A. Morphology
Morphology is the study of structure words and how words are
formed or constructed. And morphology is a branch of linguistics
that studies the ways in which words are constructed out of smaller
meaningful units.
Morphology is the branch of linguistics (and one of the major
components of grammar) that studies word structures, especially in
terms of morphemes.
Morphology as a sub-discipline of linguistics was named for the
first in 1859 by the German linguist August Schleicher who used the
term for the study of the form of words.
Example of morphology:
Lion (stem) Chocolate (stem) Box(stem)
Lion LionsChocolatechocolates Box Boxes
(singular) (plural) (singular)(plural) (singular) (plural)
B. Morpheme
Morphemes is the smallest meaningful unit in the structure of
language. A morpheme is not identical with a syllable. The morpheme
strange happens to be a syllable, and so are many English
morphemes. But Connecticut is a single morpheme though it contains
four syllables. Beside that, a morpheme may consist of only a
single phoneme. The /z/ in goes is the example. Morpheme must be a
smallest part and it must have meaning or is meaningful.
Morphemes composed of (1) Segmental phonemes, and (3)
supra-segmental phonemes. Morphemes consisting of segmental
phonemes are the most numerous in occurrence, e.g. ship consists of
3 segmental phonemes /sip/. One type of morpheme consisting solely
of supra-segmental phonemes is very common. In English morphemes
which consist wholly of supra-segmental phonemes are relatively
rare. Morphemes consisting of segmental and supra-segmental
phonemes also exist in English, e.g. the words boy, girl, goulash,
consist not only of certain segmental phonemes, but also have a
phoneme of stress. Between these extremes there are morphemes
consisting of the following patterns of segmental phonemes: V:
a-long, vc: im-proper, cv: de-ceiver, cvc: fish, cvcv: lava, cvcvc:
hammer, etc. This inventory could be extended greatly, sisce there
are still a number of morphemes, for instance, involving various
types of consonant clusters.
C. Types of Morphemes
The distribution of morphemes differentiates many classes of
morphemes and combination of morphemes:
a) Bound and Free Morphemes
Bound morphemes are morphemes which can not stand alone, but
which are typically attached to another from, e.g. re-, -ist, -ed,
-s, -ly in words.
Example of bound morphemes: Reader, Pianist, Confused, Cats,
Slowly.
Certain bound morphemes are known as affixes, included prefix
and suffixes. The set of affixes which fall into the bound category
can also be divided into two types, namely derivational and
inflectional morphemes.
Free morphemes are morphemes which can stand alone as single
words.
Example of free morphemes : florist, dog, sad, happy, when, but,
and.
Free morphemes fall into two categories:
1) Free morphemes as Lexical morphemes
Lexical morphemes are that set of ordinary nouns, adjective and
verbs which carry the content of messages a speaker conveys, e.g.
mother, happy, drink, girl, bored, eat.
2) Free morphemes as Functional morphemes
Example of functional morphemes: but, above, because, in, on,
and the.
b) Roots and Non-roots
Roots constitute the nuclei (the central parts) of all words.
There are may be more than 1 root in a single word.
Example of roots: Catfish (cat and fish), Blackbird (black and
bird), Breakwater (break and water), Facebook (face and book).
Some roots many have unique occurrence. For example, the unique
element cran- in cranberry dos not constitute the nuclease of any
other words, but it occurs in the position occupied by roots such
as in blackberry, blueberry, strawberry, Roseberry, Cranberry.
Non-roots is identical to bound, example of non-roots: The
non-roots ism in communism, pragmatism, organism, faradism, and
fascism for instance.
Non-roots has become a full root in a sentence, such as:
Japanese state adopts communism.
c) Roots and Stems
Roots constitute the nuclei (the central parts) of all words.
There are may be more than 1 root in a single word.
Example of roots: Catfish (cat and fish), Blackbird (black and
bird), Breakwater (break and water), Facebook (face and book).
Some roots many have unique occurrence. For example, the unique
element cran- in cranberry does not constitute the nuclease of any
other words, but it occurs in the position occupied by roots such
as in blackberry, blueberry, strawberry, Cranberry.
Stems is composed of The nucleus consisting of 1 or more roots,
or the nucleus plus any other non-root morphemes. Sometimes, stems
consist of one or more roots in a words. Example of stems:
The word feeds : is plural words. But the stem is feed.
The word books: is plural words. The stem is book.
The word bracelets is plural words. But the stem is
bracelet.
The word bags is plural words. But the stem is bag.
