE LAST UNIT TO REACH INVENTORY IS THE FIRST SOLD. USING THE SAME EXAMPLE, THE INCOME
STATEMENT AND BALANCE SHEET WOULD INSTEAD SHOW A COST OF GOODS SOLD OF $225 FOR THE 300 UNITS SOLD. THE ENDING
INVENTORY ON THE BALANCE SHEET WOULD BE VALUED AT $350 IN ASSETS. WHEN THIS METHOD IS USED ON OLDER INVENTORIES, THE
COMPANY’S BALANCE SHEET CAN BE GREATLY SKEWED. CONSIDER THE COMPANY THAT CARRIES A LARGE QUANTITY OF MERCHANDISE OVER
A PERIOD OF 10 YEARS. THIS ACCOUNTING METHOD IS NOW USING 10-YEAR-OLD INFORMATION TO VALUE ITS ASSETS.
WEIGHTED AVERAGE
AVERAGE COST WORKS OUT A WEIGHTED AVERAGE FOR THE COST OF GOODS SOLD. IT TAKES AN AVERAGE COST FOR ALL UNITS AVAILABLE
FOR SALE DURING THE ACCOUNTING PERIOD AND USES THAT AS A BASIS FOR THE COST OF GOODS SOLD. TO SITE OUR EXAMPLE AGAIN, WE
WOULD CALCULATE THE COST OF GOODS SOLD AT [(200 X $1) + (500 X $.75)]/700, OR $.821 EACH. THE REMAINING 400 UNITS
WOULD ALSO BE VALUED AT THIS RATE ON THE BALANCE SHEET IN ENDING INVENTORY.
SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION
A LESS COMMONLY USED, BUT IMPORTANT METHOD TO VALUATION IS CALLED SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION. THIS METHOD IS USED FOR HIGH-
END ITEMS THAT ARE MORE EASILY TRACKED. IN SOME CASES, THIS METHOD CAN BE USED FOR MORE COMMON ITEMS, BUT LESS VALUE IS
REALIZED FROM THIS ACCOUNTING METHOD IS SUCH CASES. THIS IS BECAUSE POWERFUL AND DETAILED TRACKING SOFTWARE IS REQUIRED
TO EMPLOY SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION ON LARGE NUMBERS OF GOODS. THE COST OF SUCH SOFTWARE OFTEN OUTWEIGHS THE FINANCIAL
BENEFITS THAT MIGHT BE GAINED.
INFLATIONARY EFFECTS ON VALUATION
NO MATTER HOW YOU LOOK AT IT, YOU ARE STILL COMING UP WITH 700 WIDGETS THAT COST YOU A TOTAL OF $575. THIS WOULD ALL
BE WELL AND GOOD IF THE VALUE OF MONEY REMAINED STATIC. HOWEVER, MARKET CONDITIONS CHANGE CAUSING INFLATIONARY
CHANGES. WHEN THIS HAPPENS, YOUR ACCOUNTING METHOD CAN HAVE A STRONG IMPACT ON HOW HEALTHY THE BUSINESS LOOKS ON
INCOME STATEMENTS AND BALANCE SHEETS. THE AFFECTS CASH FLOW WHEN BUSINESSES SEEK CREDIT TO PAY FOR ONGOING OPERATIONS.
RISING PRICES
WHEN PRICES ARE RISING (AND THEY USUALLY ARE), EACH OF THESE VALUATION METHODS PRODUCES A DIFFERENT RESULT ON A
COMPANY’S FINANCES. USING FIFO UNDER SUCH CONDITIONS WILL SHOW A GREATER VALUE ON THE BALANCE SHEET, THEREBY
INCREASING TAX LIABILITIES BUT ALSO IMPROVING CREDIT SCORES AND THE ABILITY TO BORROW CASH FOR ONGOING OPERATIONS. OLDER
INVENTORY IS BEING USED TO DETERMINE THE COST OF GOODS SOLD AND NEWER INVENTORY IS BEING USED TO REPORT ASSETS.
LIFO DECREASES THE VALUE ON THE INCOME STATEMENT, BUT CAN REDUCE THE LEVEL OF DEPRECIATION YOU ARE ABLE TO TAKE ON
ASSETS. THIS IS GOOD FOR TAXES BUT BAD FOR BORROWING. INDUSTRIES MOST LIKELY TO ADOPT LIFO ARE DEPARTMENT STORES AND
FOOD RETAILERS. THE METHOD IS RARELY USED IN DEFENSE OR RETAIL APPAREL.
Page 10 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
FALLING PRICES
WHEN PRICES ARE FALLING, THE EFFECT ON FIFO AND LIFO VALUES IS REVERSED. FIFO PRODUCES A LOWER INCOME STATEMENT AND
HIGHER BALANCE SHEET. LIFO PRODUCES A HIGHER INCOME STATEMENT AND A LOWER BALANCE SHEET. IN EITHER CASE, AVERAGE COSTS
FALLS SOMEWHERE BETWEEN, WHILE SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION WILL GIVE THE MOST ACCURATE AND RELIABLE RESULTS.
IT IS IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THAT LIFO IS ONLY USED WIDELY IN THE UNITED STATES. THIS VALUATION METHOD IS DISALLOWED
UNDER INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS. WHEN FIRMS ADOPT LIFO, IT IS FOR THE TAX ADVANTAGES DURING PERIODS
OF HIGH INFLATION. ONCE ADOPTED HOWEVER, SWITCH BACK TO FIFO DURING A PERIOD OF MARKET GROWTH CAN BE PAINFUL. THE
SWITCH WILL CREATE AN ARTIFICIALLY LOWER NET INCOME.
MAKING THE COMMITMENT
THE PROBLEM WITH COMMITTING TO EITHER FIFO OR LIFO IS FOUND IN TAX FILING. ONCE A COMPANY USES ONE OR THE OTHER ON ITS
TAX FILING, IT MUST USE THE SAME METHOD WHEN REPORTING TO SHAREHOLDERS. SO USING ONE METHOD TO A COMPANY’S BENEFIT ON
TAXES CAN HARM EARNINGS PER SHARE. IN EITHER CASE, THE COMPANY’S FINANCIAL STATEMENTS MUST DISCLOSE THE METHOD USED. IT
MUST ALSO DISCLOSE THE LIFO RESERVE, OR THE DIFFERENCE IN VALUE BETWEEN WHAT THE INVENTORY WOULD HAVE BEEN WORTH
UNDER FIFO ACCOUNTING.
THE METHOD A COMPANY CHOOSES DOES NOT NECESSARILY HAVE TO REFLECT THE ACTUAL FLOW OF GOODS. THE METHOD CHOSEN WILL
BE USED FOR TAX AND ACCOUNTING BENEFITS AND WILL RARELY BE BASED IN REALITY.
INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
BY VIBHASH
LOOK AT ANY LARGE SUCCESSFUL RETAILER TODAY AND YOU WILL BE ASTOUNDED AT THE SHEER NUMBERS INVOLVED. WAL-MART ALONE
CARRIES ITEMS MANUFACTURED IN OVER 70 COUNTRIES. THE LOGISTICS OF MANAGING SUCH AN INVENTORY IS ASTOUNDING. OTHER
DISCOUNT RETAILERS LIKE WAL-MART ARE ABLE TO MAINTAIN LOW PRICES BY USING INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND SHARING
THE INFORMATION WITH STORE MANAGERS.
THE GOAL OF INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IS TO ENSURE THERE IS ALWAYS ENOUGH SUPPLY TO MEET DEMAND WHILE KEEPING AS
LITTLE STOCK AS POSSIBLE. SELLING OUT OF A PRODUCT CAUSES DAMAGED CUSTOMER RELATIONS AND LOST SALES. LARGE RETAILERS CAN
OFFSET THESE PROBLEMS BY OFFERING LOW COSTS TO CONSUMERS, WHO WILL KEEP COMING BACK EVEN WHEN A STORE IS SOMETIMES
OUT OF STOCK ON ITEMS THEY REGULARLY BUY. SMALLER BUSINESSES WILL HAVE LESS SUCCESS WITH THIS STRATEGY AS THEY ARE SIMPLY
NOT CAPABLE OF SECURING THE SAME BULK DISCOUNTS ON GOODS THAT LARGER RETAILERS BENEFIT FROM.
Page 11 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
TRACKING IN INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
INVENTORY IS MANAGED PRIMARILY THROUGH TRACKING. SYSTEMS ARE PUT IN PLACE THAT MONITOR SALES, AVAILABLE SUPPLY, DEMAND
AND MARKET FORECASTS. BUSINESSES MUST BE ABLE TO COMMUNICATE QUICKLY AND EFFICIENTLY WITH SUPPLIERS AND CENTRAL OFFICES
TO KEEP UP WITH THE EVERY CHANGING DEMAND AND AVAILABILITY OF GOODS.
