Most Missed Topics for Final Exam Psychology 100 Winter 2008.

Most Missed Topics Most Missed Topics for Final Examfor Final Exam

Psychology 100Psychology 100

Winter 2008Winter 2008

Read This!Read This!

Here are some guidelines for the ten mostHere are some guidelines for the ten most missed questions from midterm two. These topics will missed questions from midterm two. These topics will appear again on the final exam. The same questions will appear again on the final exam. The same questions will

not be asked, but the topics will be revisited. not be asked, but the topics will be revisited.

Also, please beware that Also, please beware that notnot every topic from the most every topic from the most missed is necessarily on here. These are just basic missed is necessarily on here. These are just basic

guidelines.guidelines.

Enjoy and happy studying! AnneEnjoy and happy studying! Anne

E-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]

Approaches to IntelligenceApproaches to IntelligenceIntelligence (Ch. 10)

ApproachApproach DefinitionDefinition ExamplesExamples

PsychometricPsychometric Emphasizes Emphasizes productsproducts of of intelligence, especially scores on intelligence, especially scores on intelligence tests (i.e. higher the intelligence tests (i.e. higher the IQ score equals higher IQ score equals higher intelligence)intelligence)

Spearman

g: general intelligenceg: general intelligence

S: specific intelligenceS: specific intelligence

Thurstone

7 Primary mental abilities7 Primary mental abilities

Catell

Fluid: basic reasoning and problem solving Fluid: basic reasoning and problem solving abilitiesabilities

Crystallized intelligence: specific Crystallized intelligence: specific knowledge gained through experienceknowledge gained through experience

Information Information ProcessingProcessing

Examines mental operations Examines mental operations ((processprocess) involved in intelligent ) involved in intelligent behavior (i.e., attention and memory)behavior (i.e., attention and memory)

The speed of basic processes and the The speed of basic processes and the amount of attentional resources amount of attentional resources available make significant available make significant contributions to performance on IQ contributions to performance on IQ tests.tests.

Sternberg’s Sternberg’s Triarchic TheoryTriarchic Theory

There are 3 dimensions to intelligence; There are 3 dimensions to intelligence; analytic analytic (book smarts), (book smarts), creative creative (thinking out side of the box), (thinking out side of the box), practical practical (street smarts)(street smarts)

IQ tests measure only analytic IQ tests measure only analytic intelligence, but creative intelligence intelligence, but creative intelligence (which involves dealing with new (which involves dealing with new problems) and practical intelligence problems) and practical intelligence (which involves adapting to one’s (which involves adapting to one’s environment) may also be important to environment) may also be important to success in school and at worksuccess in school and at work

Approaches to IntelligenceApproaches to IntelligenceIntelligence (Ch. 10)

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligenceGardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence Eight semi-independent kinds of intelligenceEight semi-independent kinds of intelligence

Linguistic: ShakespeareLinguistic: ShakespeareLogical-mathematical: EinsteinLogical-mathematical: EinsteinSpatial: Picasso or taxi driverSpatial: Picasso or taxi driverMusical: Mozart or The BeatlesMusical: Mozart or The BeatlesBody-kinesthetic: Michael JordanBody-kinesthetic: Michael JordanIntrapersonal: Freud or Dr. PhilIntrapersonal: Freud or Dr. PhilInterpersonal: Oprah or GandhiInterpersonal: Oprah or GandhiNaturalistic: Darwin or Jane GoodallNaturalistic: Darwin or Jane Goodall

QuestionQuestion

Ask any good chef, and they’ll tell you that Ask any good chef, and they’ll tell you that meals should not only taste great, but should meals should not only taste great, but should look attractive as well. Thus, according to look attractive as well. Thus, according to Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory, the most Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory, the most successful chefs should have a high degree of successful chefs should have a high degree of ____________ intelligence.____________ intelligence.