The word some people : is plural words. But the stem is
people.
d) Nuclei and Non-nuclei
The nucleus of a morphological construction consists of a root
or a combination of roots. Beside that, non-nuclei is made up of
non--roots. Example of nuclei and non-nuclei:
The word Boyishness boy is nuclei.
ishness is non-nuclei.
The word kindness kind is nuclei.
ness is non-nuclei.
In blueberries the nuclei is blueberry that consist of two
roots.
e) Nuclear and Peripheral Structures
A nuclear structure consists of the nucleus or constitutes the
heas. A peripheral structures is morphemes that usually consists of
a non-root and always outside of the nuclear constituent. Example
of nuclear and peripheral structures :
The word Fertilizer fertilize is the nuclear.
-er is peripheral.
The word Management manage is nuclear.
-ment is peripheral.
The word Formalizer formalize is nuclear.
-er is peripheral.
The word Amusement amuse is nuclear.
-ment is peripheral.
The word Arrangement arrange is nuclear.
-ment is peripheral.
f) Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes
Inflectional morphemes are do not change the meaning and part of
speech, example of word:
happy happier
Small smaller
Early earlier
Easy easier
Inflectional morphemes typically indicate syntactic or semantic
relations between different words in a sentence, e.g. the past
tense morphemes ed is the word cooked that show agreement with the
subject of the verb. Inflectional morphemes typically occur with
all members of some large class of morphemes, e.g. plural morphemes
s occurs with most nouns, such as: books, cats, dogs, etc.
Inflectional morphemes typically occur at the margin of words, e.g.
plural morphemes s always come last in a word, such as: some books,
apples, etc.
Derivational morphemes is Change meaning and part of speech,
e.g. -ment: form noun, amusement: from verb amuse. Derivational
morphemes typically indicate semantic relations with the word.
Derivation morphemes typically occur with only some members, e.g.
suffix hood occur with a few nouns, such as: brother, sister but
not with most others e.g. boy, girl. Derivation morphemes typically
occur before inflectional suffixes.
D. Affixes
There are consists of:
a. Prefixes is Added to the beginning of a word. Example of
prefixes: Dis-: disagree, Un-: unhappy, Anti-: antifreeze, Re-:
rewrite, Pre-: previous.
b. Infixes is not normally to be found in english, but fairly
common in some other languages. Example of infixes:
Un-damned-believable, Abso-god-damlutely, Halle-bloody-lujah.
c. Suffixes is added to the end of a word. Example of suffixes:
-ly: lovely, -ness: dryness, -ity: generality, -hood: childhood,
-ism: organism.
E. Syntax
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the internal
structure of sentences and the interrelationships among the
internal parts. The scientific study of internal structure of
language (sentences and phrase) and internal relationship among
internal parts. In other word, one phrase or sentence always make
from the words that arrange with using systematic. Example of
syntax: the sentences The boy speaks English, sentences beginning
with article the that formed one phrase with the word boy. Then,
the word speaks that formed one phrase with word English. And then,
phrase the boy joined with phrase speaks English. The sentences She
studies English, sentences beginning with subject she. The, the
word studies that formed one phrase with word English.
S S
NP VP NP VP
Det N VNP Det N VNP
The girl buys cake The boy plays tennis
S S
NP VP NP VP
N VNP N V NP
Nanny saw Det NVin take Det N
thepicture the ball
F. Structural Approach
Structural approach consist of two approach: traditional
approach and structural approach. Traditional approach is identify
a word consider with meaning of a word that related. In traditional
approach consist of noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. For
example, category of noun is all of word that refer to nouns,
object, places. Category of verb is all of word that refer to the
activities. The way to grouped by traditional word based on the
meanings. In traditional approach, there is lexical meaning.
Lexical meanings can find in english dictionary, example of lexical
meanings: student (noun), eat (verb), good and happy (adjectives),
today (adverb of time).
Beside that, structural approach is identify the word with
marking syntactic. In structural approach consist of prepositions,
articles and modals. The way to grouped by structural word based on
marking syntactic. In structural approach, there is structural
meaning. Structural meaning can understand from the using context
of the word that related, example of structural meanings: the
(article), on and in (preposition), will and must (modals).
Then, marking syntactic that using in structural approach
are:
a. Word order
Word order identify classes of words by looking at the position
of the word in a structure phrase or sentence. Sentences structure
usually begins with subject, then followed with predicate. For
example of word order : Andy speaks English.
