Motivation - Purduekip/120/LectureMotivationSpr09.pdf · Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. ... •Humanistic (Maslow, Rogers) –Self-actualization

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Motivation

Chapter 12Psy12000.003Spring, 2009

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What Motivates You To Get UpTo Come To Class?

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Announcement

• Next study session will be on next Tuesdayevening (not Wednesday). Time and placewill be announced at Tuesday’s lecture, oron my website if we know sooner.

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MotivationMotivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior

and directs it towards a goal.

What’s the difference between a need and a desire?

Extrinsic motivation is something outside the personthat energizes behavior.

Money, fame, powerIntrinsic motivation is something within the person that

energizes behavior.Interest, curiosity, personal challenge and

improvement

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Case Study:Do Rats Have a Protestant Work

Ethic?

• The earned vs.free foodphenomenon

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Perspectives on MotivationPerspectives to explain motivation include the

following:

Instinct Theory Drive-Reduction Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives Cognitive based theory:

Self-efficacy

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Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology

Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixedpatterns throughout different species and are not

learned (Tinbergen, 1951).

Where the woman builds different kinds of housesthe bird builds only one kind of nest.

© A

riel Skelley/ Masterfile

Tony Brandenburg/ B

ruce Colem

an, Inc.

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Drive-Reduction Theory

When the instinct theory of motivation failed toexplain most human motivation, it was replacedby the drive-reduction theory. A physiologicalneed creates an aroused tension state (a drive)that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

(Hull, 1951).

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Question• What need would

explain why we seekthrills, excitement?

• Why do we like scarymovies?

• What drives are beingreduced by going on aroller coaster orparachuting?

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Drive Reduction

Food DriveReduction

Organism

The physiological aim of drive reduction ishomeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal

state (e.g., maintenance of steady bodytemperature).

Stomach FullEmpty Stomach(Food Deprived)

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Incentive

Where our needs push, incentives (positive ornegative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.

Henry Murray called these needs and presses.

A food-deprived person (n Hunger) who smells baking bread(incentive) (p Food) feels a strong hunger drive.

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Optimum ArousalHuman motivation aims to seek optimum levelsof arousal, not to eliminate it. Young monkeys

and children are known to explore theenvironment in the absence of a need-based

drive.

Harlow

Primate Laboratory, U

niversity of Wisconsin

Randy Faris/ Corbis

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Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1970)suggested that certain

needs have priority overothers. Physiologicalneeds like breathing,

thirst, and hunger comebefore psychological

needs such asachievement, self-

esteem, and the need forrecognition.

(1908-1970)14

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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David P

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ages for SternJoe Skipper/ R

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Self-Efficacy

• A belief (cognitive component of theory) inone’s abilities to succeed

• A sense of control over one’s environment(social, work, etc.)

• Video (Bandura on efficacy)

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Classic Positions on Motivation

• Freud– Id– Ego– Superego

• Skinner– Reinforcement

• Humanistic (Maslow, Rogers)– Self-actualization

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Social Motivation• Others’ opinions and evaluations

of self is a strong motivatingsystem

• Self-monitoring• Fame

– Being known, recognized maysupercede being liked

• Jerry Springer?

• Conformity– Fitting in = Being liked– Avoiding rejection/exclusion

• Social motivation to eat, tosmoke, to take drugs, to have sex

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Control Motivation• Reactance

– When you feel that your freedom is being restricted, youwill act in such a way to regain that freedom

• Learned Helplessness– Upon repeated noncontingencies between one’s behaviors

and one’s outcomes (and after initial reactance), learnedhelplessness occurs

• Uncontrolled negative outcomes more likely to cause LH thanuncontrolled positive outcomes

– But see Self-handicapping• Giving up• Pessimism• Depression• Learned Helplessness Tutorial

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Hunger

When are we hungry?

When do we eat?

When there is no food in our stomach.

When we are hungry.

