Chapter 1 Introduction Water resources are essential for satisfying human needs, protecting health, and ensuring food production, energy and the restoration of ecosystems, as well as for social and economic development and for sustainable development. However, according to the World Water Development Report in 2003, it has been estimated that two billion people are affected by water shortages in over forty countries, and 1.1 billion do not have sufficient drinking water. There is a great and urgent need to supply environmentally sound technology for the provision of drinking water. Remote water pumping systems are a key component in meeting this need. It will also be the first stage of the purification and desalination plants to produce potable water. In our project, a simple but efficient photovoltaic water pumping system is presented. It investigates in detail the maximum power point tracker (MPPT), a power electronic device that significantly increases the system efficiency. 1.1 Water Pumping Systems and Photovoltaic Power A water pumping system needs a source of power to operate. In general, AC powered system is economic and takes minimum maintenance when AC power is available from the nearby power
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Transcript
Chapter 1 Introduction
Water resources are essential for satisfying human needs, protecting health, and ensuring food
production, energy and the restoration of ecosystems, as well as for social and economic
development and for sustainable development. However, according to the World Water
Development Report in 2003, it has been estimated that two billion people are affected by water
shortages in over forty countries, and 1.1 billion do not have sufficient drinking water. There
is a great and urgent need to supply environmentally sound technology for the provision of
drinking water. Remote water pumping systems are a key component in meeting this need. It
will also be the first stage of the purification and desalination plants to produce potable water. In
our project, a simple but efficient photovoltaic water pumping system is presented. It investigates
in detail the maximum power point tracker (MPPT), a power electronic device that significantly
increases the system efficiency.
1.1 Water Pumping Systems and Photovoltaic Power
A water pumping system needs a source of power to operate. In general, AC powered
system is economic and takes minimum maintenance when AC power is available from the
nearby power grid. However, in many rural areas, water sources are spread over many miles of
land and power lines are scarce. Installation of a new transmission line and a transformer to the
location is often prohibitively expensive. Windmills have been installed traditionally in such areas;
many of them are, however, inoperative now due to lack of proper maintenance and age. Today,
many stand-alone type water pumping systems use internal combustion engines. These systems
are portable and easy to install. However, they have some major disadvantages, such as: they
require frequent site visits for refueling and maintenance, and furthermore diesel fuel is often
expensive and not readily available in rural areas of many developing countries. The consumption
of fossil fuels also has an environmental impact, in particular the release of carbon dioxide (CO2)
into the atmosphere. CO2 emissions can be greatly reduced through the application of renewable
energy technologies, which are already cost competitive with fossil fuels in many situations. Good
examples include large-scale grid-connected wind turbines, solar water heating, and off-grid
stand-alone PV systems. The use of renewable energy for water pumping systems is, therefore, a
very attractive proposition. Windmills are a long-established method of using renewable energy;
however they are quickly phasing out from the scene despite success of large-scale grid-tied wind
turbines.
PV systems are highly reliable and are often chosen because they offer the lowest life-
cycle cost, especially for applications requiring less than 10KW, where grid electricity is not
available and where internal-combustion engines are expensive to operate.
1.2 Energy Storage Alternatives
Needless to say, photovoltaics are able to produce electricity only when the sunlight is available,
therefore stand-alone systems obviously need some sort of backup energy storage which
makes them available through the night or bad weather conditions. Among many possible storage
technologies, the lead-acid battery continues to be the workhorse of many PV systems because it is
relatively inexpensive and widely available. In addition to energy storage, the battery also has
ability to provide surges of current that are much higher than the instantaneous current available
from the array, as well as the inherent and automatic property controlling the output voltage of
the array so that loads receive voltages within their own range of acceptability. While batteries
may seem like a good idea, they have a number of disadvantages. The type of lead-acid
battery suitable for PV systems is a deep-cycle battery, which is different from one used for
automobiles, and it is more expensive and not widely available. Battery lifetime in PV systems is
typically three to eight years, but this reduces to typically two to six years in hot climate since
high ambient temperature dramatically increases the rate of internal corrosion. Batteries also
require regular maintenance and will degrade very rapidly if the electrolyte is not topped up and
the charge is not maintained. They reduce the efficiency of the overall system due to power
loss during charge and discharge. Typical battery efficiency is around 85% but could go below
75% in hot climate. From all those reasons, experienced PV system designers avoid batteries
whenever possible.
For water pumping systems, appropriately sized water reservoirs can meet the
requirement of energy storage during the downtime of PV generation. The additional cost of
reservoir is considerably lower than that incurred by the battery equipped system. As a
matter of fact, only about five percent of solar pumping systems employ a battery bank.