S
NP VP
N V NP
Andy speaks N
English
b. Inflectional affixes
Inflectional affixes is word class that known of particle shape
that related. Example of inflectional affixes:
The word dogs that known as noun. Because the inflectional is
s.
The word easier that known as adjective. Because the
inflectional is er.
The word baked that known as verbs. Because the inflectional is
ed.
The word biggest that known as adverb. Because the inflectional
is est.
The word studied that known as verbs. Because the inflectional
is ed.
c. Derivational affixes
Derivational affixes can be used as a marker of the relevant
class, example of derivational affixes:
The word beautifully that known as adverb. Because derivational
is ly.
The word playful that known as adjective. Because derivational
is ful.
The word quickly that known as adverb. Because derivational is
ly.
The word easily that known as adverb. Because derivational is
ly.
The word beautiful that known as adjective. Because derivational
is ful.
d. Prosody
Prosody that known from primary stress that using. Example of
prosody: In syllable 1, record as a noun. But in syllable 2, the
word record as a verb.
e. Function words
Function word is located in the word that related. For example:
function word the can be marking continued word class is noun, e.g
the book, the girl, the boy, the cat, the man. Then, phrase very
good, very well, very beautiful, very sad, very happy. Good, well,
beautiful, sad, happy that known as adjective. Because there is
function word very.
G. Marking Syntax for Nouns
Nouns be marked with five categories:
A. Function Words
The most important noun marker is function words category. It is
called Noun Determiners. Formation of noun determiners in front of
nouns. Noun determiners is the most appear is articles: the, a, an.
For example:
The Cats
The man
an apple
an hour
a pedestrian
Noun determiners also has function as pronouns: my, your, our,
their, his/her. For example:
My mother
your sister
our school
their ball
his/her bag
Noun determiners also has other functions as using for plural
nouns, singular nouns, uncountable nouns. (this/these, that/those,
one, both, some, every, other, many (a), more, several, all, no, a
few, enough). For example:
Singular nouns: the boy, a cat, this pen, an umbrella, the
girl.
Plural nouns: some books, some people, these bags.
B. Inflections
Inflections are marked noun consist of two categories: Plural
inflections(-es) and genitive inflections/possessive (-'s). For
example:
Plural inflections (-es): dogs, boxes, books, oranges,
apples.
Genitive inflections (-'s): student's, students', teacher's,
mother's, teachers'.
C. Derivations
Derivations are marked nouns added of stems or another word
whose origin is not noun. The list of derivations marker nouns:
Added of verb:(-age): demurrage
(-ance): conveyance
(-er): sailor
(-ee): payee
(-ment): agreement
Added of adjectives:(-ce): abundance
(-cy): relevancy
(-ity): facility
(-ness): happiness
(-ster): oldster
Added of nouns:(-cy): democracy
(-er): liner
(-ian): librarian
(-ist): physicist
(-ship): friendship
Added of bound stem: (-er): tailor
(-ism): communism
(-ist): monist
(-ity): depravity, debility
D. Word order
word order constitute position in the sentence is a noun in
front of the verb as a predicate. For example:
time flies : the word "time" is noun, because in front of
verb.
Sub groups of nouns
In addition to being used as a marker noun syntax, there is a
recognizable group of noun forms is pronoun and function noun.
i. Pronouns
In English, there are 8 pronouns: I, you, they, we, she, he, it,
who.
ii. Function nouns
In English, function nouns has 15 characteristics:
The shape is similar to a noun determiners.
The shape is never change, it have not inflection and
derivation.
Can occupy the position normally occupied by nouns.
Group 1 function nouns is the same shape as the noun
determiners: all, any, both, enough, his, more, etc.
Group 2 function nouns is morphemic variation of noun
determiners:
Noun determiners
Function nouns
No
None
My
Mine
Your
Yours
Our
Ours
Her
Hers
Their
Theirs
H. Marking Syntax for Verbs
Verb be marked with 5 categories:
1) Inflections
There are 4 verbs inflections in english, are:
a) Third-singular inflections (-s)
Pronunce morphemes (-s) is variation, e.g. (-s,-z, -ez) depend
on the final sound of the verb that related. For example:
he hopes...(-s)
she rides...(-z)
she goes...(-s)
b) Past tense/preterit inflections (-ed1)
Pronounce morphemes (-ed1) is variation, e.g. (-t, -d, -ed)
depend on the final sound of the verb that related. For
example:
she hoped...(-t)
she prayed...(-d)
he studied...(-ed)
he admitted...(-ed)
c) Past participle inflection (-ed2)
Variations of the same words with the past tense inflection,
e.g. (-t,-d, -ed). For example:
he put he has put
she prayed she has prayed
he left he has left
d) Present Participle inflections (-ing)
Speech of morphemes present participle is not varied, If there
is variation was only found in a non standard dialect. For
example:
I am studying English.