THE HUMAN ELEMENT
A GOOD SYSTEM DOES NOT MAKE PURCHASING DECISIONS DIRECTLY, BUT ALLOWS EMPLOYEES TO MAKE GOOD DECISIONS BASED ON
INFORMATION PROVIDED BY THE SYSTEM. THIS ALSO LEAVES MORE ROOM FOR HUMAN INTUITION IN THE PURCHASING PROCESS. SUCH
SYSTEMS PROVIDE INFORMATION SUCH AS DEMAND FORECASTING, AND WAREHOUSE SUPPLY INFORMATION. IT WILL LINK EMPLOYEES TO
SUPPLIERS QUICKLY AND SEAMLESSLY. OTHER BENEFITS TO AN INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ALLOW FOR STRATEGIC PLANNING,
PROVIDING SALES FORECASTS AND PROCURING INFORMATION ON RAW MATERIALS AND FINISHED GOODS.
SOME RETAILERS AVOID THE NEED TO MANAGE INVENTORY ALTOGETHER BY EMPLOYING VENDORS TO DO THE WORK. PRODUCT VENDORS
VISIT A RETAIL LOCATION, STOCKING AND PLACING PRODUCTS. STORE MANAGERS AND VENDORS SHARE INFORMATION TO MAXIMIZE
SALES. THIS RECIPROCAL ARRANGEMENT IS OFTEN IDEAL FOR BOTH PARTIES IN THAT THE RETAILER HAS NO DUTY TO TRACK INVENTORY
AND THE VENDOR RECEIVES IMPORTANT FEEDBACK TO USE IN MARKETING AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT.
BAR CODES AND SCANNERS
MOST BUSINESSES MANAGE INVENTORY THROUGH THE USE OF BAR CODES AND LASER SCANNERS. THE BARCODES REPRESENT A PRODUCT
IDENTIFICATION THAT A COMPUTER RECOGNIZES WHEN SCANNING THE CODE. IN THIS WAY, COMPANIES CAN COUNT ITEMS AS THEY COME
INTO THE WAREHOUSE, ARE SHIPPED OFF TO THE RETAILER AND FINALLY SOLD TO A CUSTOMER. THIS ALLOWS THE RETAILER TO KNOW
HOW MUCH HAS COME INTO THE STORE, HOW MUCH HAS BEEN SOLD, AND BY EXTENSION, HOW MUCH SHOULD REMAIN ON THE SHELVES.
THIS TELLS RETAILERS WHICH ITEMS ARE SELLING WELL AND ALSO ALERTS THEM WHEN PRODUCTS NEED TO BE REORDERED.
THE TRADE OFF
WHETHER THE BIG DISCOUNT RETAILERS HAVE FOUND THE BEST INVENTORY STRATEGY OR NOT REMAINS TO BE SEEN. THERE ARE STILL
SEVERAL GOOD REASONS FOR CARRYING SAFETY STOCK. PRIMARILY, MAINTAINING A BACKUP SUPPLY OF GOODS ENSURES YOU CAN
ALWAYS PROVIDE ITEMS TO CUSTOMERS WHEN THEY ARE DESIRED, RESULTING IN HIGH CUSTOMER SATISFACTION.
TIME IS SAVED AS WELL. LAGS CAN OCCUR AT EVERY POINT ALONG THE SUPPLY CHAIN. SAFETY STOCK COMPENSATES FOR THESE DELAYS BY
PREVENTING DISRUPTIONS IN THE FLOW OF PRODUCTS FROM WAREHOUSE TO RETAILER.
SAFETY STOCK ALSO GIVES BUSINESSES MORE CERTAINTY IN PLANNING. AS DEMAND FLUCTUATES, THEY CAN BE SURE A SUPPLY REMAINS
ON HAND. THERE ARE ALSO COST SAVINGS IN BUYING LARGE LOTS, SO BUSINESSES ARE WELL SERVED TO PURCHASE EXTRA INVENTORY TO
KEEP AS SAFETY STOCK.
Page 12 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
UPCOMING TECHNOLOGIES IN INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
IN COMING YEARS, EXPECT TO SEE MORE AUTOMATION IN RESPECT TO PRODUCT TRACKING THROUGH THE USE OF RFID, OR RADIO
FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION. THIS METHOD USES A MICROCHIP TO TRANSMIT THE INFORMATION ABOUT A PRODUCT TO A DATA
COLLECTION SOURCE. BECAUSE RADIO WAVES TRAVEL IN ALL DIRECTIONS, THERE IS NO NEED FOR A SPECIFIC SCANNING POINT. THIS MEANS
A BUSINESS CAN RECEIVE INFORMATION ABOUT EACH ITEM IN A LARGE SHIPMENT WITHOUT EVER OPENING THE CONTAINER. THIS WILL
ALLOW FOR GREATER FLEXIBILITY IN ORDER CONSOLIDATION AND SHIPPING FOR RESELLERS. IN ADDITION, WORKERS WILL NO LONGER NEED
TO CLIMB UP ON HIGH SHELVES OR USE A LIFT TO REACH ITEMS STORED HIGH IN WAREHOUSES. THE METHOD CAN ALSO GIVE SPECIFIC
LOCATION INFORMATION TO A STORE MANAGER, ALLOWING BETTER THEFT PROTECTION FOR HIGH-TICKET ITEMS.
ON THE DOWN SIDE, RFID SIGNALS ARE GENERALLY FROWNED UPON BY CONSUMER ADVOCATES WHO COMPLAIN THAT THE LEVEL OF DATA
TRANSMITTED INFRINGES ON THEIR PRIVACY. THERE ARE CONCERNS THAT THE DATA WILL BE MISUSED OR SOLD TO OTHER RETAILERS FOR
MARKETING PURPOSES ON RELATED PRODUCTS.
BUSINESSES CAN RUN INTO PROBLEMS WITH RFID SIGNALS, WHICH CAN INTERFERE WITH EACH OTHER AND CREATE INACCURATE
READINGS. STILL, RFID IS GENERALLY BECOMING ACCEPTED AS SUPERIOR TO BAR CODES. SUCH DEVICES ALLOW FOR MORE EFFICIENCY,
MORE COMPACT STORAGE OF MERCHANDISE, AND SWIFTER MOVEMENT OF INVENTORIES THROUGH THE BUSINESS. ALL THIS DRIVES DOWN
COSTS FOR EVERYONE, BOTH BUSINESS AND CONSUMER ALIKE.
HEAVY RELIANCE ON TECHNOLOGY HAS ITS SHARE OF HEADACHES. THERE ARE PROBLEMS WITH COMPUTER CRASHES AND SOFTWARE
FAILURES THAT CAN SEVERELY DISRUPT A COMPANY’S ABILITY TO DO BUSINESS. MANY LARGE DISCOUNT RETAILERS ARE CAUGHT OFF
GUARD BY UNPREDICTED SURGES IN SALES BECAUSE THEY RELY TOO HEAVILY ON INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS INSTEAD OF KEEPING
SAFETY STOCK. THIS RESULTS IN LOST SALES.
INVENTORY ACCOUNTING
IT IS ALSO IMPORTANT TO LOOK AT THE ROLE OF INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN INVENTORY ACCOUNTING. THOSE WHO DO NOT
KEEP SAFETY STOCK HAVE FEWER ASSETS ON THE BOOKS, LIMITING CASH FLOW IN THE BUSINESS. CONSIDER, HOWEVER, THAT THIS IS
OFFSET TO SOME EXTENT BY TAX SAVINGS. THEREFORE, THE BIG RETAILERS WHO RELY HEAVILY ON TECHNOLOGY TO MANAGE INVENTORY
JUSTIFY THE LOST SALES WITH THE SAVINGS IN TAXES.
THE LEVEL OF RELIANCE ON TECHNOLOGY IN INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS DEPENDS ON THE BUSINESS. IT IS NOTABLE THAT THIS
METHODOLOGY IS NOT WIDELY USED. WHILE LARGER RETAILERS HAVE TRENDED TOWARDS REDUCING OR ELIMINATING SAFETY STOCK,
OTHER BUSINESSES HAVE NOT ADOPTED THIS MODEL. THEY INSTEAD RELY MORE ON TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
WHICH INCLUDE KEEPING A BUFFER STOCK ON HAND. THIS ALLOWS SUCH COMPANIES TO LEVERAGE THE BUFFER STOCK AS AN ASSET IN
SECURING LOANS TO INCREASE CASH FLOW.