How do we know when our stomach is empty?Our stomach growls. These are also called

hunger pangs.20

The Physiology of Hunger

Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals tothe brain making us aware of our hunger.

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Stomachs Removed

Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected theesophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still

felt hungry (and ate food).

In other words, nohunger pangs werepossible… 22

Glucose: C6H12O6

Insulin decreases glucose in the blood, makingus feel hungry.

Glucose Molecule

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Glucose & the Brain

Levels of glucose inthe blood aremonitored by

receptors (neurons) inthe stomach, liver, andintestines. They send

signals to thehypothalamus in the

brain. Rat Hypothalamus

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Hypothalamic Centers

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger(stimulation).

Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest ineating.

The reduction of blood glucose leads rats to eatravenously.

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Hypothalamic Centers

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH,

and the animal eats excessively.

Richard H

oward

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Hypothalamus & Hormones

The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.

ResponseTissueHormone

Digestive tract

Fat cells

Pancreas

Stomach

Hypothalamus

IncreaseshungerInsulin increase

DecreaseshungerPPY increase

DecreaseshungerLeptin increase

Increaseshunger

Ghrelinincrease

IncreaseshungerOrexin increase

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Set-Point Theory

Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedialhypothalamus alters the body’s “weight

thermostat.”

If weight is lost, food intake increases and energyexpenditure decreases. If weight is gained, the opposite

takes place.

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Video

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The Psychology of Hunger

Memory plays an important role in hunger.

When did I eat last?

Due to difficulties with retention, amnesiapatients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et

al., 1998).

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Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?

Body chemistry and environmental factorsinfluence not only when we feel hunger but what

we feel hungry for!

Richard O

lsenius/ Black Star

Victor E

nglebert

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Hot Cultures like Hot Spices

Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.

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Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which anormal-weight person (usually an adolescent

woman) continuously loses weight but still feelsoverweight.

Reprinted by perm

ission of The New

England Journal of M

edicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617.

Lisa O’C

onnor/ Zuma/ C

orbis

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Eating Disorders

Bulimia Nervosa: Adisorder

characterized byepisodes of

overeating, usuallyhigh-calorie foods,

followed byvomiting, using

laxatives, fasting, orexcessive exercise.

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Obesity

http://ww

w.cyberdiet.com

A disorder characterized by being excessivelyoverweight. Obesity increases the risk for health

issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes,hypertension, arthritis, and back problems.

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Reasons for Eating Disorders

Sexual Abuse Myth: Childhood sexual abusedoes not cause eating disorders.

Family: Younger generations develop eatingdisorders when raised in families in whichweight is an excessive concern.

Genetics: Twin studies show that eatingdisorders are more likely to occur inidentical twins rather than fraternal twins.

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Body Image (Women)Western culture tends to place more emphasison a thin body image in comparison to other

cultures.

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Summary

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Sexual Motivation

Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way ofmaking people procreate, enabling our species

to survive.

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The Physiology of Sex

Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the humansexual response to consist of four phases:

Physiological ResponsePhase

Engorged genital release blood. Male goesthrough refractory phase. Women resolve slower.Resolution

Contractions all over the body. Increase inbreathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release.Orgasm

Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse andblood pressure.Plateau

Genitals become engorged with blood. Vaginaexpands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.Excitement

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Sexual Problems

Men generally suffer from two kinds of sexualproblems: premature ejaculation and erectiledisorder. Women may suffer from orgasmic

disorders.

These problems are not due to personality disordersand can be treated through behavior therapy and drugs

such as Viagra.

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Hormones and Sexual Behavior

Sex hormones effect the development of sexualcharacteristics and (especially in animals)

activate sexual behavior.

OvariesAdrenals

Testes

Estrogen(Small amounts oftestosterone)Female

Testosterone(Small amounts ofestrogen)Male

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Testosterone

Levels of testosterone remain constant in males,so it is difficult to manipulate and activatesexual behavior. Castration, which reducestestosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.