A.A. AnalyticAnalyticB.B. LinguisticLinguisticC.C. CreativeCreativeD.D. EmotionalEmotional

QuestionQuestion

Ten-year old Marianne has autism and is unable to Ten-year old Marianne has autism and is unable to socialize normally with other children. However, when socialize normally with other children. However, when presented with a complex mathematical problem, she is presented with a complex mathematical problem, she is able to produce an accurate answer within seconds. able to produce an accurate answer within seconds. Cases such as this, in which a person is barely able to Cases such as this, in which a person is barely able to function in one area but is exceptionally skilled in function in one area but is exceptionally skilled in another, support the notion that we possess another, support the notion that we possess __________.__________.

A.A. Special intelligencesSpecial intelligencesB.B. A general intelligenceA general intelligenceC.C. Multiple intelligencesMultiple intelligencesD.D. Creative intelligenceCreative intelligence

Focusing LightFocusing LightSensation (Ch. 4)

Make sure you know the parts of the eye: Make sure you know the parts of the eye: cornea, pupil, iris, lens, and retinacornea, pupil, iris, lens, and retina

Accommodation: focusing ability of lens-Accommodation: focusing ability of lens-lens changes shape and bends light rayslens changes shape and bends light rays

Photoreceptors: convert light into neural Photoreceptors: convert light into neural activityactivity Rods- black and whiteRods- black and white Cones- colorsCones- colors

Focusing LightFocusing LightSensation (Ch. 4)

Cornea: light enters eye through this (curved, Cornea: light enters eye through this (curved, transparent, protective layer)transparent, protective layer)

Pupil: Light then passes through this structure—Pupil: Light then passes through this structure—the black part of the eyethe black part of the eye

Iris: Adjusts amount of light allowed into the eye Iris: Adjusts amount of light allowed into the eye (the colored part)(the colored part)

Lens: Bends light rays and focuses on retinaLens: Bends light rays and focuses on retina

Retina: Light rays focused into an image on the Retina: Light rays focused into an image on the retina- back of eyeretina- back of eye

Focusing LightFocusing LightSensation (Ch. 4)

Check out your book and this sweet sweet Check out your book and this sweet sweet website for more info!website for more info!

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/bigeye.htmlhttp://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/bigeye.html

QuestionQuestion

Warren is able to see his watch clearly to Warren is able to see his watch clearly to check the time because his lens changes check the time because his lens changes shape to focus the light onto the fovea through shape to focus the light onto the fovea through a process called _____________.a process called _____________.

A.A. AccommodationAccommodation

B.B. AcuityAcuity

C.C. AdaptionAdaption

D.D. TransductionTransduction

QuestionQuestion

When Karyan noticed an engagement ring on her When Karyan noticed an engagement ring on her friend’s hand she brought the ring closer to her eyes friend’s hand she brought the ring closer to her eyes and to the very center of her visual field to examine it. and to the very center of her visual field to examine it. Why?Why?

A.A. Visual acuity is highest in the periphery of the eye, Visual acuity is highest in the periphery of the eye, Which is rich in rods.Which is rich in rods.

B.B. She wanted to decrease the lateral inhibition in the She wanted to decrease the lateral inhibition in the ganglia.ganglia.

C.C. Visual acuity is highest in the fovea of the eye, which is Visual acuity is highest in the fovea of the eye, which is rich in cones.rich in cones.

D.D. She wanted to increase the lateral inhibition in the She wanted to increase the lateral inhibition in the gangliaganglia

Forgetting: Decay and InferenceForgetting: Decay and InferenceMemory (Ch. 7)

Decay: gradual disappearance of mental Decay: gradual disappearance of mental representation of stimulusrepresentation of stimulus info fades info fades until completely out of memoryuntil completely out of memory

Interference: either storage or retrieval of Interference: either storage or retrieval of info is impaired by presence of other info.info is impaired by presence of other info. Retroactive interferenceRetroactive interference: new info interferes : new info interferes

with old (with old (oldold is what you is what you can’t remembercan’t remember)) Proactive interferenceProactive interference: old info interferes with : old info interferes with

new (new (newnew is what you is what you can’t remembercan’t remember))

QuestionQuestion

As Ophelia was filling out a loan application she could As Ophelia was filling out a loan application she could easily recall her current address, but she could not easily recall her current address, but she could not remember her previous address even though she had remember her previous address even though she had lived there for four years. Ophelia was likely lived there for four years. Ophelia was likely experiencing _______________, which occurs when experiencing _______________, which occurs when forming a new memory and makes it harder to recall a forming a new memory and makes it harder to recall a previous memory.previous memory.