Page 13 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
WHAT IS DISTRESSED INVENTORY?
BY VIBHASH
DISTRESSED INVENTORY IS COMPRISED OF THOSE GOODS OR MATERIALS THAT HAVE SPOILED, BECOME RUINED, OR ARE OTHERWISE
IMPOSSIBLE TO SELL ON THE STANDARD MARKET. IT CAN ALSO BE ITEMS IN GOOD CONDITION THAT HAVE REMAINED ON THE SHELF TOO
LONG, TAKING UP VALUABLE RESOURCES THAT COULD BE USED TOWARDS MORE PROFITABLE MERCHANDISE. SOMETIMES DISTRESSED
INVENTORY COMES ABOUT DUE TO OVERSTOCK; OTHER TIMES, DEMAND SIMPLY DRIES UP. DISTRESSED INVENTORY IS A SERIOUS THREAT
TO THE LIVELIHOOD OF ANY BUSINESS.
THE COST OF DISTRESSED INVENTORY
FOR MANY BUSINESSES, THE COST TO BUY GOODS FOR SALE OR MANUFACTURE ECLIPSES EVEN THE COST OF LABOR. WHEN INVENTORY
LEVELS ARE ALLOWED TO GROW BEYOND SALES FORECASTS, MARGINS ARE REDUCED BECAUSE EXCESS STOCK MUST BE SOLD AT DISCOUNTED
RATES, RESULTING IN LOWER MARGINS. STAGNANT INVENTORY IS A SOURCE OF MONEY A BUSINESS CANNOT ACCESS WHEN IT MAY BE
MOST NEEDED. THIS SLOWS DOWN A COMPANY’S ABILITY TO MANEUVER IN A COMPETITIVE MARKET. THE MONEY WOULD BE PUT TO
BETTER USE IN PURCHASING THE NEXT HIGH-MARGIN PRODUCT OF THE DAY.
BEYOND TYING UP DOLLARS, UNSOLD INVENTORY DECLINES IN VALUE OVER TIME, CREATING A DOUBLE JEOPARDY. NOT ONLY IS THE
BUSINESS LOSING PROFITS IT COULD BE SECURING, IT IS ALSO LOSING MONETARY VALUE ON THE PRODUCT ITSELF. THIS MAKES IT HARDER
TO SELL, FORCING DEEPER DISCOUNTS AND LOWER MARGINS. THIS IS ESPECIALLY DAMAGING IF THE INVENTORY WAS PURCHASED WITH A
LOAN. NOW IT IS ALSO COSTING TO COMPANY MONEY IN INTEREST FEES.
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLES
EVERY PRODUCT STOCKED BY A COMPANY HAS A LIFE CYCLE. THERE WILL BE INCREASING DEMAND UNTIL A PEAK IS REACHED AND THEN
THE DEMAND WILL SUBSIDE. THESE TRENDS MAY RUN ALONG SEASONAL LINES OR SIMPLY BE A ONE-TIME FAD EVENT. ONCE DEMAND
BEGINS TO EBB, HUGE MARK DOWNS ARE NEEDED TO KEEP SALES GOING. THE VALUE OF THE MERCHANDISE CAN GO DOWN AS MUCH AS
50% ANNUALLY WHILE IT SITS ON THE SHELVES TAKING UP THE SPACE OF CASH THAT COULD BE USED TO GROW THE BUSINESS.
WHY DOES OVERSTOCKING OCCUR?
OVERSTOCKING COMES FROM SEVERAL SOURCES, MOST OF WHICH ARE FORCES FROM WITHIN THE COMPANY. THIS MEANS THE BUSINESS
CAN CONTROL OVERSTOCKING THROUGH PROPER MANAGEMENT. MARKET FORCES ARE ONLY THE CAUSE OF OVERSTOCKING IN A SMALL
PERCENTAGE OF CASES.
INTERNAL CAUSES OF OVERSTOCKING
VARIOUS MANAGERS ARE ENCOURAGED TO MAXIMIZE INVENTORY INVESTMENTS TO PAINT A ROSIER PICTURE ON BALANCE SHEETS. IN
ADDITION, BUYERS LOOK AT THE COST PER UNIT, RATHER THAN PAYING ATTENTION TO THE BULK OF THE INVENTORY. THE MORE THEY BUY,
THE CHEAPER THEY GET IT, MAKING THEM LOOK GOOD AT REVIEW TIME. OPERATIONS MANAGERS LIKE TO OVER-BUY SO THAT THE
Page 14 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
PRODUCTION LINE WILL NOT COME TO A STALL BECAUSE THE SUPPLY OF A PART HAS BEEN DEPLETED. SALESMEN ARE EVER-OPTIMISTIC AND
WILL OVER-BUY IN ANTICIPATION OF GAINS IN SALES AND FEARS OF RUNNING OUT OF STOCK JUST WHEN A BIG SALE IS BEING CLOSED. THE
VARIOUS MOTIVATIONS OF THESE WORKERS ARE WELL-INTENTIONED, BUT THEY LOSE SIGHT OF THE EFFECTS OVER-BUYING HAS ON THE
COMPANY’S BOTTOM LINE.
TRYING NEW ITEMS
MARKET FORCES CAN ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO OVER STOCKING AND DEAD INVENTORY. THE BIGGEST CULPRIT IS OFTEN A NEW PRODUCT THAT
THE BUSINESS TRIES IN AN EFFORT TO FIND NEW SOURCES OF PROFIT.
TOO OFTEN WHOLESALERS TRY OUT NEW ITEMS BASED ON A VENDOR’S RECOMMENDATIONS WITHOUT GETTING ANY ASSURANCES ABOUT
WHAT WILL HAPPEN TO ITEMS THAT DO NOT SELL. WHEN AGREEING TO TRY A NEW PRODUCT, WHOLESALERS SHOULD NEGOTIATE TERMS
FOR THE VENDOR TO TAKE BACK UNSOLD MERCHANDISE AT OR NEAR COST, WITHIN A SPECIFIC TIME FRAME. A GOOD TARGET DATE IS SIX
TO NINE MONTHS AFTER THE WHOLESALER RECEIVES SHIPMENT OF THE STOCK.
MARKET SURVEYS SHOW THAT ONLY A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF CUSTOMERS WHO SAID THEY WOULD TRY A NEW PRODUCT ACTUALLY COME
THROUGH WITH A PURCHASE. THIS MEANS THAT THE MARKET RESEARCH DONE BY THE VENDOR IS SKEWED TO PRESENT HIGHER SALES
FORECASTS THAN CAN REALLY BE EXPECTED.
ANOTHER WAY TO REDUCE THE RISK OF DEAD INVENTORY ON NEW PRODUCTS IS TO SEARCH THE MARKET FOR SMALLER QUANTITIES OF THE
ITEM THAT CAN BE TESTED TO SEE HOW THE SALES WILL BE. EVEN IF THE COST PER UNIT IS HIGHER, THE REDUCTION IN DEAD INVENTORY
WILL BE WELL WORTH THE EXTRA COST.
WHAT TO DO ABOUT DEAD INVENTORY
DISTRESSED OR “DEAD” INVENTORY IS A PROBLEM FOR ANY COMPANY IN THE DISTRIBUTION BUSINESS. WHILE SOONER OR LATER EVERY
COMPANY MUST DEAL WITH THIS PROBLEM, ANY BUSINESS CAUGHT IN A CYCLE OF OVER-BUYING MUST TAKE MEASURE TO BREAK THE
TREND. THIS MEANS RIDDING THE BUSINESS OF DISTRESSED INVENTORY, FREEING UP CASH TO PURCHASE GOODS THAT WILL SELL QUICKLY
AND MONITORING STOCK MORE CLOSELY IN THE FUTURE. MANAGERS MUST BE LEVEL-HEADED AND SOBER IN ASSESSING THE STEPS NEEDED
TO LIQUIDATE THE INVENTORY.
MARK DOWNS
THE MOST POPULAR METHOD FOR RIDDING THE BUSINESS OF DISTRESSED INVENTORY IS TO MARK THE GOODS DOWN FOR QUICK SALE. IT IS
COMMON FOR BUSINESSES TO KEEP A REGULAR PRACTICE OF SCHEDULED MARK DOWNS AS LONG AS PARTICULAR PRODUCTS REMAIN IN
INVENTORY. MANAGERS MUST BE MERCILESS IN DISCOUNTING MERCHANDISE TO MAKE IT MOVE QUICKLY. WHILE MARKING ITEMS DOWN
AS MUCH AS 75% CAN BE PAINFUL, THE COST OF KEEPING THE GOODS IS EVEN MORE SO.