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Estrogen

Female animals “in heat” express peak levels ofestrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened

with estrogen injections.

Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans thanon animals. Women are more likely to have sex whenclose to ovulation (increased testosterone), and menshow increased testosterone levels when socializing

with women.

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The Psychology of Sex

Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, wedie. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we

do not have sex, we do not die.

A need for aspecies?

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What is motivating about sex?

• The physiological pleasure derivedfrom orgasm?– If that’s it, why not be satisfied with

masturbation?

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External Stimuli

It is common knowledge that men becomesexually aroused when browsing through eroticmaterial. However, women experience similar

heightened arousal under controlled conditions.

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Imagined Stimuli

Our imagination in our brain can influencesexual arousal and desire. People with spinalcord injuries and no genital sensation can still

feel sexual desire.

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Dreams

Dreams, another form of imagination, are alsoassociated with sexual arousal. Genital arousal is

associated with all kinds of dreams. Nearly allmen and 40% of women who dream of sexualimagery end up with an orgasm (Wells, 1986).

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Adolescent Sexuality

When individuals reach adolescence, theirsexual behavior develops. However, there are

cultural differences.

Sexual promiscuity in modern Western culture is muchgreater than in Arab countries and other Asian

countries.

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Contraception

Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have theright ideas about birth control methods.

Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reducessexual activity, but it also reduces the use ofcontraceptives.

Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feeluncomfortable about discussing contraceptives.

Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex areless likely to use contraceptives.

Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafeextramarital sex decreases the use ofcontraceptives.

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Sexually Transmitted Infections

High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligenceare likely to delay sex.

Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reservesex for a marital commitment.

Father Presence: A father’s absence from home cancontribute to higher teen sexual activity.

Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutorin programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancyare less likely to engage in unsafe sex.

Correlational studies reveal factors thatreduce sexual activity in teens.

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Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preferencefor emotional and sexual relationships withindividuals of the same sex, the other sex,

and/or either sex.

Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual

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Sexual Orientation Statistics

In Europe and America, based on many nationalsurveys, homosexuality in men is 3-4% and in

women is 1-2%.

As members of a minority, homosexuals often strugglewith their sexual orientation.

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Origins of Sexual Orientation

Homosexuality is more likely based onbiological factors like differing brain centers,

genetics, and parental hormone exposure ratherthan environmental factors.

Homosexual parents

Cynthia Johnson/ Tim

e magazine

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Animal Homosexuality

A number of animalspecies are devoted to

same-sex partners,suggesting that

homosexuality existsin the animal world.

Wendell and Cass

David H

ecker/ AFP/ G

etty Images

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The Brain

In homosexual men, the size of the anteriorhypothalamus is smaller (LeVay, 1991) and theanterior commissure is larger (Allen & Gorski,

1992). Again, this is correlational.

AnteriorHypothalamus

AnteriorCommissure

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Genes & Sexual Orientation

A number of reasons suggest thathomosexuality may be due to genetic factors.

Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families. Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in

identical twins than fraternal twins. However,there are mixed results.

Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can geneticallymanipulate females to act like males duringcourtship and males to act like females.

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Hormones & Sexual Orientation

Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientationduring critical periods of fetal development.

Animals: Exposure of a fetus to testosterone resultsin females (sheep) exhibiting homosexual behavior.

Humans: Exposure of a male or female fetus tofemale hormones results in an attraction to males.

Heterosexualmale

Homosexual Heterosexualfemale

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Sexual Orientation: Biology

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Changing Attitudes

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Sex and Human Values

“Promiscuous recreational sex poses certainpsychological, social, health, and moral

problems that must be faced realistically”(Baumrind, 1982).

Andreanna Seym

ore/ Getty Im

ages

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The Need to Belong

“[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle).Separation from others increases our need to

belong.

“Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffersfrom social starvation.

20th C

entury Fox/ Dream

works/ The K

obal Collection

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Aiding Survival

Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survivalrates. These bonds led to the following:

Protecting against predators, especially for the young. Procuring food. Reproducing the next offspring.

