Motivation underlies all behavior. It is a driving force that makes the prediction of behavior very difficult. Social scientists see motivation as the.

SCPY 661 Techniques in

School Psychology

Dr. Gerald D. Nunn, Ph.D., NCSP

Gerald D. Nunn, Ph.D., NCSP: SCPY 661 Techniques...Fall 2009

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Chapter 1: Understanding Motivation of Adult Learners

• Motivation underlies all behavior.

• It is a driving force that makes the prediction of behavior very difficult.

• Social scientists see motivation as the “why” people behave as they do.

• This doesn’t make it any easier to describe, control, or predict.

• Ways of conceptualizing “motivation” of learners:– Biological/physical

conditions, states, processes.

– Beliefs and systems of thought or philosophy about life or events

– One’s cultural and/or familial background and associated values

– Controlled and mediated by S-R, S-O-R, or R-S+


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Context of Motivation for Adults

• Facilitative• DebilitativeAdult Learner

Motives

• A Lot• Some• None

Skills, Knowledge,Dispositions

Acquired

• Performance• Engagement• Attitudes

How Learners are Affected in Classrooms?

Context of Motivation by Adults and their Effects

• Facilitative• DebilitativeAdult Learner

Motives

• A Lot• Some• None

Skills, Knowledge,Dispositions

Acquired

• Performance• Engagement• Attitudes

How Learners are Affected in Classrooms?

4Gerald D. Nunn, Ph.D., NCSP: SCPY 661 Techniques...Fall 2009


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Why is Motivation Important?• Motivational influences both on the

part of the Adult (teacher) and the Student are correlated with measures of achievement and performance

• High motivation means more effort and persistence with learning.

• An adult educator trained with someone who encourages motivation will profit more from the training and be more effective applying what has been learned in schools.


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Neuroscientific Correlates of Motivation

• We can argue that “motivation” as a driving force for acquistion of skills, knowledge, and dispositions on the part of adults, for the most part, an outcome of a complex neuroscientific scenario which explains why we do and why we don’t learn.


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Big Idea about Neurocognitive Influences on Learning Applied to Staff Development and Systems Change

(Wlodkowski, 2008)

• When adults learn, they build on or modify (neural) networksthat have been created through previous learning and experience.

• The networks represent the adult learners’ prior knowledge.

• An instructor cannot remove the neuronal networks that exist in an adult learner’s brain.

• They are a physical entity.

• That is why we simply cannot explain something away, especially if it is a deeply held attitude or belief.


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Example of RBM, RTI, Problem-Solving Approach

• Profound and Systemic change for schools operation in working with struggling students

• 180 degree shift• Experience of over 30 years• Comfortable with old ways• Perceive little for the

teacher to gain (cost/benefit)

• Plate is already full with other things

• With this scenario, it makes us pause as to what it will take to make substantive and real change in how services, interventions, roles, can change!


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Learning & Brain Function

• The brain is organized as an organ for “learning”.

• In its broadest sense, the brain is learning all the time, awake or asleep, continuously, unconsciously, simultaneously performing ongoing parallel functions.

• Simple structures such as neurons orchestrate remarkable feats of intelligence and performance.

• Lets examine a few of the ideas about the brain and learning which are most relevant to motivation and learning of the adult.


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Neurons communicatethrough structurescalled axons and dendrites releasingneurotransmitters tosend messages betweenthem.


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The “neurotransmittersystem” both inhibitsand facilitates neuraltransmission. Thesechemicals contain“instructions” which are ultimately transformedinto what we call behavior,mood, thinking, sensations,emotion, etc..

12Gerald D. Nunn, Ph.D., NCSP:

SCPY 661 Techniques...Fall 2009

Neurotransmitters• Neurotransmitters mediate neuronal

“messages” across synapses (space between cell endings.

• Acetylcholine involved in muscle action, learning and memory

• Dopamine plays a major role in the regulation of movement & emotions

• Norephinephrine assists in mood regulation, arosal, activation and fight/flight behavior

• Serotonin regulates body temperature, pain perception, onset of sleep


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A Problem Solving Task


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Learning a New Language Task


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Reading a Book


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• Our brains have evolved over millions of years, from “bottom up”.