1.3 The Proposed System
The experimental water pumping system proposed in this thesis is a stand-alone type without
backup batteries. As shown in Figure 1-1, the system is very simple and consists of a single PV
module, a maximum power point tracker (MPPT), and a DC water pump. The size of the system
is intended to be small; therefore it could be built in the lab in the future. The system including
the subsystems will be simulated to verify the functionalities.
Figure 1-1: Block diagram of the proposed PV water pumping system
1.3.1 PV Module
There are different sizes of PV module commercially available (typically sized from 60W
to 170W). Usually, a number of PV modules are combined as an array to meet different
energy demands. For example, a typical small-scale desalination plant requires a few thousand
watts of power.
1.3.2 Maximum Power Point Tracker
The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is now prevalent in grid-tied PV power
systems and is becoming more popular in stand-alone systems. It should not be confused
with sun trackers, mechanical devices that rotate and/or tilt PV modules in the direction of
sun. MPPT is a power electronic device interconnecting a PV power source and a load,
maximizes the power output from a PV module or array with varying operating conditions,
and therefore maximizes the system efficiency. MPPT is made up with a switch-mode DC-
DC converter and a controller. For grid-tied systems, a switch-mode inverter sometimes fills
the role of MPPT. Otherwise, it is combined with a DC-DC converter that performs the
MPPT function. In addition to MPPT, the system could also employ a sun tracker. According to
the data in reference, the single-axis sun tracker can collect about 40% more energy than a
seasonally optimized fixed-axis collector in summer in a dry climate. In winter, however, it can
gain only 20% more energy. The effect of sun tracker is smaller because a larger fraction of
solar irradiation is diffuse. It collects 30% more energy in summer, but the gain is less than
10% in winter. The two-axis tracker is only a few percent better than the single-axis version.
Sun tracking enables the system to meet energy demand with smaller PV modules, but it
increases the cost and complexity of system. Since it is made of moving parts, there is also a
higher chance of failure. Therefore, in this simple system, the sun tracker is not implemented.
Chapter 2 Photovoltaic Modules
2.1 Introduction
The history of PV dates back to 1839 when a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel,
discovered the first photovoltaic effect when he illuminated a metal electrode in an
electrolytic solution. Thirty-seven years later British physicist, William Adams, with his student,
Richard Day, discovered a photovoltaic material, selenium, and made solid cells with 1~2%
efficiency which were soon widely adopted in the exposure meters of camera. In 1954 the first
generation of semiconductor silicon-based PV cells was born, with efficiency of 6%, and
adopted in space applications. Today, the production of PV cells is following an exponential
growth curve since technological advancement of late ‘80s that has started to rapidly improve
efficiency and reduce cost. This chapter discusses the fundamentals of PV cells and modeling of a
PV cell using an equivalent electrical circuit. The models are implemented using MATLAB to
study PV characteristics and simulate a real PV module.
2.2 Photovoltaic Cell
Photons of light with energy higher than the band-gap energy of PV material can
make electrons in the material break free from atoms that hold them and create hole-electron
pairs, as shown in Figure 2-1. These electrons, however, will soon fall back into holes
causing charge carriers to disappear. If a nearby electric field is provided, those in the
conduction band can be continuously swept away from holes toward a metallic contact where they
will emerge as an electric current. The electric field within the semiconductor itself at the junction
between two regions of crystals of different type, called a p-n junction.
The PV cell has electrical contacts on its top and bottom to capture the electrons, as
shown in Figure 2-2. When the PV cell delivers power to the load, the electrons flow out of
the n-side into the connecting wire, through the load, and back to the p-side where they
recombine with holes. Note that conventional current flows in the opposite direction from
electrons.
2.3 Modeling a PV Cell
The use of equivalent electric circuits makes it possible to model characteristics of a PV
cell. The method used here is implemented in MATLAB programs for simulations. The same
modeling technique is also applicable for modeling a PV module.
Figure 2-1: Illustration of the p-n junction of PV cell Showing hole-electron pairs created by photons
Figure 2-2: Illustrated side view of solar cell and the conducting current
2.3.1 The Simplest Model
The simplest model of a PV cell is shown as an equivalent circuit below that consists of an ideal current source in parallel with an ideal diode. The current source represents the current generated by photons (often denoted as Iph or IL), and its output is constant under constant temperature and constant incident radiation of light.