A. Proactive interferenceA. Proactive interferenceB. DecayB. DecayC. Retroactive interferenceC. Retroactive interferenceD. Spreading activationD. Spreading activation

Signaling of Significant EventsSignaling of Significant EventsLearning (Ch. 6)

TimingTiming Forward Conditioning: Present NS then UCS Forward Conditioning: Present NS then UCS

afterwards (example presenting the bell then afterwards (example presenting the bell then the steak to the dog)the steak to the dog)

Backward Conditioning: UCS then NS Backward Conditioning: UCS then NS (Present food then bell)(Present food then bell)

Simultaneous conditioning: having UCS and Simultaneous conditioning: having UCS and NS presented at the same timeNS presented at the same time

Signaling of Significant EventsSignaling of Significant EventsLearning (Ch. 6)

Predictability- Conditioned stimulus ALWAYS Predictability- Conditioned stimulus ALWAYS signals unconditioned stimulus and only the signals unconditioned stimulus and only the unconditioned stimulusunconditioned stimulus Bell ringsBell rings Class dismissed Class dismissed

Signal strength- Stronger unconditioned stimulus Signal strength- Stronger unconditioned stimulus the better the better (intense stimuli = good attention grabbers) (intense stimuli = good attention grabbers) (Quiet bell verses loud bell)(Quiet bell verses loud bell)

Attention: Several stimuli presentAttention: Several stimuli present Most closely attended to = most associated with UCSMost closely attended to = most associated with UCS

Signaling of Significant EventsSignaling of Significant EventsLearning (Ch. 6)

Second-order conditioning: Conditioned Second-order conditioning: Conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus stimulus Check out the example in your book, Page Check out the example in your book, Page

201201

Biopreparedness: Natural tendency for Biopreparedness: Natural tendency for certain events to become linkedcertain events to become linked Conditioned taste aversionConditioned taste aversion

Eating something and getting sick….now you can’t Eating something and getting sick….now you can’t eat it again or sometimes even look at iteat it again or sometimes even look at it

QuestionQuestion

After many trials, the rats in Dr. Mitchell’s experiment After many trials, the rats in Dr. Mitchell’s experiment learned that by pressing a bar in their cage after a red learned that by pressing a bar in their cage after a red light flashed, they could avoid getting shocked. Dr. light flashed, they could avoid getting shocked. Dr. Mitchell decided to ring a buzzer directly before the red Mitchell decided to ring a buzzer directly before the red light flashed, and the rats eventually began to press the light flashed, and the rats eventually began to press the bar as soon as the buzzer rang. This is an example of bar as soon as the buzzer rang. This is an example of __________.__________.

A.A. BiopreparednessBiopreparednessB.B. Stimulus discriminationStimulus discriminationC.C. Second-order conditioningSecond-order conditioningD.D. ExtinctionExtinction

Constructing MemoryConstructing MemoryMemory (Ch. 7)

Levels-of-processing: how you encode it into your Levels-of-processing: how you encode it into your memory (deeper processing is better than shallow memory (deeper processing is better than shallow processing) processing) Maintenance- repeating over and over (STM)Maintenance- repeating over and over (STM) Elaborative- relating info to info you already know (LTM)Elaborative- relating info to info you already know (LTM)

Transfer appropriate: retrieval matches first Transfer appropriate: retrieval matches first encodingencodingInfo-processing: info passing through sensory, Info-processing: info passing through sensory, STM/working, LTMSTM/working, LTM

*Parallel-distributed processing: neural networks and *Parallel-distributed processing: neural networks and semantic activation; integrate with existing infosemantic activation; integrate with existing info

Constructing MemoriesConstructing MemoriesMemory (Ch. 7)

Constructive Memory: use generalized Constructive Memory: use generalized knowledge about world to organize new info as knowledge about world to organize new info as we receive it we receive it Look over pages 253 – 255 in book (schemas, etc.)Look over pages 253 – 255 in book (schemas, etc.)