• Higher cortical areas evolved after more ancient parts.

• These more ancient parts, e.g. limbic system/brain stem, were essential in determining response to threat, emotions, survival in early humans

• Modern day humans still use this system, with the same responses, but to different stressors and environments.

• The “neocortex” has added all that is distinctly human (e.g. to be conscious of itself), and works to make us more planful and reflective vs. impulsive and aggressive


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The Triune Brain• Brain Stem (Reptillian Brain) is

primarily concerned with life support--control of breathing and heart rate.

• The Limbic System (Mammalian Brain) is the principal regulator of emotions, preservation of the species (procreation and socialization), the “flight or fight” response to stress. It also plays a critical role in the storage of information in long-term memory.

• The Cerebral Cortex (Neomamalian Brain) is the seat of consciousness, regulates abstract thought, hindsight, insight, and forethought.


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Neurocognitive Concepts Influencing Learning


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Neural Plasticity�What we pay attention to has a direct effect

upon both the structure and function of our brains.

�The actual shaping or molding of neural connections is called “neural plasticity”

�Areas that are used generate more interconnections with neurons, areas not used “prune” away these connections.

�This process tells us that what we attend to has important impact upon the actual growth of neural structures, e.g. learning


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Implications of Neuroplasticity�Environment physically changes the brain

�Enriched environments increase cell weight and increased branching of dendrites

�Impoverished environments decrease the size, number, and interconnections of neurons

�Neuroplasticity has important implications for parents, teachers, and anyone interested in facilitating optimal human learning and adjustment


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Downshifting and the Brain

• Under threat/stress, we experience what Leslie Hart calls “downshifting”, or reverting to more primitive behaviors--our responses become more automatic, rigid, and limited with less capacity for rational and creative thought.

• Downshifting results in emotional centers of the brain (limbic system) to take over control resulting in deficits in rational thought and poor adjustment when we are stressed or overwhelmed by emotional stimuli...


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Comparison of the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories on emotions. According to the James-Lange theory (red arrows), the man perceives the frightening animal and reacts with physical (neurovegetative) manifestations. As a consequence of such unpleasant physical reaction, he develops fear. In the Cannon-Bard theory (blue arrows), the frightening stimulus leads, first, to the feeling of fear which, then, brings about the physical response.

James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories on emotions


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Emotion drives behavior,cannot separate “thinking”from “emotional” states….

Antonio DaMasioDescartes Error


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Brain, Emotion, & Attention

• Brains scan internal and external environment determining what is important, unimportant, dangerous, harmless, etc.

• This quick assessment draws on our powerful needs for safety and survival.

• The brain both reacts and directs neural mechansims so that we are focused most efficiently & safely in our environment.


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Fight or flight response: 1. Heart rate and blood pressure increase. 2. Large muscles prepare for quick action. 3. A visual signal first goes from the retina to the thalamus, where it

is translated into the language of the brain. 4. Most of the message then goes to the visual cortex, where it is

analyzed and assessed for meaning and appropriate response; 5. If that response is emotional, a signal goes to the amygdala to

activate the emotional centers….

VisualCortex

Amydala

Thalamus


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Hallmarks of the “Emotional Brain (Limbic Brain Structures)

A quick, but sloppy response….

First feelings, second thoughts….

A symbolic, childlike reality….

The past imposed on the present….

State specific reality….


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Brain and Stress

• Our “stress system” kicks in through defenses tuned to a physical danger (although none may really exist). This “stress system” is basically the one inherited from our ancestors.

• The more stress we experience the more “sensitized” we become as “thresholds” for stress responses decrease.

• The brain and related systems can be permanently altered by excessive stress, “Stress is like an allergy; once we’re sensitized, just a touch triggers a blitz from within” (Psychology Today, Feb, 1996)


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Physical Effects of Chronic Negative Stress Response

• Releases clotting elements into the blood• Elevates cholesterol levels (fats)• Depresses the immune system• Tenses large muscles• Increases blood pressure• Taxes the digestive system


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• Releases endorphins (endogenous morphines)

• Elevated endorphin levels make us feel good about ourselves and our environment

• Chronic “happiness” raises stress thresholds.