There are two key parameters frequently used to characterize a PV cell. Shorting together the terminals of the cell, as shown in Figure 2-4 (a), the photon generated current will
Accumulated positive charge
Figure 2-3: PV cell with a load and its simple equivalent circuit
follow out of the cell as a short-circuit current (Isc). Thus, Iph = Isc. As shown in
Figure 2-4 (b), when there is no connection to the PV cell (open-circuit), the
photon generated current is shunted internally by the intrinsic p-n junction diode.
This gives the open circuit voltage (Voc). The PV module or cell manufacturers
usually provide the values of these parameters in their datasheets.
Figure 2-4: Diagrams showing a short-circuit and an open-circuit condition
The output current (I) from the PV cell is found by applying the Kirchoff’s current law (KCL) on the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2-3.
IIsc Id (2.1)
where: Isc is the short-circuit current that is equal to the photon generated current, and Id is the current shunted through the intrinsic diode.
The diode current Id is given by the Shockley’s diode equation:
I d Io (eqV d / kT1) (2.2)
where: Io is the reverse saturation current of diode (A), q is the electron charge (1.602×10-19 C), Vd is
the voltage across the diode (V), k is the Boltzmann’s constant (1.381×10-23 J/K), T is the junction
temperature in Kelvin (K). Replacing Id of the equation (2.1) by the equation (2.2) gives the
current-voltage relationship of the PV cell.
I I sc Io(eqV / kT1) (2.3)
where: V is the voltage across the PV cell, and I is the output current from the cell.
The reverse saturation current of diode (Io) is constant under the constant temperature and found by setting the open-circuit condition as shown in Figure 2-4 (b). Using the equation (2.3), let I = 0 (no output current) and solve for Io.
To a very good approximation, the photon generated current, which is equal to Isc, is directly proportional to the irradiance, the intensity of illumination, to PV cell [15]. Thus, if the value, Isc, is known from the datasheet, under the standard test condition, Go=1000W/m2 at the air mass (AM) = 1.5, then the photon generated current at any other irradiance, G (W/m2), is given by:
I sc G|G G oI|sc Go
A detailed block diagram of the proposed system is shownin Figure 4. A DC to DC boost converter is used to interfacethe PV array output to DC motor driven centrifugal pump.The control unit consists of a microchip PIC16F877A-I/Pmicrocontroller and interface circuits required to lead thePV array’s voltage and current signals to the microcontroller.A turbine flow rate sensor (Type DF-HN, 120 l/min H2O,KOBOLD) is used to provide an indirect measurement of theflow rate velocity in l/min with a square wave signal as anoutput signal whose frequency varies linearly with flow rate.The latter output waveform is shaped by hex Schmitt-triggerinverter chip (74LS14N) and applied to microcontroller 16-bit timer/counter pin (T1CKI).The controller on chip 10-bit Pulse Width Modulation(PWM) generator output drives the DC to DC boost converteraccording to MPPTs algorithms. The boost convertercomprises: MOSFET switch IRF730, diode BYT 71 andcoil (L = 1mH) [4]. The switching frequency (6,125 KHz)is designed to obtain low output ripple. To implement theserial communication with the PC which has a display
3. MICROCONTROLLER
3.1. Introduction
The PIC micro was originally designed around 1980 by General
Instrument as a small, fast, inexpensive embedded microcontroller with
strong I/O capabilities. PIC stands for "Peripheral Interface Controller".
The PIC micro has some advantages in many applications over
the older chips such as the Intel 8048/8051/8052 and its derivatives, the
Motorola MC6805/6hHC11, and many others. Its unusual architecture
is ideally suited for embedded control. Nearly all instructions execute in
the same number of clock cycles, which makes timing control much
easier. The PIC micro is a RISC design, with only thirty-odd
instructions to remember; its code is extremely efficient, allowing the
PIC to run with typically less program memory than its larger
competitors.
Very important, though, is the low cost, high available clock
speeds, small size, and incredible ease of use of the tiny PIC. For
timing-insensitive designs, the oscillator can consist of a cheap RC
network. Clock speeds can range from low speed to 20MHz. Versions
of the various PIC micro families are available that are equipped with
various combinations ROM, EPROM, OTP, EPROM, EEPROM, and
FLASH program and data memory.
3.2. Features
High-Performance RISC CPU:
Only 35 single-word instructions to learn.
All single-cycle instructions except for program branches, which
are two-cycle.
Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input, DC – 200 ns
instruction cycle.
Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8
bytes of Data Memory (RAM), Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM
Data Memory.
Analog Features:
10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D).
Brown-out Reset (BOR).
Analog Comparator module with:
Two analog comparators.
Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module.
Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and
internal voltage reference.
Comparator outputs are externally accessible.
