Motivation

Motivation

Outline

Theories

MotivationJob

Analysis

Motivation- Definition- Theories of people about Motivation- Motivational Process

Theories- Maslow’s Need Hierarchy- Theory X and Theory Y- McClellan’s need theory- ERG Theory- Herzberg’s 2-factor theory- Adam’s Theory of Inequity- Vrooms expectancy theory- Locke’s goal setting theory

Job Analysis-Job Satisfaction-Performance Appraisal System-Reward System

Maslow

McGregor

Aldelfer

McClelland

Higher order needs

Self-actualization

Esteem

Self interpersonal

Belongingness(social and love)

Theory Y Growth

Relatedness

Need for achievement

Need for power

Need for affiliation

Lower order needs

Safety and Security

Interpersonal physical

Physiological

Theory X existence

Motivation is a process of arousing and

sustaining goal-directed behavior.

It is one of the more complex topics in organization behavior.

Motivation comes from the Latin root word movere, which

means “to move.”

Internal theory – gives primary consideration within the individual that give rise to motivation and behavior.

Process theory – emphasize the nature of interaction between the individual and the environment.

External theory

Motivation theories

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs It assumes that individuals should satisfy first

the physiological needs, which is at the bottom of the hierarchy before proceeding to the next level.

Alderfer’s ERG theories Refer to Existence, Relatedness, and Growth to

explain the levels of needs.

Theories of people about motivation

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theories Implies that organization should create interesting jobs in

order to motivate people. An application of Herzberg’s Theories is job enrichment. There is several method of job enrichment.

Job enrichment- is an attempt to motivate employees by giving them the opportunity to use the range of their abilities.

McClelland’s learned Needs Theory Emphasize the primary learned needs: need for achievement,

need for affiliation, and need for power.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative

forms of voluntary activity.

Adam’s Equity Theory Asserts that people compare the rewards they get against co-workers

in similar work situation.

Edwin Locke Believe that the primary determinations of behavior are the

individual’s goals and objective. People engage in give and take relationship. This further explains in the exchange theory.

Douglas McGregor’s theory X and Y employ the authoritarian and participative management

styles as motivational techniques for people at work.

Motivation Process

Psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed a theory of motivation emphasizing

psychological and interpersonal needs in addition to physical needs and economic

necessity, was based on a need hierarchy later applied through theory X and theory Y two assumptions about people at work. His need hierarchy was reformulated in an ERG theory of motivation using a revised

classification scheme for basic human needs.

Maslow’s need Hierarchy

The theory that behaviour is determined by a progression of

physical, social and psychological needs, include lower-order and higher order

needs.

Need Hierarchy

Human Needs, Theory X & Theory YS

elf actualization needs

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety and Security needs

Psycological needs

YX

Theory X is a set of assumptions of how to manage individual who are motivated by lower-order needs.

Theory Y is a set of assumption of how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher-order needs.

Max weber-an early German organizational scholar, argued that the

meaning of work lay not in the work itself but it is deeper potential for contributing to a person’s ultimate salvation.

-the protestant ethic was the fuel for human industriousness. The protestant ethic said “People should work hard because those who prospered at work were more likely to find a place in heaven.”

Sigmund Freud-a person’s organizational life was founded on the compulsion

to work and the power of love. He saw much of human motivation as unconscious by nature.

-Psychoanalysis was Freuds’ method for delving into the unconscious mind to better understands a person’s motives and needs.

-his psychodynamic theory offers explanations for irrational and self-destructive behaviour such as suicide or workplace violence.

Internal needs

Hawthorne studies confirmed the positive effects as pay incentives on productivity and also found that social and interpersonal motives were important.

Adam Smith argued that a person’s self-interest was God’s providence, not the governments. Executives have focused on “enlightened” self-interest.

Self-interest is what is in the best interest and benefit to the individual; enlightened self-interest additionally recognizes the self-interest of the other people.

The “invisible hand” refers to the unseen forces of a free market system that shape the most efficient use of people, money and resources for productive end.

Smith’s basic assumption was that people are motivated by self-interest for economic gain to provide the necessities and convenience of life.

Technology is an important concept because he believed that a nation’s wealth is determined primarily by the productivity of its labour force.

Frederick Taylor – was concerned with labour efficiency and effectiveness. His central concern was to change the relationship between management and labour from one of conflict and one of cooperation. He believed that the basis of their conflict was division of the profits. It is the lowest level of ungratified needs in the hierarchy that motivates behaviour.

External incentives

McGregor’s Assumptions about People

Theory X- People are by nature

indolent. That is, they work as little as possible.

- People are lack of ambition, dislike responsibility and prefer to be led

- People are inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs.

- People are by nature resistant to change

- People are gullible and not very bright, the ready dupes of the charlatan and the demagogue.