• The same can be said about learning, in that positive emotional states create an internal chemical response mediated by brain/body systems improving memory, motivation, problem solving capacities of learners.

Benefits of Positive Emotional States


32Level of Arousal or Anxiety

Effec

tiven

ess

of P

erfo

rman

ce

Sleep Panic

Low

High

Optimal Arousal States and Brain Function1. Optimal Level of arousal for different tasks.2. We behave to maintain optimal arousal that is most appropriate for tasks.3. Too much & too little results in decrements in competence, skills


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Relaxed Alertness

According to Caine and Caine, an “optimal” stateOf learning is that of “relaxed alertness”

Relaxed alertness consists of a : •Relaxed central nervous system

•Optimal motivation for the task•Optimal interest, relevancy for the task

Relaxed alertness frees the brain to actively seekMeaning using all of its neocortical and limbicResources in an orchestrated way.


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Making Connections: Teaching and the Human BrainCaine & Caine

Challenges traditional ways of teaching.

Incorporates neurocognitive research to make recommendations about the nature of instruction/learning.

Believes that until neurocognitive research on “how the brain learns” is incorporated into the classroom, innovations will generally fail.


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Brain-Based/Compatible Learning and Instruction

Whose Brain is Working???


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12 Principles of Brain-Based Learning (Caine & Caine, 1994)

© Brain is a parallel processor.© Learning engages the entire physiology.© The search for meaning is innate© The search for meaning occurs through patterning© Emotions are critical to patterning© Brain processes parts and wholes simultaneoulsly© Learing involves both focused attention and peripheral

perception..© Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.© We have at least two different types of memory: A spatial memory

system and a set of systems for rote learning© We understand and remember best when facts and skills are

embedded in natural, spatial memory© Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibitied by threat.© Each brain is unique


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1. The brain is a “parallel” processor...

• The human brain is always doing many things at one time.

• Thoughts, emotions, imagination, and predispositions operate simultaneously and interact with with our social and cultural knowledge.

• Good teaching orchestrates the learner’s experience, recognizing that no one technique or strategy works all the time or fits with the learner’s frame of reference.


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2. Learning engages the entire physiology.

• The interaction of different parts of the triune brain outline the importance of a person’s entire physiology relative to brain functioning.

• Neuronal growth, nourishment, interacts are relative to an integrated physiological response of the learner.

• Teachers should recognize that everything that affects our physiological functioning affects our capacity to learn (brain)


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3. The search for meaning is innate...

• The search for meaning (making sense of our experiences) an the consequential need to act on our environment are automatic.

• Search for meaning is survival oriented and relative to the natural memories/perceptions of the learner.

• Good teaching provides state patterns, routines, and expectations. The goal of instruction should be to make concepts “meaningful” given the learners natural context.


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4. The search for meaning comes through “patterning”...

• The brain is designed to to perceive and generate patterns, and it resists having meaningless patterns imposed on it.

• Meaningless patterns are isolated pieces of information unrelated to what makes sense to a student.

• Implications for teachers are that learners are forming patterns in one way or another. If they don’t make sense, they will make them so. Teachers can assist by helping students involve themselves in critical thinking and problem solving as well as reflection.


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5. Emotions are critical to patterning

• We simply do not learn things, what we learn is influenced by emotions and mind sets based on expectancy, personal biases and prejudices, degree of self-esteem, and need for social interaction.

• Emotion and cognition cannot be separated, they cannot simply be shut off, they facilitate memory.

• Good teaching involves the use of strong emotional hooks and situations, which allow the brain to use natural memories, contexts, that are meaningful to them.


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6. Brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously

• In the healthy person, the two hemispheres are inextricably interactive, whether a person is dealing with words, mathematics, music, or art.

• People have enormous difficulty learning when either parts or whole are overlooked.


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7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception..

• The brain absorbs information of which it is directly aware and to which is is paying attention, as well as stimuli that lie beyond the field of attention.

• All of this, however affects us and provides a context for meaning in the classroom.

• Peripheral information can therefore be purposely organized to facilitate learning.


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8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.

• We learn much more than we ever consciously understand.

• Most of what we have learned never reaches consciousness.