Peripheral Features:
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler.
Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented
during Sleep via external crystal/clock.
Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler
and post scalar.
Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns.
Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns.
PWM max. resolution is 10-bit.
Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™ (Master mode) and
10bit PWM width within 8bit PWM period (frequency)
– Enhanced 16bit cores have better bit widths.
Can use PWM to do DAC.
Capture counts external pin changes.
Compare will interrupt on when the timer equals the value in a
compare register.
Timers
Available in all PICs.
14+bit cores may generate interrupts on timer overflow.
Some 8bits, some 16bits, some have prescalers.
Can use external pins as clock in/clock out.
Missionaries
Sleep Mode: PIC shuts down until external interrupt (or internal
timer) wakes it up.
Interrupt on pin change: Generate an interrupt when a digital input
pin changes state (for example, interrupt on key press).
Watchdog timer: Resets chip if not cleared before overflow
Brown out detect: Resets chip at a known voltage level
LCD drivers: Drives simple LCD displays
Future: CAN bus, 12bit ADC, better analog functions
VIRTUAL PERIPHERALS:
– Peripherals programmed in software. UARTS, timers, and
more can be done in software (but it takes most of the
resources of the machine)
3.9. INSTRUCTION SET SUMMARY
The PIC16 instruction set is highly orthogonal and is comprised of three
basic categories:
• Byte-oriented operations
• Bit-oriented operations
• Literal and control operations
Each PIC16 instruction is a 14-bit word divided into an opcode which specifies the instruction type and one or more operands which further specify the operation of the instruction. The format for each of the categories is presented in Figure 15-1, while the various opcode fields are summarized in Table 15-1. Table 15-2 lists the instructions recognized by the MPASM™ Assembler.
TABLE 3-2: OPCODE FIELD DESCRIPTIONS
For byte-oriented instructions, ‘f’ represents a file register
designator and‘d’ represents a destination designator. The file register
designator specifies which file register is to be used by the instruction.
The destination designator specifies where the result of the operation is
to be placed. If‘d’ is zero, the result is placed in the W register. If‘d’ is
one, the result is placed in the file register specified in the instruction.
FIGURE 3-4: GENERAL FORMAT FOR INSTRUCTIONS
For bit-oriented instructions, ‘b’ represents a bit field designator
which selects the bit affected by the operation, while ‘f’ represents the
address of the file in which the bit is located.
For literal and control operations, ‘k’ represents an eight or
eleven-bit constant or literal value.
One instruction cycle consists of four oscillator periods; for an
oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, this gives a normal instruction execution
time of 1 μs. All instructions are executed within a single instruction
cycle, unless a conditional test is true, or the program counter is changed
as a result of an instruction. When this occurs, the execution takes two
instruction cycles with the second cycle executed as a NOP.
All instruction examples use the format ‘0xhh’ to represent a
hexadecimal number, where ‘h’ signifies a hexadecimal digit.
TABLE 3-3: PIC16F877A INSTRUCTION SET
4 Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms
4.1 An overview of Maximum Power Point Tracking
A typical solar panel converts only 30 to 40 percent of the incident solar irradiation into electrical energy. Maximum power point tracking technique is used to improve the efficiency of the solar panel.According to Maximum Power Transfer theorem, the power output of a circuit is maximum when the Thevenin impedance of the circuit (source impedance) matches with the load impedance. Hence our problem of tracking the maximum power point reduces to an impedance matching problem. In the source side we are using a boost convertor connected to a solar panel in order to enhance the output voltage so that it can be used for different applications like motor load. By changing the duty cycle of the boost converter appropriately we can match the source impedance with that of the load impedance.
4.2 Different MPPT techniquesThere are different techniques used to track the maximum power
point. Few of the most populartechniques are:1) Perturb and Observe (hill climbing method)2) Incremental Conductance method3) Fractional short circuit current4) Fractional open circuit voltage5) Neural networks6) Fuzzy logic
The choice of the algorithm depends on the time complexity the algorithm takes to track theMPP, implementation cost and the ease of implementation.
4.2.1 Perturb & ObservePerturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use
only one sensor, that is the voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and hence easy to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on reaching very close to the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing on both the directions. When this happens the algorithm has reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm. However the method does not take account of the rapid change of irradiation level (due to which MPPT changes) and considers it as a change in MPP due to perturbation and ends up calculating the wrong MPP. To avoid this problem we can use incremental conductance method.
4.2.2 Incremental ConductanceIncremental conductance method uses two voltage and current
sensors to sense the output voltage and current of the PV array. At MPP the slope of the PV curve is 0.