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Belongingness

Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors ourthinking and emotions.

Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging withothers increases our self-esteem. Social segregationdecreases it.

Maintaining Relationships: We resist breakingsocial bonds, even bad ones.

Ostracism: Social exclusion leads todemoralization, depression, and at times nastybehavior.

Fortifying Health: People who tend to have closefriends are happier and healthier.

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Motivation at Work

The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filledby love and work.

Culver Pictures

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Attitudes Towards Work

Job: Necessary way to make money. Career: Opportunity to advance from one position

to another. Calling: Fulfilling a socially useful activity.

People have different attitudes toward work.Some take it as a:

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Flow & Rewards

Flow is the experience between no work and alot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s

work.

People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers,composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards(money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic

rewards.

(Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)

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Work and Satisfaction

In industrialized countries work and satisfactiongo hand-in-hand.

What are some otherreasons for thissupposed causalrelationship?

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Industrial-Organizational (I/O)Psychology

Applies psychological principles to the workplace.

Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles ofselecting and evaluating workers.

Organizational Psychology: Studies how workenvironments and management styles influenceworker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

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Personnel Psychology

Personnel psychologists assist organizations atvarious stages of selecting and assessing

employees.

Henri Matisse

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Harnessing Strengths

Identifying people’s strengths (analytical,disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching

them to a particular area of work is the first steptoward workplace effectiveness.

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Interviews & Performance

Interviewers are confident in their ability topredict long-term job performance. However,informal interviews are less informative than

standardized tests.

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The Interviewer Illusion

Interviewers often overrate their discernment.

Intention vs. Habits: Intensions matter, but long-lasting habits matter even more.

Successful Employees: Interviewers are more likelyto talk about those employees that turned outsuccessful.

Presumptions about Candidates: Interviewerspresume (wrongly) that what we see (candidate) iswhat we get.

Preconceptions: An interviewer’s prior knowledgeabout the candidate may affect her judgment.

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Structured Interview

A formal and disciplined way of gatheringinformation from the interviewee. Structured

interviews pinpoint strengths (attitudes,behaviors, knowledge, and skills). The

personnel psychologist may do the following:

Analyze the job. Script questions. Train the interviewer.

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Personnel Psychologist’s Tasks

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Appraising Performance

Appraising performance results in two things:1) employee retention, and 2) the

encouragement of better performance.

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Organizational Psychology:Motivating Achievement

Achievement motivation is defined as a desire forsignificant accomplishment.

Skinner devised a daily discipline schedulethat led him to become the 20th century’s most

influential psychologist.

Ken H

eyman/ W

oodfin Cam

p & A

ssociates

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Satisfaction & EngagementHarter et al., (2002) observed that employee

engagement means that the worker:1. Knows what is expected

of him.2. Feels the need to work.3. Feels fulfilled at work.4. Has opportunities to do

his best.5. Thinks himself to be a

part of somethingsignificant.

6. Has opportunities tolearn and develop.

Engaged workers are more productivethan non-engaged workers at different stores

of the same chain.

Capital-Journal/ D

avid Eulitt/ A

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orld Photos

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Managing Well

Every leader dreams of managing in ways thatenhance people’s satisfaction, engagement, and

productivity in his or her organization.

Larry Brown offers 4-5 positive comments for every negativecomment.

Ezra Shaw/ G

etty Images

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Job-Relevant StrengthsEffective leaders need to select the right people,determine their employees’ talents, adjust their

work roles to their talents, and develop theirtalents and strengths.

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Challenging Goals

Specific challenging goals motivate people toreach higher achievement levels, especially if

there is feedback such as progress reports.

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Leadership Style

Different organizational demands need differentkinds of leaders. Leadership varies from a boss-

focused style to a democratic style.

Task Leadership: Involves setting standards,organizing work, and focusing on goals.

Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts andbuilding high achieving teams.