Eyewitness testimony: eyewitness can only Eyewitness testimony: eyewitness can only remember what they perceive—leaving out remember what they perceive—leaving out different parts of the story (encode the general different parts of the story (encode the general “gist”)“gist”) Misinformation effect: Example “How fast were the Misinformation effect: Example “How fast were the

cars going when they SMASHED into each other? pg. cars going when they SMASHED into each other? pg. 256 256

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementLearning (Ch 6)

Continuous reinforcement schedule- Continuous reinforcement schedule- Reinforced every timeReinforced every time

Partial reinforcement schedule: (over a Partial reinforcement schedule: (over a long time) only reinforced sometimeslong time) only reinforced sometimes

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementLearning (Ch. 6)

Fixed-ratio (FR): fixed # of responsesFixed-ratio (FR): fixed # of responsesVariable-ratio (VR): Varying # of Variable-ratio (VR): Varying # of responsesresponsesFixed-interval (FI): Fixed time Fixed-interval (FI): Fixed time Fixed amount of time has passed since last Fixed amount of time has passed since last

rewardreward Example: Getting paid every 2 weeksExample: Getting paid every 2 weeks

Variable-interval (VI): Varying TimeVariable-interval (VI): Varying Time Pop QuizPop Quiz

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementLearning (Ch. 6)

Number of necessary Number of necessary responsesresponses

Time that must first Time that must first pastpast

PredictablePredictable Fixed RatioFixed Ratio

(FR)(FR)

Fixed IntervalFixed Interval

(FI)(FI)

Unpredictable (“on the Unpredictable (“on the average”)average”)

Variable RatioVariable Ratio

(VR)(VR)

Variable Variable IntervalInterval

(VI)(VI)

Types of ReinforcersTypes of ReinforcersLearning (Ch 6)

Primary Reinforcers: Meets basic needs Primary Reinforcers: Meets basic needs (example: food)(example: food)

Secondary Reinforcers: rewards that Secondary Reinforcers: rewards that people/animals learn to like (example: people/animals learn to like (example: “good girl” or money)“good girl” or money)

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Learning (Ch. 6)

Generalization: CR is elicited by stimuli that are Generalization: CR is elicited by stimuli that are SIMILAR but not identical to CSSIMILAR but not identical to CS-Ex: If a child got scared by a small dog they also may -Ex: If a child got scared by a small dog they also may

be scared by a large rabbit because they are similar be scared by a large rabbit because they are similar and are unable to tell the differenceand are unable to tell the difference

Discrimination: DIFFERENTIATE among similar Discrimination: DIFFERENTIATE among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each onestimuli and respond appropriately to each one The child would be able to tell the difference between The child would be able to tell the difference between

the dog and a polar bear. It would throw a temper the dog and a polar bear. It would throw a temper tantrum when it saw a dog but not a polar bear.tantrum when it saw a dog but not a polar bear.

QuestionQuestion

Dr. Laura wanted to teach pigeons how to differentiate Dr. Laura wanted to teach pigeons how to differentiate the colors red and green. The pigeons were rewarded the colors red and green. The pigeons were rewarded with food when they pecked at a red circular disk but with food when they pecked at a red circular disk but not when they pecked at a green circular disk. not when they pecked at a green circular disk. Eventually the pigeons learned to peck only at the red Eventually the pigeons learned to peck only at the red disk to receive a food reward. The pigeons were disk to receive a food reward. The pigeons were exhibiting __________.exhibiting __________.