Page 15 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
RETURNS
IN SOME CASES, THE COMPANY CAN COMMUNICATE WITH DISTRIBUTORS TO REQUEST THAT THEY TAKE BACK EXCESS INVENTORY.
PROPOSALS SHOULD BE STRUCTURED IN A WAY THAT BENEFITS THE DISTRIBUTOR, SUCH AS OFFERING THE MERCHANDISE IN EXCHANGE FOR
OTHER MERCHANDISE THAT MAY SELL BETTER.
CHARITABLE DONATIONS
IF ALL ELSE FAILS, CHARITABLE DONATIONS ARE ALWAYS AN OPTION. IF GOODS HAVE BEEN DRASTICALLY REDUCED AND STILL REMAIN ON
THE SHELVES, A CHARITABLE DONATION ALLOWS THE BUSINESS TO WRITE THE DONATION OFF ON TAXES.
MONITORING STOCK
CLOSE MONITORING OF INVENTORY LEVELS IS NEEDED TO KEEP THEM AT HEALTHY LIMITS. CYCLE COUNTING SHOULD BE DONE TO
MAINTAIN CONTROL OF STOCK ON A REGULAR BASIS. THIS ALLOWS THE BUSINESS TO SPOT PROBLEMS BEFORE THEY CAUSE SERIOUS
FINANCIAL CONCERNS. IN ADDITION, STRONG INVENTORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS SHOULD BE KEPT IN PLACE THAT BASE PURCHASE
DECISIONS ON MARKET FORECASTS AND STOCK LEVELS, NOT ON THE INFLUENCE OF SALESPEOPLE OR OPERATIONS MANAGERS.
STOCK MANAGEMENT
BY VIBHASH
INVENTORY FOR A BUSINESS IS MORE THAN JUST MATERIALS AND GOODS THAT ARE KEPT IN A WAREHOUSE. INVENTORY PLAYS A
SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN A COMPANY’S PHYSICAL ASSETS. IT REPRESENTS A FINANCIAL INVESTMENT THAT IF NOT USED PROPERLY, CAN REALLY
DRAIN A COMPANY’S CASH FLOW. TO MAKE SURE THAT THEY DO NOT JUST THROW THEIR MONEY AWAY ON STOCK, A COMPANY SPENDS
QUITE A BIT OF MANPOWER AND RESOURCES ON MONITORING THEIR STOCK. THE PROCESS OF MONITORING INVENTORY IS KNOWN AS
STOCK MANAGEMENT.
STOCK MANAGEMENT IS BASICALLY A SERIES OF PROCESSES FOR KEEPING UP WITH ROTATING STOCK. THIS INCLUDES TRACKING,
SHIPMENTS, HANDLING OF GOODS, AND ORDERING TO RESUPPLY THE CURRENT LEVELS OF INVENTORY. SUCCESSFUL STOCK MANAGEMENT
CAN MAKE OR BREAK A COMPANY. IF NOT IMPLEMENTED CORRECTLY, A COMPANY CAN WASTE A LOT OF MONEY ON EXCESS INVENTORY OR
THEY COULD BE SHORT ON SUPPLIES WHICH SLOW DOWN PRODUCTION.
WHAT IS STOCK MANAGEMENT?
A COMPANY’S INVENTORY IS MADE UP OF A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT PRODUCTS AND MATERIALS. HAVING A GOOD METHOD OF STOCK
MANAGEMENT IS IN UNDERSTANDING THE DIFFERENT LEVELS OF STOCK AND ITS DYNAMICS. FOR INSTANCE, HOW MUCH OF ONE
PARTICULAR INVENTORY ITEM DOES A COMPANY USE? DO THEY USE ONE ITEM MORE THAN OTHERS? WHEN SHOULD ADDITIONAL
INVENTORY BE REORDERED?
Page 16 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
THERE ARE SEVERAL FACTORS THAT PLAY A ROLE IN STOCK MANAGEMENT AND THE AMOUNT OF STOCK THAT IS USED. INFLUENCES ON
INVENTORY DEMAND ARE EITHER INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL. PURCHASE ORDERS ARE DESIGNED TO KEEP ALL THE CHAOS THAT IS INVENTORY
IN GOOD WORKING ORDER.
STOCK MANAGEMENT IS MOSTLY GOVERNED BY INVENTORY SOFTWARE. THE COMPUTER KEEPS TRACK OF WHAT COMES IN AND GOES OUT
OF THE INVENTORY. THERE ARE NUMEROUS THIRD PARTY COMPANIES THAT PROVIDE STOCK MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE FOR A VARIETY OF
BUSINESSES. THE BEST SYSTEMS ARE THOSE THAT ARE COMPATIBLE AND CAPABLE OF MONITORING MULTIPLE STOCKS IN SEVERAL
LOCATIONS ALONG WITH SEVERAL USERS.
COMMON METHODS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT
WITH THE CHANGING WORLD ECONOMY, BUSINESSES ARE PAYING MORE ATTENTION TO THEIR INVENTORY LEVELS. THEY ARE LOOKING
INTO BETTER WAYS TO MANAGE STOCK.
A STRUCTURED METHOD IS NEEDED TO MAKE SURE THAT INVENTORY LEVELS ARE OPTIMIZED FOR PRODUCTION AND COST. AN AUTOMATED
METHOD IS PREFERRED OVER THE OLD FASHIONED MANUAL METHOD WHICH CONSISTS OF SEVERAL DISADVANTAGES SUCH AS HIGHER COSTS
AND INVENTORY ERROR.
A SUCCESSFUL SYSTEM FOR STOCK MANAGEMENT ENSURES THAT A COMPANY HAS ENOUGH SUPPLIES OF RAW MATERIALS FOR THEIR
PRODUCTION. A FAULTY OR INADEQUATE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM CAN SLOW DOWN PRODUCTION IF NOT ENOUGH RAW MATERIALS ARE
KEPT ON HAND. IF PRODUCTION SLOWS THEN THERE IS A SHORTAGE OF FINISHED PRODUCTS WHICH MEANS LOWER SALES. WHEN A
COMPANY RUNS COMPLETELY OUT OF STOCK, IT IS CALLED A STOCKOUT. STOCKOUT CAN HURT CUSTOMER SERVICE AND COMPANY IMAGE.
A COMPANY THAT CONTINUALLY EXPERIENCES STOCKOUT WILL LOSE CUSTOMERS TO THE COMPETITION.
THE SAME IS ALSO TRUE OF HAVING TOO MUCH STOCK. AN INADEQUATE STOCK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM CAN ORDER TOO MUCH RAW
MATERIALS WHICH RESULTS IN OVERSTOCK. THIS IS STOCK THAT WILL JUST SIT THERE, TAKING UP SPACE, AND WAITING UNTIL IT CAN BE
USED. IF THE STOCK HAS AN EXPIRATION DATE, IT MAY GO BAD BEFORE IT CAN BE USED IN PRODUCTION.
TO PREVENT TOO MUCH STOCK OR NOT ENOUGH, STOCK MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS USE ONE OF TWO DIFFERENT METHODS TO AVOID THESE
BLUNDERS. THEY ARE BUFFER STOCK AND JUST-IN-TIME STOCK.
BUFFER STOCK
BUFFER STOCK IS AN ADDITIONAL AMOUNT OF STOCK THAT IS HELD IN RESERVE DURING TIMES OF RE-ORDERING. IT WORKS LIKE THIS.
NORMALLY, STOCK IS HELD AT CERTAIN LEVELS. WHEN IT DROPS BELOW THOSE LEVELS, THE MANAGEMENT RE-ORDERS MORE STOCK TO
BRING IT BACK UP TO THAT DESIRED LEVEL. HOWEVER, THERE IS A WAITING PERIOD BETWEEN THE TIME STOCK IS ORDERED AND WHEN IT IS
ACTUALLY DELIVERED. MEANWHILE, STOCK IS STILL BEING USED. BUFFER STOCK IS KEPT IN CASE THE DELIVERY TAKES LONGER AND
SUPPLIES GET LOW. BUFFER STOCK KEEPS A COMPANY FROM RUNNING OUT OF STOCK WHILE THEY WAIT FOR A DELIVERY.
THE BENEFIT OF BUFFER STOCK IS THAT PROFITS WILL INCREASE AS THE PRICE RISES. STOCK THAT WAS PURCHASED AT A LOWER PRICE CAN
BE SOLD AT CURRENT MARKET LEVELS THAT HAVE RISEN. BUFFER STOCK ALSO ENSURES THE COMPANY HAS AN INVENTORY OF SUPPLIES IN
CASE OF EMERGENCIES.