The left hand side is the instantaneous conductance of the solar panel. When this instantaneous conductance equals the conductance of the solar then MPP is reached. Here we are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously. Hence the error due to change in irradiance is eliminated. However the complexity and the cost of implementation increases.As we go down the list of algorithms the complexity and the cost of implementation goes on increasing which may be suitable for a highly complicated system. This is the reason that Perturb and Observe and Incremental Conductance method are the most widely used algorithms.
Owing to its simplicity of implementation we have chosen the Perturb & Observe algorithm for our study among the two.
4.2.3 Fractional open circuit voltageThe near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV
array, under varying irradiance and temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional VOC method.VMPP = k1 Voc (4.4)where k1 is a constant of proportionality. Since k1 is dependent on the characteristics of the PV array being used, it usually has to be computed beforehand by empirically determining VMPP and VOC for the specific PV array at different irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1 has been reported to be between 0.71 and 0.78. Once k1 is known, VMPP can be computed with VOC measured periodically by momentarily shutting down the power converter. However, this incurssome disadvantages, including temporary loss of power.
4.2.4 Fractional short circuit currentFractional ISC results from the fact that, under varying tmospheric
conditions, IMPP is approximately linearly related to the ISC of the PV array.IMPP =k2 Isc (4.5)where k2 is a proportionality constant. Just like in the fractional VOC technique, k2 has to be determined according to the PV array in use. The constant k2 is generally found to be between 0.78 and 0.92. Measuring ISC during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually hasto be added to the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be measured using a current sensor.
4.2.5 Fuzzy Logic ControlMicrocontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for
MPPT over last decade. Fuzzy logic controllers have the advantages of working with imprecise inputs, not needing an accurate mathematical model, and handling nonlinearity.
4.2.6 Neural NetworkAnother technique of implementing MPPT which are also well
adapted for microcontrollers is neural networks. Neural networks commonly have three layers: input, hidden, and output layers. The number nodes in each layer vary and are user-dependent. The input variables can be PV array parameters like VOC and ISC, atmospheric data like irradiance and temperature, or any combination of these. The output is usually one or several reference signals like a duty cycle signal used to drive the power converter to operate at or close to the MPP.
MPPT technique
Convergencespeed
Implementationcomplexity
Periodictuning
Sensed parameters
Perturb & observe
Varies Low No Voltage
Incrementalconductance
Varies Medium No Voltage, current
Fractional Voc Medium Low Yes Voltage
Fractional Isc Medium Medium Yes current
Fuzzy logic control
Fast High Yes Varies
Neural network
Fast High Yes Varies
4.3 Perturb & Observe AlgorithmThe Perturb & Observe algorithm states that when the operating voltage of the PV panel isperturbed by a small increment, if the resulting change in power _P is positive, then we are
going in the direction of MPP and we keep on perturbing in the same direction. If _P is negative,we are going away from the direction of MPP and the sign of perturbation supplied has to bechanged.
Figure 4.1 : Solar panel characteristics showing MPP and operating points A and B [16]Figure 4.1 shows the plot of module output power versus module voltage for a solar panel at a given irradiation. The point marked as MPP is the Maximum Power Point, the theoretical maximum output obtainable from the PV panel. Consider A and B as two operating points. As 31 shown in the figure above, the point A is on the left hand side of the MPP. Therefore, we can move towards the MPP by providing a positive perturbation to the voltage. On the other hand, point B is on the right hand side of the MPP. When we give a positive perturbation, the value of _P becomes negative, thus it is imperative to change the direction of perturbation to achieve MPP. The flowchart for the P&O algorithm is shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 : Flowchart of Perturb & Observe algorithm
Flow chart of the proposed method
4.4 Limitations of Perturb & Observe algorithm
Figure 4.3 : Curve showing wrong tracking of MPP by P&O algorithm under rapidly varying irradiance
In a situation where the irradiance changes rapidly, the MPP also moves on the right hand side of the curve. The algorithm takes it as a change due to perturbation and in the next iteration it changes the direction of perturbation and hence goes away from the MPP as shown in the figure. However, in this algorithm we use only one sensor, that is the voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and hence easy to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on reaching very close to the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing in both the directions. When this happens the algorithm has reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm.
4.5 Implementation of MPPT using a boost converterThe system uses a boost converter to obtain more practical uses out of the solar panel. The initially low voltage output is stepped up to a higher level using the boost converter, though the use of the converter does tend to
introduce switching losses. The block diagram shown in Figure 4.4 gives an overview of the required implementation.
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