Montessori and Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences By Patricia A. Vardin T he revolutionary work of Howard Gardner has been given much attention in the past decade. Opposing the notion of a unitary IQ and proposing that intelhgenee be thought of as a wide range of human capabili- ties, Gardner challenged the status quo in the field of psychology. Many years before his time, however, Maria Montes- sori also challenged the status quo regard- ing human abilities and potential, demon- strating that children who were "slow." deprived, and poor could thrive and grow under the right set of conditions. This article attempts to review Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences, show how Mon- tessori and Gardner drew similar conclu- sions regarding human capacity and po- tential, and examine how Gardner's eight intelligences and underlying core opera- tions lie at the heart of the Montessori exercises and activities. In Frames of Mind: The Theory of Mul- tiple ¡lUelligences. written in 1983, Howard Gardner defined intelligence as "the ability to solve problems or to create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings" (1999, p. 33). Revising his defini- tion in 1999, he defined intelligence as "a biophsychological potential to process in- formation that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems orcreate products that are of value in a culture'' (p. 34). Gardner sees intelligences as potentials, possibly neural ones, that may or may not be activated depending upon the values of a culture, the opportunities available in that culture, and the personal decisions made by individuals and/or their families, teachers, and other members of the society. Gardner (1999) applied the following eight criteria derived from disciplines such as biology, anthropology, psychol- ogy, and psychometiics to determine if a mental faculty could be classified as a human intelligence: • the potential isolation by brain damage; • an evolutionary his- tory and evolutionary plausibility; • an identifiable core operation or set of core operations; • susceptibility to en- coding in a symbol system; • a distinct develop- mental history, along with a definable set of expert "end-state" performances; • the existence of idiot savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals; • support from experimental psycho- logical tasks; • support from psychometric findings. Gardneridentifiedeighthumanintelligen- ces (see Table I ), each one having certain core operations—capacities that seem cen- tral to an bitelligence, for example, as pho- nemic discriminations would be to linguis- tic intelligence or mental calculations of numbers would be to logical-mathematical intelligences. He believes these capacities are likely to be mediated by specific neural mechanisms and triggered by relevant in- ternal or external types of information. Gardner originally described seven intelli- gences and then sev- eral years ago added an eighth. He believes that all human beings pos- sess the eight different inteUigences, that each person has a unique blend of intelligences, and that no two people have exactly the same profile of strengths and weaknesses with re- spect to intelligences. He also points out that strength in one area of intelligence does not predict strength or weakness in other areas. Gardner also be- lieves that any intelligence can be enhanced by concerted effort. Table 2 presents Gardner's description of the eight intelligences and examples of end-state performances. Gardner is still considering other possible candidates as intelligences, including existential intel- ligence, observed in individuals con- cerned with questions regarding life's meaning and issues of human existence. Shared Conclusions Although working in different cultures and different times, Montessori and Gard- ner came to many of the same conclusions regarding human development. First, both Montessori and Gardner derived their theo- ries based upon daily,firsthandobservation and experience working with people, both normal and with exceptionalities. Montes- soH worked first with retarded, then urban, deprived children. Gardner focused his at- tention upon adults with various forms of brain damage, as well as nonnal and gifted children. These experiences enabled them both to understand and appreciate the wide range of abilities and capacities found in human nature and to challenge rigid and narrow beliefs about human potential. Table 1. Intelligence and Core Operations Type of Intelligence Linguistic Logicai-mathematical Musical Bodiiy-kinesthetic Spatial Interpersonal intrapersonai Examples of Core Operations Syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics Patterns, calculations, number, relations Pitch, rhythm, timbre Control of bodily motions, skillful object handling Mental visualization, mental manipulation and transformation of images Awareness of the feelings, moods, motivations, and desires of others Awareness of one's own feelings, desires, capacities Naturalist Recognition, classification of objects in the environments 40 Montessori LIFE -Winter 2003
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Montessori and Gardner's Theoryof Multiple Intelligences
By Patricia A. Vardin
T he revolutionarywork of HowardGardner has been
given much attention in thepast decade. Opposing thenotion of a unitary IQ andproposing that intelhgeneebe thought of as a widerange of human capabili-ties, Gardner challengedthe status quo in the fieldof psychology. Many yearsbefore his time, however, Maria Montes-sori also challenged the status quo regard-ing human abilities and potential, demon-strating that children who were "slow."deprived, and poor could thrive and growunder the right set of conditions. Thisarticle attempts to review Gardner's theoryof Multiple Intelligences, show how Mon-tessori and Gardner drew similar conclu-sions regarding human capacity and po-tential, and examine how Gardner's eightintelligences and underlying core opera-tions lie at the heart of the Montessoriexercises and activities.