Page 17 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
JUST-IN-TIME STOCK
JUST IN TIME STOCK WAS DEVELOPED BY THE JAPANESE IN ORDER TO MINIMIZE HOLDINGS OF STOCK. HOW THIS WORKS IS DISTRIBUTORS
DELIVER THE NEEDED SUPPLIES AT THE EXACT TIME THE STOCK IS REQUIRED. FINISHED PRODUCTS ARE COMPLETED ONLY SO FAR AS THE
NEXT PHASE OF PRODUCTION. THE DELIVERIES ARRIVE AT SUCH REGULAR TIMES THAT A COMPANY DOES NOT HAVE TO DEAL WITH STORAGE
OF PRODUCTION SUPPLIES. ALSO, A COMPANY DOES NOT HAVE A BUILD-UP OF FINISHED PRODUCTS TO DISTRIBUTE AND TRY TO SELL. THEY
ARE ONLY PRODUCED AS THEY ARE NEEDED.
THE BENEFIT OF JUST IN TIME STOCK IS THAT THERE IS LESS RISK OF STOCK BECOMING OBSOLETE OR GOING PAST ITS EXPIRATION DATE.
ALSO, MORE SPACE IS AVAILABLE BECAUSE THERE ISN’T A LARGE AMOUNT OF STOCK TAKING UP VALUABLE SPACE. THIS ALSO PROVIDES A
LOWER MAINTENANCE COST. THE METHOD PROMOTES FLEXIBILITY IN A COMPANY’S WORKFORCE. THIS FLEXIBILITY IS ESSENTIAL IS
PROBLEM-SOLVING AND INCREASING PRODUCT QUALITY.
A SUCCESSFUL STOCK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM CAN BE ACHIEVED FROM SEVERAL APPROACHES. THE FIRST IS THE MANUAL METHOD. THIS IS
WHERE ALL OF A COMPANY’S STOCK IS MANUALLY INSPECTED AND COUNTED. MOSTY COMPANIES DO THEIR INVENTORIES ONCE A YEAR.
THERE ARE EVEN THIRD PARTIES WHO CAN COME IN AND CALCULATE STOCK FOR THE COMPANY. WHILE THE MANUAL METHOD WORKS
WELL FOR MANY SMALL BUSINESSES, IT IS QUITE IMPRACTICAL FOR LARGE COMPANIES.
ANOTHER ELEMENT TO SUCCESSFUL STOCK MANAGEMENT IS STOCK ROTATION. THIS IS THE PRACTICE OF USING UP OLDER STOCK FIRST.
THIS IS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT FOR STOCK THAT HAS AN EXPIRATION DATE SUCH AS PRODUCE AND GROCERIES. THE OLDER STOCK IS
MOVED TO THE FRONT SO THAT IT MAY BE USED NEXT. THE NEWER STOCK IS PLACED AT THE REAR OF THE CHAIN. THIS IS AN ONGOING
PROCESS.
A COMPUTERIZED SYSTEM IS THE MOST ACCURATE METHOD OF KEEPING UP WITH STOCK. FOR LARGER COMPANIES, IT IS ALSO THE MOST
PRACTICAL. IT WOULD BE FAR TOO COSTLY IN MANPOWER AND RESOURCES TO TRY TO MANUALLY KEEP UP WITH THOUSANDS OF
DIFFERENT ITEMS WHEN A COMPUTER CAN DO IT FASTER, CHEAPER, AND MORE EFFICIENTLY. THE USE OF A BAR CODE MAKES A
COMPUTERIZED SYSTEM MUCH EASIER THAN ANY OTHER METHOD.
CONSIGNMENT STOCK
BY VIBHASH
CONSIGNMENT STOCK IS GOODS WHICH ARE STORED AT ONE LOCATION, SUCH AS A BUSINESS OR A WAREHOUSE, BUT ARE LEGALLY OWNED
BY A DIFFERENT COMPANY SUCH AS A SUPPLIER. CONSIGNMENT INVENTORY IS VERY COMMON IN MANUFACTURING, SUCH AS THE AUTO
INDUSTRY. STOCK REMAINS UNDER OWNERSHIP OF THE SUPPLIER UNTIL THE CUSTOMER IS READY TO USE IT. THE CUSTOMER IS NOT
OBLIGED TO PAY FOR THESE SUPPLIED GOODS UNTIL THEY REMOVE THEM FROM THEIR CONSIGNMENT STOCK. IT IS AT THIS POINT THAT
THEY TECHNICALLY BUY THE STOCK. IF THE STOCK DOES NOT SELL OR THE CUSTOMER DECIDES THAT IT NO LONGER NEEDS IT, THEN THE
ITEMS THAT ARE LEFT OVER ARE RETURNED TO THE LEGAL OWNER.
CONSIGNMENT STOCK IS CLOSELY RELATED TO VENDOR MANAGED INVENTORY (OR VMI). SINCE THE INVENTORY IS STILL UNDER
OWNERSHIP OF THE SUPPLIER, AN IMMEDIATE INVOICE IS NOT NEEDED WHEN THE STOCK ARRIVES AT ITS LOCATION. ONLY WHEN THE
Page 18 of 34 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
STOCK IS SOLD WILL THE CUSTOMER CREATE AN ACCOUNTS PAYABLE. THE SUPPLIER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR CREDITING A CUSTOMER’S
INVENTORY AND DEBITING THEIR STOCK.
WHY USE CONSIGNMENT STOCK?
IN TODAY’S FAST-MOVING BUSINESS WORLD, THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CUSTOMERS AND THEIR SUPPLIERS CAN MAKE ALL THE
DIFFERENCE IN A SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS PLAN. IN ORDER TO STAY COMPETITIVE, CUSTOMERS MUST WORK WITH THEIR SUPPLIERS FOR AN
ARRANGEMENT THAT BEST SUITS THE CUSTOMER’S NEEDS. THAT IS THE MAIN REASON FOR THE CONSIGNMENT STOCK METHOD.
CONSIGNMENT STOCK IS OFTEN USED TO MAKE IT MORE CONVENIENT FOR THE CUSTOMER TO HAVE THEIR SUPPLIES AND RAW MATERIALS
CLOSE TO WHERE THEY MANUFACTURE THEIR PRODUCTS. IT IS ALSO USED TO REDUCE A CUSTOMER’S TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL. BY HAVING
CONSIGNMENT STOCK ON HAND, EITHER IN A STOCK ROOM OR NEARBY WAREHOUSE, A CUSTOMER CAN CONTINUE WITH THEIR
MANUFACTURING WITHOUT INTERRUPTION.
FUNCTIONS OF CONSIGNMENT STOCK
IN VENDOR MANAGED INVENTORY, THE SUPPLIER OVERSEES A COMPANY’S INVENTORY ITEMS. BUT IN CONSIGNMENT STOCK, IT IS THE
CUSTOMER’S RESPONSIBLE TO MANAGE IT. THE CUSTOMER IS IN CHARGE OR MOVING STOCK FROM STORAGE TO PRODUCTION. THEY ARE
ALSO IN CHARGE OF KEEPING UP WITH QUANTITIES AND IN CONTACTING THE SUPPLIER WHEN STOCK RUNS LOW. THEY ARE ALSO
RESPONSIBLE TO COMMUNICATING WITH THE SUPPLIER ABOUT MOVING THE STOCK AROUND, SINCE THE SUPPLIER STILL LEGALLY OWNS THE
ITEMS.
THE SUPPLIER NORMALLY INSPECTS THE STOCK QUARTERLY OR EVERY HALF-YEAR. IF THERE ARE ANY ERRORS IN INVOICING AND MORE
CONSIGNMENT STOCK HAS BEEN USED THAN RECORDED, THE CUSTOMER IS BILLED FOR THE USAGE.
WHEN SETTING UP A CONTRACT FOR CONSIGNMENT STOCK, THE SUPPLIER AND CUSTOMER WILL AGREE ON THE TERMS SUCH AS HOW LONG
THE CONTRACT WILL LAST AND WHAT TO DO WITH LEFT-OVER CONSIGNMENT. DETAILS ARE RECORDED ON ESTIMATED USAGE AND
REORDER QUANTITIES. CONSIGNMENT STOCK CONTRACTS CAN VARY IN SEVERAL WAYS.