• We must use active review and processing to bring into consciousness our perceptions and learnings.

• “Reflection” is one aspect of this process.


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9. We have at least two different types of memory: A spatial memory system and a set of systems for rote learning

• We have a natural, spatial memory system that does not need rehearsal and allows for instant memory of experiences.

• Facts and skills that are dealt with in isolation are organized differently by the brain and need much more practice and rehearsal.

• BB learning ties together these natural and rote systems.


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10. We understand and remember best when facts and skills are embedded in natural, spatial memory

• Our native language, for example is learned through multiple interactive experiences involving vocabulary/grammar as well as by internal and social interactions.

• Methods such as experiential learning are helpful in typing together natural/spatial memory with learning tasks.


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11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat

• The brain downshifts under perceived threat and learns optimally when appropriately challenged.

• The central feature of “downshifting” is helplessness.

• A relaxed, but alert psychological and physiological system reducing threat in a challenging learning environment is optimal.


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12. Each brain is unique

• Although brain functions and structures are similar, experiences which shape the neural makeup and interactions within the brain bring about individual “unique” qualities reflected in our predispositions, personality, perceptions, etc.

• Each brain is different, and processes content of learning differently.


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15 Indicators of BB Learning-Caine & Caine (1994)

• Involvement/challenge?• Creativity/enjoyment?• Link content to life?• Life themes & metaphors

challenged?• Hooks & big picture?• Continuity over time with

“themes”• Interest to subject beyond

classroom?• Use of physical space?

• Richness of the learning environment?

• Use of physical setting?• Group atmosphere?• Positive collaboration?• Opportunities to reorganize

& integrate in personaly meaningful ways?

• Time for “reflection”.• Students have time to apply?• Do students apply to their

own strengths & weaknesses?


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Constructivisim and Learning• Many of concepts of cognititive neuroscience,

brain-compatible learning closely resemble those of “constructivist” principles.

• Constructivism from a brain-compatible perspective considers the role of “meaningfulness”, “self-generation”; “active integration”--all concepts which imply the optimal engagement of brain processes...


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Metaphors and Concepts of How Our Brains Learn


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Ecologically Oriented Learning

and the Brain(Commoner, 1974)

Everything is connected to everything else.

Everything must go somewhere.Nature knows best.There is no free lunch


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1. Everything is Connected to everything else...

• Brain is a dense web of interconnected neurons.

• Each neuron is only a few neurons away to other neurons.

• Engaging the brain involves engaging many related areas that give meaning/interpretation.

• Thematic approaches for example capture this interconnectedness of brain functioning


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2. Everything must go somewhere.

• Everything we do in an environment leaves a trace…

• Even though we aren’t aware of it at the time, brain activity leaves a trace, memory, interconnections.

• The brain is a dynamic organ that responds to these traces, altering in subtle ways.


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3. Nature knows best.

• Our brains have evolved over millions of years and function in natural ways to preserve, understand, and effectively interact with our environments.

• Ignoring the brains way of functioning is to risk losing the potentials that students possess (see Caine & Caine)


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4. There’s no such thing as a free lunch.

• Educational policies & practices should work to capitalize upon the brain’s strengths

• Educators that seek to understand the new cognitive neuroscience and experiment with it’s applications in the classroom will be innovators, or we will remain essentially the same.


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References1 Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain by Caine &

Caine2 A Celebration of Neurons: An Educators’s Guide to the Human

Brain by Robert Sylwester3 Mind Matters: How Mind and Brain Interact to Create our

Conscious Lives by Michael S. Gazzaniga4 The Human Brain: A Guided Tour by Susan A. Greenfield5 Endangered Minds: Why Children Don’t Think and What We

Can Do About It by Jane M. Healy.6 Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain by

Antonio R. Damasio7 Human Brain and Human Learning by Leslie A. Hart8 The Growth of the Mind: An the Endangered Origins of

Intelligence by Stanley I. Greenspan In Search of Understanding: The Case for constructivist

Classrooms by Jacqueline Brrooks and martin Brooks.

Motivation underlies all behavior. It is a driving force that makes the prediction of behavior very difficult. Social scientists see motivation as the.

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