In Frames of Mind: The Theory of Mul-tiple ¡lUelligences. written in 1983, HowardGardner defined intelligence as "the abilityto solve problems or to create products thatare valued within one or more culturalsettings" (1999, p. 33). Revising his defini-tion in 1999, he defined intelligence as "abiophsychological potential to process in-formation that can be activated in a culturalsetting to solve problems orcreate productsthat are of value in a culture'' (p. 34).Gardner sees intelligences as potentials,possibly neural ones, that may or may notbe activated depending upon the values ofa culture, the opportunities available in thatculture, and the personal decisions made byindividuals and/or their families, teachers,and other members of the society.
Gardner (1999) applied the followingeight criteria derived from disciplinessuch as biology, anthropology, psychol-ogy, and psychometiics to determine if amental faculty could be classified as ahuman intelligence:
• the potential isolationby brain damage;
• an evolutionary his-tory and evolutionaryplausibility;
• an identifiable coreoperation or set ofcore operations;
• susceptibility to en-coding in a symbolsystem;
• a distinct develop-mental history, alongwith a definable set of
expert "end-state" performances;• the existence of idiot savants, prodigies,
and other exceptional individuals;• support from experimental psycho-
logical tasks;• support from psychometric findings.Gardneridentifiedeighthumanintelligen-
ces (see Table I ), each one having certaincore operations—capacities that seem cen-tral to an bitelligence, for example, as pho-nemic discriminations would be to linguis-tic intelligence or mental calculations ofnumbers would be to logical-mathematicalintelligences. He believes these capacitiesare likely to be mediated by specific neuralmechanisms and triggered by relevant in-ternal or external typesof information.
Gardner originallydescribed seven intelli-gences and then sev-eral years ago added aneighth. He believes thatall human beings pos-sess the eight differentinteUigences, that eachperson has a uniqueblend of intelligences,and that no two peoplehave exactly the sameprofile of strengths andweaknesses with re-spect to intelligences.He also points out thatstrength in one area ofintelligence does notpredict strength or
weakness in other areas. Gardner also be-lieves that any intelligence can be enhancedby concerted effort.
Table 2 presents Gardner's descriptionof the eight intelligences and examples ofend-state performances. Gardner is stillconsidering other possible candidates asintelligences, including existential intel-ligence, observed in individuals con-cerned with questions regarding life'smeaning and issues of human existence.
Shared ConclusionsAlthough working in different cultures
and different times, Montessori and Gard-ner came to many of the same conclusionsregarding human development. First, bothMontessori and Gardner derived their theo-ries based upon daily, firsthand observationand experience working with people, bothnormal and with exceptionalities. Montes-soH worked first with retarded, then urban,deprived children. Gardner focused his at-tention upon adults with various forms ofbrain damage, as well as nonnal and giftedchildren. These experiences enabled themboth to understand and appreciate the widerange of abilities and capacities found inhuman nature and to challenge rigid andnarrow beliefs about human potential.
Table 1. Intelligence and Core Operations
Type of Intelligence
Linguistic
Logicai-mathematical
Musical
Bodiiy-kinesthetic
Spatial
Interpersonal
intrapersonai
Examples of Core Operations
Syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics
Patterns, calculations, number, relations
Pitch, rhythm, timbre
Control of bodily motions, skillful objecthandling
Mental visualization, mental manipulationand transformation of images
Awareness of the feelings, moods,motivations, and desires of others
Awareness of one's own feelings, desires,capacities
Naturalist Recognition, classification of objects in theenvironments
40 Montessori LIFE -Winter 2003
Second, as a result of their shared under-standing and appreciation of human nature,both Montessori and Gardner noted theuniqueness of each individual. They ob-served that individual differences begin toberevealed in the earliest years of life, and thatindividual strengths in one area of ability donot necessarily ensure or predict strengths inother areas. Montessori writes, "little chil-dren soon reveal profound individual differ-ences which call for very different kinds ofhelp from the teacher" ( 1964, p. 231 ). Gardner( 1997,1999) states that in the area of intelli-gence, no two people have exactly the sameintelligences, nor in the same combination,and that understanding and valuing theseuniquenesses and differences and utilizingthem for the benefit of society is of utmostimportance. He states, in fact, that takinghuman differences seriously lies at the heartof Multiple Intelligence Theory.