Theory Y- People are not by nature

passive on resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.

- The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility and the readiness to direct behaviour towards organizational goal are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility for management to take it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.

- The essential task of management is to arrange conditions and method of operation so that people can achieve their own goal best by directing their own efforts towards organizational objective.

McClelland suggested that a strong affiliation motivation somewhat destroys a managers objectivity, because of their need to be liked.

McClelland identified 3 learned or acquired needs, called manifest needs. These were the needs for achievement, for power, and for affliation. Some individuals have a high need for achievement. The same is true with the others.

McClelland’s Learned needs Theory

The need for achievement concerns issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties.

A person with a high need for achievement seeks excellence in performance, enjoys difficult and challenging goals, and is persevering and competitive in work activities.

McClelland found that people with a high need for achievement perform better than those with moderate and low need for achievement, and he has noted national differences in achievement motivation.

Need for achievement

The need for power is concerned with the desire to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make differences in life

Need for power

The need for affliation is concerned with establishing and maintaining warm, close, intimate relationships with other people. Those with a high need of affliation are motivated to express their emotions and feelings to others while expecting them to do the same in return. They find conflicts and complications in their relationships disturbing and are strongly motivated to work through any such barriers to closeness. The relationships they have with others are therefore close and personal, emphasizing friendship and companionship.

Need for affliation

Two new ideas in motivation have emerged in the past decade. One center on eustress, strenght and hope. This idea comes from the new discipline of positive organizational behavior. A second new idea centers on positive energy and full engagement.

Two new ideas in motivation

Eustress is healthy, normal stress. Aligned with eustress in the new dicipline of positive organizational scholarship are investing in strengths finding positive meaning in work, displaying courage and principled action, and drawing on positive emotions at work. This new, positive perspective on organizational life encourages optimism, hope, and health for people at work. Rather than focusing on the individuals needs, or alternatively on the rewards or punishment meted out.

Eustress, Strenght, and Hope

ERG Theory by Clayton

Alderfer

Alderfer Classified Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to only three levels, namely: Existence, Relatedness,

and Growth.Level of needs Existence- individual needs are satisfied by food,

water, air, pay, and working conditions. Relatedness- this is satisfied by interpersonal

relationships. Growth- this is the equivalent of Maslow’s esteem

and self-actualization needs.

Maslow’s physiological and physical safety needs are categorized in the existence need category; Maslow’s

interpersonal safety, love, and interpersonal esteem needs in a

relatedness need category; and Maslow’s self-actualization and self- esteem needs

in a growth need category.

ERG Theory also added the regression hypothesis which helped explain that people’s behavior when frustrated at

meeting needs at the next higher level in the hierarchy.

Herzberg’s 2 factor theory

Ego incentives Work conditions as motivators Organizational image and administration Extrinsic awards

Four clusters of motivators emerge with the rankings:

Motivation factor – a work condition related to satisfaction of the need for psychological growth.

Hygiene factor – a work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

“Job satisfaction is produced by building motivation factors into a

job.” –Herzberg

Motivation factors are identified as responsibility, achievement, recognition, advancement, and the work itself. When these factors are present, they lead to superior performance and effort on the part of job incumbents.

Motivation factors

Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factors are either not present or nor sufficient. Hygiene factors were company policy and administration; technical supervision; salary; interpersonal relations with one’s supervisor; working conditions and status. They do not directly affect a person’s motivation to work but influence the extent of the person’s discontent.

Hygiene factors

Adam’s Equity TheoryPerformance= Rewards

Performance is considered an employee’s inputs while Rewards are the outputs given after work has been done.

Examples of inputs are: effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, skill, ability.Examples of outputs are: pay, salary, expenses, perks, benefits, pension agreements, bonus and commission.

Adam’s Equity Theory

Inequity in the social exchange is process is an important motivator. It

suggests that people become motivated when they are in situations

of inequity or unfairness. Inequity occurs when a person receives more or less, than the person believes is

deserved based on effort and/or contribution. Inequity leads to the experience of tension, and tension

motivates a person to act in a manner to resolve the inequity.

Resolution of Inequity

1. Alter the person’s outcomes.2. Alter the person’s inputs.3. Alter the comparison other’s outcomes4. Alter the comparison other’s inputs5. Change who is used as a comparison other6. Rationalize the inequity7. Leave the organizational situation

Asserts that primary determinants of behavior are the individual’s goals and objectives. The important attributes are:a) Goal Specificity – Degree of goal an individual wants to

achieve.b) Goal Difficulty – Amount of effort required to achieve the

goal.c) Goal Intensity – process of determining how to achieve the

goal.d) Goal commitment – amount of effort used to achieve.

Locke’s Theory emphasizes the importance if goal setting that can lead to higher performance.

However, he did not indicate whether individual differences could affect them in setting their goals.

Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

Exchange Theory People engage in give and take relationships e.g. work is rewarded

with pay The Psychological Contract is an unwritten agreement between

the individual and the organization that specifies the expectations of the company and employee e. g. pay from the company to the employee, and performance from the employee to the company.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation. Focuses on personal perceptions of the performance process. Founded on the basic notions that people desire certain outcomes

of behavior and performance, which may be thought of as rewards or consequences of behavior; that they believe there are relationships between the efforts they put forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes they receive.

It’s a cognitive process theory of motivation.

Exchange Theory & Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation.

The key constructs of it are: Valence of an outcome – importance that one places on

a particular reward. Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance e.g.

“If I try harder, I can do better” Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to

rewards e.g. “If I perform better, I will get more pay” Expectancy and Instrumentality concern a person’s beliefs

about how effort, performance and rewards are related However, it can vary by person and by activity. For

example, one person firmly believes that better effort has direct, positive effect on performance and less effort results in reduced performance; another person might believe that regardless of the amount of additional effort, no improvement in performance is possible.

Performance-reward link may also vary. One person may believe improvement in performance means greater reward, whereas another person might think it doesn’t affect rewards.

Expectancy Theory has been used by managers and companies to design motivation programs such as performance planning and evaluation systems.

Valence and expectancy are particularly important in establishing priorities for people pursuing multiple goals.

Valence may also vary e.g. a person may prefer salary than benefits, another may prefer the reverse.

There are three problems within the Expectancy Theory framework: Disbelief in relationship between effort and

performance Disbelief in relationship between performance

and rewards Lack of Desire for rewards offered.

Solution lies in altering this belief e.g. the textbook salesperson who does not believe more calls (effort) will result in greater sales (performance) might be shown how to distinguish departments with high-probability sales opportunities from those with low-probability sales opportunities.

Motivational Problems

Yet, if the problem is related to the value or preference of a person on certain rewards, the solution lies in influencing the value or altering the rewards themselves e.g. the textbook salesperson may not want higher commissions, given the small increment gain he would receive at his tax level. In this case, the company might establish a mechanism for sheltering commissions from being taxed or alternative mechanisms for deferred compensation.

Research results on Expectancy Theory have been mixed; it has been shown to predict job satisfaction accurately, however, its complexity makes it difficult to test the full model, and the measures of instrumentality, valence, and expectancy have only weak validity.

Expectancy Theory would predict people work to maximize their personal outcomes; this is consistent with Adam Smith’s ideas of working for one’s own self-interest.

It may be necessary to consider an individual’s moral maturity in order to better understand altruistic, fair, and equitable behavior.

Moral Maturity is the measure of a person’s cognitive moral development.

Morally mature people act and behave based on universal ethical principles; morally immature people act and behave based on egocentric motivations.

Motivation and Moral Maturity

Managerial Implications: Managers must realize that all motivation theories are

not equally good or equally useful. Managers cannot assume they understand employee’s

needs; they must understand what their employees want.

Managers can increase employee motivation by training (increased perceptions of success because of increased ability), coaching (increased confidence), and task assignments (increased perceptions of success because of more experience).

Managers should ensure that rewards are contingent on good performance and that valued rewards, such as time off or flexible work schedules are available.

Managers should be aware that morally mature employees are more likely to be sensitive to inequities at work.

THE PROCEDURE THROUGH WHICH YOU DETERMINE THE DUTIES OF THESE

POSITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEOPLE TO HIRE FOR THE JOB.

JOB ANALYSIS

“Through job analysis, manager will know the exact methods of motivation especially the

types of activities the employees should do on the job, their physical and working conditions and the minimum qualifications necessary to

perform the job well”

JOB ANALYSIS:

BASIC ELEMENTS

JOB CONTENT

JOB CONTEXT

JOB REQUIREMEN

TS

JOB DESIGN: CHARACTERIS

TICS

JOB DEPTH

JOB RELATIONSHI

PS

JOB RANGE

Job Satisfaction

Four Factors:

1. Mentally Challenging Work.

Multi-tasking.

2. Equitable Rewards.

Reward System.

3. Supportive Working Conditions.

Comfortable Working Environment

4. Supportive Colleagues.

Social Interaction.

COMPARES EACH EMPLOYEE ACTUAL PERFORMANCE WITH HIS/HER PERFORMANCE STANDARDS. DOING SO REQUIRE KNOWLEDGE OF THE JOB’S DUTIES AND STANDARDS. MANAGERS USE JOB ANALYSIS TO LEARN WHAT THESE DUTIES AND STANDARDS ARE.

Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisals provide employees and managers with opportunities to discuss areas in which employees excel and those in which employees need improvement. Performance appraisals should be conducted on a regular basis, and they need not be directly attached to promotion opportunities.