A.A. Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus GeneralizationB.B. Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus DiscriminationC.C. Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous RecoveryD.D. Simultaneous ConditioningSimultaneous Conditioning

Operant vs. Classical ConditioningOperant vs. Classical Conditioning Learning (Ch. 6)

Classical: Neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired Classical: Neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with stimulus that elicits a with stimulus that elicits a reflex (involuntary) reflex (involuntary) response until neutral stimulus alone comes to response until neutral stimulus alone comes to elicit similar response (learned association elicit similar response (learned association between 2 events)between 2 events)

Operant: Organism learns to respond Operant: Organism learns to respond (voluntary (voluntary behaviors)behaviors) to environment in way that produces to environment in way that produces positive (+) consequences and avoids negative positive (+) consequences and avoids negative (-) ones(-) ones

Depth CuesDepth CuesPerception (Ch. 5)

Interposition: closer block farther awayInterposition: closer block farther awayRelative Size: larger are closerRelative Size: larger are closerHeight in visual field: higher are distantHeight in visual field: higher are distantTexture gradient: clearer are closerTexture gradient: clearer are closerLinear perspective: convergence of II Linear perspective: convergence of II (railroad tracts)(railroad tracts)Check out pg. 166-167 for info on Check out pg. 166-167 for info on accommodation, motion parallax, accommodation, motion parallax, convergence, and binocular disparityconvergence, and binocular disparity

What depth cue is shown?What depth cue is shown?

LINEAR PERSPECTIVELINEAR PERSPECTIVE

Parallel lines appear to converge as they Parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance. recede into the distance.

What depth cue is shown?What depth cue is shown?

Texture GradientTexture Gradient

Textured surfaces, such as pebbles on a Textured surfaces, such as pebbles on a beach, or waves on the sea, look rougher beach, or waves on the sea, look rougher closer up than from a distance. We use closer up than from a distance. We use texture gradient as a clue to distance texture gradient as a clue to distance

What depth cue is shown?What depth cue is shown?

Height in a Visual FieldHeight in a Visual Field

In this example the red boat looks as In this example the red boat looks as though it is nearer as it is lower in the though it is nearer as it is lower in the plane than the green boat plane than the green boat

What depth cue is shown?What depth cue is shown?

Relative SizeRelative Size

Larger objects are seen as closer.Larger objects are seen as closer.

Development of LanguageDevelopment of Language Language (Ch. 8)

Consult Pages 309- 317 in the textConsult Pages 309- 317 in the textLinguistic determinism-Linguistic determinism- language shapes thought language shapes thought

Example: Snow. English language only has one word for snow; Example: Snow. English language only has one word for snow; Eskimos may have multiple words for snow. So Whorf believed Eskimos may have multiple words for snow. So Whorf believed that Eskimos thought about snow differently. that Eskimos thought about snow differently.

Also refer to the color exampleAlso refer to the color example

Framing Effect-Framing Effect- language can affect reasoning, problem language can affect reasoning, problem solving, and decision making; thinking influenced by solving, and decision making; thinking influenced by words used to describe situationwords used to describe situation

Example: Going to the grocery store. One box says “no added Example: Going to the grocery store. One box says “no added fat” and another says “15% fat”; they could easily mean the fat” and another says “15% fat”; they could easily mean the same thing.same thing.

Development of LanguageDevelopment of Language Language (Ch. 8)

First YearFirst Year BabblingBabbling: patterns of meaningless sounds that : patterns of meaningless sounds that

resemble speechresemble speech

Second YearSecond Year One-word stageOne-word stage: language begins to develop one : language begins to develop one

word at a timeword at a timeThis stage usually last about six months (ex: “Out”, “Eat”, etc)This stage usually last about six months (ex: “Out”, “Eat”, etc)

Telegraphic: Telegraphic: Short (two word) sentences; Short (two word) sentences; no prepositions (in, on, out…)no prepositions (in, on, out…)Use different tones for questions than demandsUse different tones for questions than demands

Example: “give book” “go out?”Example: “give book” “go out?” (more examples in your book)(more examples in your book)