Third, for both Montessori and Gardner,the interaction of nature and nurture playsa significant role in the development ofhuman capabilities. With respect to ge-netic heritability, Montessori observes thatthe origins of development lie within theindividual and that children seem to pos-sess what she calls natural tendencies.
Both Montessori andGardner see humandevelopment as the
restât of an ongoing anddynamic interactionbetween genetic and
environmental factors.
In a similar vein, Gardner posits thathuman abilities, like human differences,have a genetic base. Both Montessori andGardner, however, see human develop-ment as the result of an ongoing and dy-namic interaction between genetic and en-vironmental factors. Montessori (1995)strongly believed that the child's mind ab-sorbs the environment, leaving lasting im-pressions upon it, forming it, and providingnourishment for it. She warned that thequality of the environment can greatly en-hance a child's life or seriously diminish it.Gardner, too, emphasizes the importance
Table 2. Gardner's Description of Intelligences
Intelligence and Description
1. Linguistic: sensitivity to spoken and writtenlanguage; the ability to leam language; the capacity touse language to accomplish goals
2. Logical-tnathematical: capacity to analyzeproblems logically, carry out mathematical operationsand Investigate issues scientHically
3. Musical: entails skill in performances, composition,and appreciation of musical patterns
4. Bodily-kinesethetic: entails fhe potential of usingone's whole body or parts of fhe body (like the hand ormoufh) to solve problems or fashion products
5. Spatial: involves fhe pofenfial to recognize andmanipulate fhe pafterns of wide spaces and confinedspaces
6. Interpersonal: denotes a person's capacify founderstand the infentions, mofivafions, and desires ofother people
7. ¡ntrapersonal: involves the capacity to understandoneself, to have an effective working model of oneself,including one's own desires, fears, and capacifies, and touse such information effectively in regulating one's own life
8. Naturalist: demonstrates experfise in therecognifion and classification of the numerousspecies—the flora and fauna—as well as artificialobjects in the environment
Salespeople, teachers, clinicians,politicians, actors, religious leaders
Farmers, botanists, geologists,archeologists
of the environment on the development ofhuman capabilities. Gardner believes thatthe "smarter" the environment and themore powerful the interventions and re-sources, the more competent individualswill become and the less important will betheir particular genetic inheritance. He as-serts that even individuals who seem giftedin a specific intelligence will accomplishlittle if they are not exposed to resourcesand materials that support that intelligence.
Differences In FocusDespite similarities in their viewpoints,
Montessori and Gardner differ to somedegree in the focus of their work.
First, from the beginning of her career,Montessori was concemed with the educa-tion and welfare of children, especially poorchildren. Her concem and passion for theneeds of children translated directly into theestablishment of a school, the developmentof a teaching method, a curriculum, didacticmatetials, parent education, teacher training,and social action in the community. Montes-sori based her pliilosophy and methodologyon her work with children and teachers and,intitm,herdevelopingphilosophyandmeth-odology influenced her practice.
In contrast, Gardner's work from itsinception was theoretical, based uponobservation and research, not practice.His work led him to the redefining ofhuman intelligence and the constructionof a new theory of human ititelHgence.Gardner did not develop a specific educa-tional approach or specific application ofmultiple intelligence theory to practice,nor view his theory as an educationalprescriptive. He believes that educatorsshould determine how multiple intelli-gence theory should guide their practiceand warns against superficial or self-serv-ing applications of the theory in educa-tional settings.
Second, Montessori ' s philosophy, theory,and method encompass all aspects of hu-man potential, including character, moral
Montessori LIFE «Winter 2003 41
Area/Exercise
Practical LifePouringButtoningSweeping
SensorialTOUC/Î; Geo. Solids
Visual: Solid insetsCylinder boxes(2-3 children)
Auditory:Set of Bells
(2-3 children)
Smell:Smelling Boxes
LanguageSandpaper LettersMovable Alphabet
Objects with wordson cards(2-3 children)
MathematicsSandpaper Numerals
Number Rods
Golden beads
Table 3. Relation of Montessori Curriculum to Gardner's
development, and spiritual growth. Shewrites, "Our educational aim with veryyoung children must be to aid the spontane-ous development of the mental, spiritualand physical personality" (1964, p. 230).
Gardner's focus, however, remains spe-cifically on those areas of human poten-tial he has defined as intelligences, intheir various forms and combinations.Although he has considered character.
moral, and spiritual issues in his work,they are not considered a part of MultipleIntelligence theory because they do notmeet his criterion for an intelligence.