She is running.
They are swimming in the swimming pool.
2) Functions word
Groups of function words that mark the verbs are auxiliaries
that make up the verb-phrase with verbs. Auxiliaries were divided
into four groups:
a. Auxiliaries + base
Can /could do/does/did
May/mightmust
Shall/shoulddare
Will/wouldneed
(had) better/best
Example:You could go now.
She must be happy.
I do love him.
I will catch you.
I need it.
b. Auxiliaries + present-participle (-ing)
am/is/are/was/were
get/gets/go
Example:She is sleeping.
I am eating.
They were crying.
Auxiliaries + past participle (-ed2)
am/is/are/was/were
get/gets/go
have/has/had
Example:she has finished her report.
She got hit by bicycle.
They were playing a football.
c. Auxiliaries + to infinitive
Have/has/had
Ought
used
am/is/were/was
get/gets/got
am/is/was/were:-about
-going
Example:Like we used to.
I have to go now.
3) Derivations
Derivations as marker syntax for verbs divided into 6
categories:
(-ate1): operate, calumniate, orchestrate, implicate, and
salivate.
(-ize): idolize, recognize, organize, socialize, utilize.
(-fy): beautify, simplify, signify, indemnify.
(-ish): finish, languish, furnish.
(-en): widen, sharpen, lighten, glisten, blacken.
(-en): enliven, embitter, enfold, empower.
4) Word order
Word order can not use without marker syntax. There are 2 word
order:
In the beginning of command
Example: come here
(please) answer at once
(lets) go now
Between 2 nouns
Example: dogs chase sticks.
The stars light our path.
Birds love nests.
5) Prosody
Prosody that known from primary stress that using. Example of
prosody:
Verbs () nouns/adjectives ()
Imprintimprint
Suspectsuspect
Importimport
Perfectperfect
The verb substitute do
Do with the others form can be a verb-substitute.
Example: he works harder than I do. (do : substitute work)
Function of Do :
a) Do as auxiliary
Example: do come to see us.
b) Do as function verb
Example: he liked it. But I didnt
c) Do as verb-substitute
Example: I hope you enjoyed the game.
d) Do as full verb.
Example: how do you do?
I. Marking Syntax for Adjectives
Marking syntax for adjective is combination between word order
and function word. Adjectives be marked with 4 categories:
a. Word order and Function word
Marker syntax that is very enable for adjective is a good word
in the 2 blank words.
Ex: the man is very strong.
(strong: adjective)
b. Derivations and inflections
In the form of derivations adjective can grouped be two,
are:
1. Base adjectives : the original adjective.
Base adjective as inflectional suffixes (-er, -est)
Example:Pretty-prettier-prettiest
Small-smaller-smallest
Big-bigger-biggest
Base adjectives (-ness,-ly)
Example:Good-goodness-goodly
Bad-badness-badly
Black-blackness-blackly
Base adjective, except (-un, -in)
Example:uncommon
Inhuman
Base adjective, form (-en1, -en)
Example:bright-brighten
Cheap-cheapen
Light-enlighten
Life-enliven
2. Derived adjectives : derived form.
The end (-y)
Example: holy, healthy, quickly.
The end (-a1)
Example: natural, local, traditional.
the end (-able)
Example: enable, acceptable, remarkable.
The end (-full and less).
Example: hopeful, hopeless.
The end (-ar, -ary, -ic, -ish, -ous)
Example: columnar, literary, comic, lavish, and marvelous.
The end (-ent, -ive)
Example: significant, active, impulsive, convenient.
The end (-en2)
Example: woolen, waxen, wooden.
The end (-ed3)
Example: flowered, interested, bored, overrated, garlanded.
The end (-ing3)
Example: interesting, exciting boring, revealing.
The end (-ly2)
Example: friendly, homely, ugly.
3. Function words
Adjective qualifiers: function word marked adjective.
Comparative adjective qualifiers: adjective qualifiers are the
function as adverb qualifiers.
J. Differences Grammar & Structure
Grammar
Structure
The set of structural rules of language or dealing with all
aspect of language.
Structure is not related to the sound.
Grammar is more specific.
Structure is permanent form and follow the formula.
19