ADVANTAGES OF CONSIGNMENT STOCK
DEALING WITH CONSIGNMENT STOCK HAS MANY ADVANTAGES. FOR INSTANCE, THE CUSTOMER KNOWS THAT RAW MATERIALS WILL
ALWAYS BE READILY AVAILABLE. THEY DO NOT HAVE TO WORRY ABOUT HUNTING FOR NEW SUPPLIERS EVERY FEW MONTHS. CONSIGNMENT
STOCK ALSO SAVES ON MONEY THAT WOULD NORMALLY BE INVESTED IN UNUSED INVENTORY. THIS HELPS KEEP UP A POSITIVE CASH FLOW
FOR THE CUSTOMER.
ANOTHER ADVANTAGE IS THAT THE PURCHASING OF INVENTORY IS NOT TIED INTO RE-SUPPLYING AND WAITING FOR THE NEW STOCK TO
ARRIVE. PURCHASING IS AUTOMATIC WHEN THE ITEMS ARE USED. THIS SAVES ON TIME.
ONE OF THE MAIN BENEFITS OF CONSIGNMENT STOCK IS THAT CUSTOMERS STORE THE CONSIGNMENT GOODS AT THEIR OWN WAREHOUSES.
THEY CAN ACCESS THE GOODS IN THE CONSIGNMENT WAREHOUSE AT ANY TIME WHICH MAKES IT MUCH MORE CONVENIENT FOR THE
CUSTOMER.
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CUSTOMERS DO NOT GET BILLED UP FRONT FOR THE ENTIRE STOCK. THEY ARE ONLY BILLED FOR THE GOODS WHEN THEY ARE REMOVED
FROM THE WAREHOUSE AND ONLY FOR THE ACTUAL QUANTITY TAKEN. CAPITAL IS INCREASED BECAUSE THERE IS LESS MONEY TIED UP IN
NON-USED INVENTORY.
RE-SUPPLY OF THE CONSIGNMENT CAN BE MADE AT CONVENIENT AND REGULAR TIMES. THIS KEEPS PRODUCTION RUNNING SMOOTHLY AND
WITHOUT HAVING TO STOP.
DEALING IN CONSIGNMENT STOCK PREVENTS CUSTOMERS FROM BEING SUSCEPTIBLE TO WHAT IS KNOWN AS PANIC BUYING. THIS IS WHEN
THERE IS A CHANGE IN THE MARKET AND THE CUSTOMER PANICS TRYING TO BUY (OR SELL) STOCK IN ORDER TO ADAPT WITH THE CHANGE.
RISKS OF CONSIGNMENT STOCK
ALTHOUGH THERE ARE ADVANTAGES TO CONSIGNMENT STOCK, THERE ARE SOME RISKS AND DISADVANTAGES AS WELL. ONE
DISADVANTAGE IS THAT THE SUPPLIER DOES NOT GET PAID UNTIL THE STOCK IS USED. IF CUSTOMER PRODUCTION IS SLOW, THEN THIS WILL
BE REFLECTED IN THE SUPPLIER’S CASH FLOW.
ALTHOUGH THE CUSTOMER IS SAVING MONEY BY NOT BUYING THE STOCK UNTIL IT IS USED, IT STILL TAKES UP PHYSICAL SPACE. THIS IS
SPACE THAT COULD BE PUT TO BETTER USE STORING SUPPLIES THE CUSTOMER ACTUALLY OWNS.
HAVING A WELL SUPPLIED CONSIGNMENT STOCK IS NOT NECESSARILY A GOOD THING. STOCK INVENTORY MAY INCREASE DUE TO
DUPLICATING INVENTORIES AND TO THE SUPPLIERS NEGOTIATING INFLATED STOCKHOLDINGS.
THERE IS NOT AS MUCH PRESSURE TO REDUCE INVENTORY BECAUSE THE CUSTOMER DOES NOT HAVE MONEY TIED UP IN IT. WHILE
BENEFICIAL FOR THE CUSTOMER, IT IS A DISADVANTAGE FOR THE SUPPLIER.
CUSTOMERS MAY NOT BE PROPERLY MOTIVATED TO COME UP WITH AN OPTIMAL BUSINESS PLAN. THIS IS AGAIN DUE TO THE FACT THAT
THEY DO NOT HAVE ANY MONEY SITTING IN STOCK THAT IS NOT BEING USED.
ONE MAJOR DISADVANTAGE FOR CUSTOMERS IS THAT ANY DISCREPANCY IN CONSIGNMENT STOCK THAT IS SHORT IS THE FINANCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE CUSTOMER. SO THEY COULD END UP PAYING FOR STOCK THAT WAS MISPLACED AND NEVER USED.
MOST OF CONSIGNMENT STOCK’S RECORD-KEEPING IS DESIGNED TO BE DONE BY COMPUTER BUT USUALLY ENDS UP BEING DONE
MANUALLY. BECAUSE ACCURACY IS KEY, RECORD-KEEPING MUST BE OF THE HIGHEST QUALITY. THIS CAN LEAD TO THE POSSIBILITY OF
HUMAN ERROR.
INVENTORY CREDIT
BY VIBHASH
ALL TOO OFTEN A COMPANY NEEDS IMMEDIATE CASH FOR VARIOUS NEEDS AND THEY JUST DON’T HAVE IT. SOME INDUSTRIES REQUIRE A
DISTRIBUTOR TO PAY FOR A PRODUCT BEFORE THEY CAN SELL IT, REQUIRING THEM TO HAVE CASH ON HAND FOR THEIR SUPPLIERS.
ALTHOUGH THE COMPANY WILL RECOUP THEIR MONEY PLUS A PROFIT, IT CAN BE DIFFICULT HAVING TO PAY THAT MUCH CASH UP FRONT.
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OF COURSE, IF THEY DON’T HAVE THE PRODUCT, THEN THEY CAN’T RESELL IT AND THEY WILL BE OUT OF BUSINESS. SO WHAT DOES A
COMPANY DO FOR CASH UP FRONT? ONE COMMON SOLUTION IS INVENTORY CREDIT.
WHAT IS INVENTORY CREDIT
INVENTORY CREDIT IS THE BUSINESS PRACTICE OF USING A COMPANY’S STOCK OR INVENTORY AS COLLATERAL FOR A LOAN. OST BANKS,
ESPECIALLY IN TODAY’S ECONOMY, ARE RELUCTANT TO ISSUE UNSECURED LOANS, EVEN TO ESTABLISHED COMPANIES WITH GOOD CREDIT.
BUT INVENTORY REPRESENTS A COMPANY’S PHYSICAL ASSETS AND HAS CASH VALUE IF LIQUIDATED.
INVENTORY CREDIT HAS BEEN USED FOR CENTURIES. THE CONCEPT GOT ITS START IN ANCIENT ROME WITH AGRICULTURE AND MERCHANT
GOODS. THE PRACTICE IS USED WORLDWIDE, ESPECIALLY IN THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES WHERE OWNERSHIP OF LAND TITLES (NORMALLY
USED FOR LOANS) CAN BE SOMEWHAT DUBIOUS. ONE COMMON PRODUCT THAT USES INVENTORY CREDIT FOR FINANCING AND CAN BE
FOUND IN ANY GROCERY STORE IS PARMESAN CHEESE FROM ITALY. INVENTORY CREDIT IS ALSO USED FOR AGRICULTURAL BUSINESSES IN
LATIN AMERICAN AND AFRICA, MANUFACTURING, AND AUTOMOBILE DEALERS WITH A LOT OF MONEY TIED INTO THEIR INVENTORY.
HOW INVENTORY CREDIT WORKS
BEFORE YOU CAN GET A LOAN USING INVENTORY CREDIT, YOU NEED A FEW THINGS. YOUR BUSINESS NEEDS TO HAVE A GOOD CREDIT
RATING. THIS MEAN SIT NEEDS TO BE CURRENT WITH ALL BILLS AND NO OUTSTANDING ACCOUNTS. THE SECOND THING NEEDED TO MAKE A
LIST, ALONG WITH ESTIMATED VALUE, OF THE INVENTORY TO BE USED. YOU ALSO NEED TO HAVE A BUSINESS PLAN WORKED OUT TO PITCH
TO THE BANK FOR THE LOAN.
INVENTORY VALUES CAN FLUCTUATE DEPENDING ON THE ECONOMY AND THE PARTICULAR INDUSTRY OF THE COMPANY. TO MAKE SURE
THEY DO NOT LOSE MONEY SHOULD INVENTORY VALUES PLUMMET, BANKS USUALLY ONLY LEND UP TO 60 PERCENT OF THE TOTAL VALUE
OF THE INVENTORY BEING USED. PLUS, PHYSICAL INVENTORY CAN BE LIQUIDATED BUT YOU WOULD NOT GET THE FULL VALUE FOR IT.