Long before the introduction of Piaget'scognitive-developmental theory of children'sintelügence, Kohlberg's theory of moraldevelopment, and Gardner's theory of mul-tiple intelligences, Maria Montessori (1912)wrote about a method and curriculum for the
teaching and development of young chil-dren. In the description of her method andtechniques, she reveals her deep regard forall aspects of the child's development andprofound respect for the innate, unique po-tential she sees within each individual child,needing only the right environment to en-courage what is within to evolve.
Montessori realized the significance ofeach area of human potential or intelligence
42 Montessori LIFE • Winter 2003
in the experiences and materials she createdfor the children in her school. She seems tohave created her exercises to touch uponmany of the core operations of the eightintelligences described by Gardner and cre-ated multisensory experiences which acti-vate combinations of intelligences. For ex-ample, a Montessori mathematics lesson onthe geometric solids uses bodily-kinestheticintelligence in feeling the forms, visual/spa-tial in observing and internalizing images ofthe forms, logical-mathematical intelligencein establishing relations between them,naturalistic intelligence in observing andclassifying them, and linguistic in labelingthem. If the child did this activity with otherchildren, he or she could also exchangeideas about the forms and share them, thusutilizing interpersonal intelligence.
Table 3 is an analysis of Montessori'scurriculum as it relates to Gardner's eightinteUigences. A brief overview of the Mon-tessori curriculum areas indicates how eachof the materials encompasses at least oneintelligence and several core operations.For example, the Practical Life area exer-cises combine the use of Bodily-kinestheticand Spatial intelligences. The Sensorialexercises include many of the intelligences,such as Bodily-kinesthetic, Spatial, Logi-cal-mathematical, Naturalist, Linguistic,and Interpersonal, if children are workingtogether.Lí3/7 ií¿ígeexercises utilize Bodily-kinesthetic, Spatial, Linguistic, and Inter-personal intelligences, and mathematics.Nature and Social Studies engage Natural-ist, Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-mathemati-cal. Spatial, Intetpersonal, and Linguisticintelligences. Art, Gymnastics, and Musicinvolve Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-math-ematical, Spatial, andMusical intelligences.
Montessori addressed the personal andsocial life of the child, as well. For example,she wrote extensively about the itnportanceof self-knowledge and self-régulât i on,(Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence). Shewrites: "We call an individual disciplinedwhen he is master of himself and can, there-fore, regulate his own conduct when it shallbe necessary to follow some title of life....Each oneof[thechildren] perfects himselfthrough his own powers, and goes forwai'dguided by that inner force which distin-guishes him as an individual" (1964, p. 86).
Many Montessori activities and exer-cises support the development of indepen-dence, decision-making, self-conü-ol, mas-tery, and discovery. She also recognizedthat children need to function in a socialworid and in community with others. Bydeveloping self-care .skills, self-control,manners, good habits, and polite conversa-tion, Montessori prepared her children to
Montessori .seenu to have created her exercisesto touch upon many ofihe core operations ofthe eight intelligences described by Gardnerand created multisensoiy experiences whichactivate combinations of intelligences.
enter into human society. But more impor-tant was that her children learned to respecteach other, help and teach one another, andshare and enjoy games, activities, and music.These practices and activities of the Montes-soti classroom encompass aspects of whatGardner calls Interpersonal intelligence.
In SummaryThis article has provided an updated
overview of Howard Gardner's Theoryof Multiple Intelligences and pointed outways in which Maria Montessori andHoward Gardner, although differing inthe focus of their work, came to verysimilar conclusions about human abili-ties and potentials. The exercises andactivities in Montessori's curriculum en-gage many of the core operations in theeight intelligences described by Gardner.
Both Maria Montessori and HowardGardner were revolutionary figures intheir fields. By challenging the statusquo, they have brought us to a greater
understanding of the potential of humanbeings through their gift of penetratingobservation and analysis of little childrenand adults with exceptionalities.
DR. PATRICIA A. VARDIN, educationalconsultant and parent educator, is asso-ciate professor and chair of the EarlyChildhood Department at Manhattan-ville College, Purchase, NY.
ReferencesGardner. H. ( 1983). Frame.s of mind: The lheor\ of
tmiliiple huelligcnce.s. New York: Basic.Gardtier. H. (1997). E.\ii-ciordinaiy minds. New York:
Basic.Gardner. H. (1999). Inlelligence refrained: Multiple
intelligences for the 2 ¡"centui-y. New York: Basic.Montessori. M. (1964). The Montessori method. New
York: Schocken.Montessori, M. (1995). The absorbent mind. New
York: Holt.
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