THE BANK WILL INSPECT ANY INVENTORY BEFORE THEY APPROVE A LOAN. THEY WILL WANT TO KNOW EXACTLY WHAT THEY ARE LOANING
THE MONEY FOR AND WHAT KIND OF CONDITION THE COLLATERAL IS IN. IF THE LOAN IS APPROVED, THE BANK HAS THE RIGHT TO INSPECT
THE INVENTORY AT ANY TIME.
WHEN INVENTORY IS SOLD, IT IS UP TO THE OWNER TO KEEP TRACK OF IT. A PORTION OF THE PROFITS WILL NEED TO GO TOWARDS PAYING
OFF THE LOAN. BANKS TEND TO FROWN ON COMPANIES THAT BORROW MONEY BASED ON INVENTORY CREDIT AND THEN SELL THE
INVENTORY WITHOUT PAYING OFF THE LOAN.
IN AGRICULTURE, INVENTORY CREDIT WORKS A LITTLE DIFFERENT. THE PRODUCE THAT IS USED FOR THE LOAN HAS TO BE STORED IN A
RELIABLE AND BONDED WAREHOUSE BY A THIRD PARTY. IN AGRICULTURE, INVENTORY CREDIT IS USED FOR IMPORTED PRODUCE, PRODUCE
READY TO BE EXPORTED, AND DOMESTIC PRODUCTS. THE WAREHOUSE OWNER THAT STORES THE PRODUCE HAS TO ENSURE THAT IT
REMAINS IN GOOD CONDITION AND IS SECURE. THE AGRICULTURAL COMPANY THAT BORROWS THE MONEY IS CHARGED A FEE FOR THE
STORAGE OF THE PRODUCE AND TO INSURE IT AGAINST DAMAGE. THIS INVENTORY CREDIT PROCESS IS USED WIDELY IN AFRICA AND PARTS
OF ASIA
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WHEN SHOULD YOU USE INVENTORY CREDIT?
INVENTORY CREDIT IS NOT A PRACTICAL MEANS OF FINANCING FOR EVERY BUSINESS. IT LARGELY DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF INDUSTRY YOU
ARE IN AS WELL AS THE CURRENT STATE OF THE ECONOMY. BUSINESSES THAT SHOULD NOT USE INVENTORY CREDIT ARE THOSE WILL A LOW
TURNOVER RATE FOR THEIR INVENTORY. THIS MEANS THAT IF YOUR INVENTORY SITS THERE FOR A LONG TIME AND CASH FLOW FROM IT IS
SLOW, YOU WOULD BE BETTER OFF FINDING AN ALTERNATIVE MEANS OF FINANCING. OTHERWISE, YOU MAY HAVE A DIFFICULT TIME
PAYING BACK THE LOAN. THIS IS ALSO TRUE FOR INVENTORY THAT IS OUT OF DATE, EXPIRED, OR OBSOLETE.
BUSINESSES THAT WOULD BENEFIT FROM AN INVENTORY CREDIT LOAN WOULD BE THOSE WHO HAVE A HIGH TURNOVER RATE FOR THEIR
INVENTORY. IF BUSINESS IS GOOD AND YOUR COMPANY IS MOVING A LOT OF INVENTORY PRODUCT BUT YOU STILL NEED MORE MONEY IN
ORDER TO KEEP UP WITH DEMAND, THEN YOU SHOULD CHECK OUT AN INVENTORY CREDIT LOAN.
FIFO VERSUS LIFO ACCOUNTING
BY VIBHASH
INVENTORY ACCOUNTING IS AN IMPORTANT PART OF ANY BUSINESS. INVENTORY PLAYS A BIG PART IN A COMPANY’S CASH FLOW. BUT
INFLATION AND TAXES CAN AFFECT INVENTORY VALUES. DEPENDING ON WHAT ACCOUNTING METHOD YOU USE, YOUR COMPANY COULD
REPORT WHAT IS CALLED ‘ILLUSIONARY PROFITS’. THESE ARE PROFITS THAT ARE REPORTED ON FINANCIAL STATEMENTS BUT AFTER TAXES,
THE ACTUAL PROFITS ARE LESS. WHEN IT COMES TO INVENTORY ACCOUNTING, THERE ARE TWO MAIN ACCOUNTING METHODS THAT ARE
USED: FIFO AND LIFO.
FIFO AND LIFO ACCOUNTING METHODS MANAGE THE FINANCIAL END OF A COMPANY’S INVENTORY. EACH ONE HAS ITS OWN BENEFITS
AND DISADVANTAGES AND ONE OF THEM IS ACTUALLY PREFERRED OVER THE OTHER BY MOST BUSINESSES. SO WHAT ARE SOME OF THE
DIFFERENCES IN THE TWO METHODS? WHY IS INVENTORY SO IMPORTANT? IF YOU ARE A BUSINESS OWNER, YOU NEED TO KNOW THESE
ACCOUNTING METHODS IN ORDER TO FIGURE OUT WHICH ONE WILL BENEFIT YOU THE MOST.
WHY IS INVENTORY IMPORTANT?
INVENTORY IS THE PHYSICAL ASSETS OF A COMPANY THAT IS INTENDED FOR SALE OR FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PRODUCTS FOR SALE.
INVENTORY IS CONSTANTLY CHANGING AS QUANTITIES ARE SOLD AND REPLENISHED. A COMPANY’S INVENTORY IS IMPORTANT ON
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS BECAUSE IT REPRESENTS A LARGE AMOUNT OF THE COMPANY’S ASSETS. THAT VALUE IS DETERMINED BY WHICH
ACCOUNTING METHOD THE COMPANY USES.
WHY ARE THERE DIFFERENT INVENTORY ACCOUNTING METHODS INSTEAD OF JUST ONE? BECAUSE THE COST AND VALUE OF INVENTORY IS
INFLUENCED BY THE COST OF INFLATION. OVER TIME, PRICES TEND TO RISE DUE TO INFLATION IN THE ECONOMY. INVENTORY THAT WAS
PURCHASED AT ONE PRICE MAY GAIN IN VALUE DUE TO INFLATION. TO RECTIFY THIS, DIFFERENT ACCOUNTING METHODS ARE USED.
OTHERWISE, INVENTORY MAY BE APPRAISED INCORRECTLY WHICH COULD CAUSE A PROBLEM WITH A COMPANY’S PROFITS. IN A PERFECT
WORLD, THERE WOULD BE NO INFLATION AND THUS NO NEED FOR SEPARATE ACCOUNTING METHODS.
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DIFFERENT ACCOUNTING METHODS CAN HAVE AN IMPACT ON THE COST OF INVENTORY, MONTHLY STATEMENTS, AND CASH FLOW. LIFO
AND FIFO BOTH HAVE THEIR ADVANTAGES AND CAN CHANGE THE VALUE OF INVENTORY TO FIT A COMPANY’S NEEDS.
WHAT IS FIFO?
FIFO STANDS FOR FIRST-IN, FIRST-OUT. WHAT THIS MEANS IS THAT THE FIRST ITEM THAT COMES INTO A WAREHOUSE (AND THE OLDEST)
WILL BE THE FIRST ITEM SHIPPED OUT. FIFO IS A MORE ACCURATE REPRESENTATION OF THE FLOW OF PHYSICAL ITEMS IN AND OUT
THROUGH A DISTRIBUTION CENTER. IT IS A COMMON ACCOUNTING METHOD WHERE THERE ARE MANY IDENTICAL ITEMS BEING SHIPPED.
COMPANIES GENERALLY SHIP THE OLDEST STOCK IN INVENTORY TO PREVENT THE ITEMS FROM DETERIORATING OR EXPIRING (SUCH AS WITH
PERISHABLE GOODS). THIS ALLOWS THE INVENTORY TO BE CONTINUALLY ROLLED OR TURNED-OVER WHICH KEEPS THE OLDEST READY TO BE
SHIPPED.
FIFO IS A BETTER ACCOUNTING METHOD TO USE IN TIMES WHEN THE ECONOMY HAS STABLE PRICES. HOWEVER, WHEN INFLATION IS HIGH,
USING FIFO RESULTS IN WHAT IS CALLED “INVENTORY PROFITS”. THESE ARE PROFITS THAT COME JUST FROM HOLDING ONTO INVENTORY
AND INCREASING PHYSICAL ASSETS. BUT IT DOES NOT PROVIDE THE BEST RESULTS FOR MATCHING COSTS AND REVENUES.
IN TIMES OF INFLATION, SMALLER COMPANIES WILL USE FIFO BECAUSE THE VALUE OF THEIR INVENTORY IS HIGHER AND IT MAKES THEIR
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS LOOK BETTER. AS THE FIRST-IN INVENTORY IS SOLD, THE NEWER INVENTORY, WHICH IS MORE EXPENSIVE, REMAINS
ON THE COMPANY’S FINANCIAL RECORDS. A COMPANY CAN USE THIS TO THEIR ADVANTAGE FOR THINGS SUCH AS ATTRACTING MORE
BUSINESS, MERGERS, INCREASING VALUE OF STOCKS, OR ACQUIRING A LOAN.
THE MAIN DISADVANTAGE TO USING FIFO INSTEAD OF LIFO IS THAT AT THE END OF THE YEAR, THE COMPANY WILL HAVE TO PAY MORE
TAXES DUE TO THE ‘PROFITS’ RECORDED ON THEIR STATEMENTS. THIS IS WHY AFTER A COMPANY EXPERIENCES SOME GROWTH, THEY
USUALLY SWITCH TO LIFO.
WHAT IS LIFO?
LIFO STANDS FOR LAST-IN, FIRST-OUT. HOW THIS WORKS IS THAT A COMPANY RECORDS ITS INVENTORY AS THE LAST ITEMS THAT WERE
PURCHASED ARE THE FIRST ITEMS SOLD. OLDER INVENTORY IS LEFT OVER. THIS METHOD IS ALSO SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS FILO (FIRST-
IN, LAST-OUT). AS INFLATION RAISES PRICES IN THE ECONOMY, THE LIFO METHOD RECORDS THE SALE OF THE MOST EXPENSIVE ITEMS IN
INVENTORY FIRST. THIS IS NOT AN ACCURATE REPRESENTATION OF THE ACTUAL FLOW OF PHYSICAL ITEMS THROUGH INVENTORY. ON PAPER
THIS WILL SHOW A DECREASE IN PROFITS BUT IT ALSO HELPS TO REDUCE TAXES BECAUSE A COMPANY IS NOT RECORDING A FALSE PROFIT
(WHICH IS THE CASE WITH FIFO). IN FACT, LIFO HAS BEEN THE PREFERRED ACCOUNTING METHOD SINCE THE EARLY 1970’S. DURING THAT
DECADE, THE U.S. EXPERIENCED ITS FIRST MAJOR RISE IN INFLATION IN MODERN TIMES WHICH HAS CONTINUED STEADILY FOR ALMOST
FORTY YEARS NOW.
THE THEORY IN USING THIS METHOD IS THAT COSTS WILL EITHER REMAIN THE SAME OR INCREASE. MOST OF THE COMPANIES THAT USE
LIFO EXPERIENCE A RISE IN INVENTORY COSTS EVERY YEAR. LIFO IS A BETTER APPROACH TO MATCHING CURRENT COSTS WITH CURRENT
REVENUES. AS INVENTORY GETS SOLD, IT SHOULD BE REPLACED WITH HIGHER PRICED ITEMS. COMPANIES THAT USE LIFO DO SO MERELY
FOR TAX PURPOSES SO THAT THEY CAN INCREASE CASH FLOW OVER A LONG PERIOD.
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THE DRAWBACK TO LIFO IS THAT IT MUST ALSO BE USED ON FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND REPORTS. THIS MEANS THAT COMPANIES WILL
SHOW LESS NET PROFIT THAN IF THEY USED FIFO. IN TERMS OF BUSINESS, THIS COULD INTERFERE WITH FUTURE LOANS AND ATTRACTING
CLIENTS OR PARTNERS.
LIFO HAS BEEN THE PREFERRED ACCOUNTING METHOD SINCE THE EARLY 1970’S. THE U.S. EXPERIENCED ITS FIRST MAJOR RISE IN
INFLATION DURING MODERN TIMES WHICH HAS CONTINUED STEADILY FOR ALMOST FORTY YEARS NOW.
ONE ASPECT OF USING LIFO IS THAT AS OLDER INVENTORY GETS LEFT BEHIND, IT MUST EVENTUALLY BE LIQUIDATED. SOMETIMES
COMPANIES HAVE TROUBLE REPLACING EXISTING INVENTORY, NEED CASH FLOW, OR MUST MAKE ROOM FOR NEWER INVENTORY. IF PRICES
HAVE CONTINUED TO RISE, THEN THE OLDER INVENTORY WILL HAVE A LOWER VALUE. THE PROBLEM IS THAT IF THE COMPANY LIQUIDATES
THIS OLDER INVENTORY, IT MUST GO ON THEIR FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AS NET PROFITS AND WILL INCREASE THEIR TAXES. THIS IS WHY
SOME COMPANIES HAVE A STOCKPILE OF OLDER INVENTORY SITTING IN WAREHOUSES BECASUDE TO GET RID OF IT WOULD HAVE
UNDESIRABLE RESULTS.
MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIFO AND LIFO
WHEN DECIDING WHICH ACCOUNTIGN METHOD TO USE FO RINVENTORY, YOU HAVE TO LOOK AT THE MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIFO
AND LIFO. WITH FIFO, YOU GET A BETTER ESTIMATION OF THE VALUE OF INVENTORY. WHILE IT CAN BE USED TO INCREASE NET PROFITS,
IT WILL ALSO INCREASE THE AMOUTN OF TAXES A COMPANY WILL HAVE TO PAY IN.
LIFO IS NOT A GOOD INDICATOR OF INVENTORY VALUE BECAUSE SOME OF THE INVENTORY MAY BE YEARS OLD, DETERIORATED BEYOND
USE, OR NOT COMPATIBLE WITH NEWER VERSIONS. SO THE VALUE WILL PROBABALY BE LOWER THAN CURRENT PRICES. THIS DECREASES
NET PROFITS WHICH ALSO EFFECTS NET SHARES IN THE COMPANY. BUT USING LIFO ALSO GIVES YOU A BREAK ON TAXES AT THE END OF
THE YEAR.
ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
BY VIBHASH
INVENTORY MANAGEMENT USED TO BE PAPER-BASED AND CONSISTED OF NUMEROUS FILES STORED IN FILING CABINETS THAT MIGHT
STRETCH AS FAR AS THE EYE COULD SEE. EVERY ONCE IN AWHILE THESE FILES HAD TO BE CLEANED OUT AND TRASHED TO MAKE ROOM FOR
MORE FILES. ACCURATE COUNTS OF QUANTITIES TOOK TIME AND WERE NOT ALWAYS IMMEDIATELY AVAILABLE. INVENTORY WAS ALSO
BASED MORE ON GUESSWORK THAN DATA.
ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT TAKES CONTROL OF A BUSINESS’ INVENTORY SUCH AS PURCHASING, SHIPPING, AND SELLING. ERP
MANAGEMENT ENABLES A BUSINESS TO HAVE INSTANT AND ACCURATE ACCESS TO THEIR INVENTORY AT ANY TIME IN ORDER TO MEET
CUSTOMER DEMAND. BUT WHAT IS ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT? WHAT DOES ERP STAND FOR? HERE IS AN OVERVIEW OF THE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM THAT HAS BEEN ADOPTED BY NUMEROUS COMPANIES ACROSS THE GLOBE.
WHAT IS ERP?
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ERP, OR ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING, IS A COMPUTER NETWORK SYSTEM THAT USES A DATABASE OF INFORMATION THAT IS
COMPANY-WIDE ACCESSIBLE. ERP IS DESIGNED TO REPLACE PAPER-BASED SYSTEMS BY ANALYZING DATA FROM ALL AREAS OF A
COMPANY’S RESOURCES. ERP COVERS ALL FUNCTIONS OF A BUSINESS SUCH AS PURCHASING, MANUFACTURING, DISTRIBUTION, AND
INVENTORY MANAGEMENT.
BY USING AN ERP MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, A COMPANY’S INVENTORY IS STORED ON A DATABASE THAT IS COMPRISED OF PHYSICAL STOCK,
COSTS, VENDOR ACCOUNTS, AND LEAD-TIMES FOR RE-ORDERING STOCK. ERP MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CAN IMPROVE COSTS,
PRODUCTIVITY, REDUCE TIME LAG, REDUCE WASTE, AND IMPROVE OVERALL EFFICIENCY. TO FULLY USE AN ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM, A BUSINESS NEEDS TO UNDERSTAND THE RELATIONSHIP OF THEIR COMPANY COMPARED TO THE REST OF THE SUPPLY CHAIN. BY
UNDERSTANDING WHERE THEY FIT IN, A COMPANY CAN IMPROVE DELIVERY OF PRODUCTS AND SERVICES.