Country fact sheet September 2017 Photo: © Toni García, My City/EEA Land cover 2012 Montenegro
Country fact sheet
September 2017
Photo: © Toni García, My City/EEA
Land cover 2012
Montenegro
Montenegro
1
Land cover 2012 Overview of land cover & change 2006-2012 Comparing all three analytical periods of CLC changes, shows a slightly increasing trend in intensity of landscape development in Montenegro. However, with an annual land cover change rate of 0.06%, the overall pace of land cover development in the country is still very low in the European context. Untypically, changes due to natural and multiple causes are the main driver of landscape exchange in this country. This is caused by the occurrence of large forest fires in this period. On the other hand, the intensity of forest creation and management, which was the main driver in the previous period, decreased significantly and its level is comparable with the period 1990-2000. This change is caused by rapid decrease of intensity of both directions of forest internal transitions. Artificial development shows an increasing trend, with an annual land take rate of 0.55%, which is one of the highest rates in Europe. The main drivers of urban extension are sprawl of mines and quarrying areas and of sport and leisure facilities. On the other hand, the intensity of agricultural development is rather low, with prevailing share of internal conversions, in particular conversion from pasture to arable or crop land. Note: The results presented here are based on a change analysis of 44 land cover types mapped consistently on a 1:100.000 scale across Europe over more than decade between 2000-2006-2012 - see Corine land cover (CLC) programme for details. Number of years between CLC2006-CLC2012 data for Montenegro: 6
2%0.3%
16%
63%
8%
8%
1%2%
1.1. Land cover 2012[% of total]
-3000
-1000
1000
3000
1.2. Net change in land cover 2006-2012 [ha]
-1.0
1.0
3.0
1.3. Net change in land cover [% of initial year
2006]
A rtific ial areas A rable land & permanent c rops Pas tures & mosaics Fores ted land
Semi-natural vegetation O pen spaces/ bare soils Wetlands Water bodies
Summary balance table 2006-2012
Art
ific
ial a
rea
s
Ara
ble
lan
d &
pe
rma
ne
nt
cro
ps
Pa
stu
res
& m
osa
ics
Fo
rest
ed
lan
d
Se
mi-
na
tura
l v
eg
eta
tio
n
Op
en
sp
ace
s/ b
are
so
ils
We
tla
nd
s
Wa
ter
bo
die
s
TO
TA
L[h
un
dre
ds
ha
]
Land cover 2006 241 41 2143 8583 1103 1124 126 287 13650
Consumption of initial LC 1.9 1.0 4.4 38.9 1.0 5.9 0.0 0.0 53
Formation of new LC 9.9 2.1 1.0 12.6 0.0 27.7 0.0 0.0 53
Net Formation of LC 7.9 1.2 -3.5 -26.4 -1.0 21.8 0.0 0.0 0
Net formation as % of initial year 3.3 2.8 -0.2 -0.3 -0.1 1.9 0.0 0.0
Total turnover of LC 11.8 3.1 5.4 51.5 1.0 33.6 0.0 0.0 106
Total turnover as % of initial year 4.9 7.4 0.3 0.6 0.1 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.8
Land cover 2012 249 43 2140 8557 1102 1146 126 287 13650
Montenegro
2
Land cover trends comparison 2000-2006 vs. 2006-2012
0.04%
0.06%
0 300 600 900
2000-2006
2006-2012
2.4. Annual land cover change[ha/year, % of total area]
0 300 600 900
Artificial areas
Arable land& permanent crops
Pastures& mosaics
Forested land
Semi-natural vegetation
Open spaces/ bare soils
Wetlands
Water bodies
2.5. Annual turnover of LC types [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
-500 -200 100 400
Artificial areas
Arable land& permanent crops
Pastures& mosaics
Forested land
Semi-natural vegetation
Open spaces/ bare soils
Wetlands
Water bodies
2.6. Net annual change of LC types [ha/year]
Summary trend figures 2000-2006 2006-2012
Annual land cover change [ha/year] 587 887
Annual land cover change as % of initial year 0.04% 0.06%Land uptake by artificial development as mean annual change [ha/year] 65 132
Agricultural land uptake by urban and infrastructures development as mean annual change [ha/year] 31 44
Net uptake of forests and semi-natural land by agriculture as mean annual change [ha/year] 12 6
Net conversion from pasture to arable land and permanent crops as mean annual change [ha/year] 7 26
Forest & other woodland net formation as mean annual change [ha/year] -77 -439
Dry semi-natural land cover net formation as mean annual change [ha/year] 45 345
Wetlands & water bodies net formation as mean annual change [ha/year] 0 0
0
200
400
lcf1
Urb
an la
ndm
anag
emen
t
lcf2
Urb
anre
side
ntia
l spr
awl
lcf3
Spr
awl o
fec
onom
ic s
ites
and
infr
astr
uctu
res
lcf4
Agr
icul
ture
inte
rnal
conv
ersi
ons
lcf5
Con
vers
ion
from
for
este
d &
natu
ral l
and
toag
ricu
lture
lcf6
Withd
raw
al o
ffa
rmin
g
lcf7
For
ests
crea
tion
and
man
agem
ent
lcf8
Wat
er b
odie
scr
eation
an
dm
anag
emen
t
lcf9
Cha
nges
due
to n
atur
al a
ndm
ultip
le c
ause
s
2.7. Intensity of main change drivers (LC FLOWS) [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
3
Artificial surfaces sprawl (2006-2012)
0.27
%
0.55
%
0
50
100
2000-2006 2006-2012
3.8. Artificial land take [ha/year,
% of initial year]
Artificial development
Artificial development in Montenegro is getting more and more intensive, with an annual artificial land take rate of 0,55%, it became one of the fastest in Europe. The internal structure is quite different, compared with the previous period. The most powerful driver is sprawl of mines and quarrying areas, which occurs in more than doubled intensity than in 2000-2006. Next, sprawl of sport and leisure facilities and industrial and commercial areas, which was almost absent in the previous period, became very powerful in 2006-2012. The residential sprawl in Montenegro is also quite significant, however, only a bit more intensive compared to the previous period. Beside the sprawl itself, artificial development is also represented by frequent urban development/infilling and recycling of developed urban land. Geographically, the artificial development is concentrated mainly around the capital city of Podgorica and also along the seashore. The extension of mining areas is concentrated around the Pljevlja city in the northern part of the country.
81%
7%
3%8% 1%
3.9. Artificial surfaces 2012 [% of total area]
0 20 40 60
3.10. Artificial land take 2006-2012 [ha/year]
0
20
40
Con
tinu
ous
urba
n fa
bric
Dis
cont
inuo
us u
rban
fab
ric
Ind
ustr
ial o
r co
mm
erci
al u
nits
Roa
d an
d ra
il ne
twor
ks a
ndas
soci
ated
land
Por
t ar
eas
Airpo
rts
Min
eral
ext
ract
ion
site
s
Dum
p si
tes
Con
stru
ctio
n si
tes
Gre
en u
rban
are
as
Spo
rt a
nd le
isur
e fa
cilit
ies
3.11. Mean annual artificial change by class [ha/year]
2000-2012
2006-2012
Montenegro
4
Agriculture (2006-2012)
Pasture land consumption by artificial sprawl
The intensity of agricultural development in Montenegro is very low in the long term, which is valid also for the period 2006-2012. There occurs some amount of agricultural land consumption by artificial sprawl – compared to previous period, this flow is more intensive. It is represented by consumption of pastures, agricultural land with natural vegetation or complex cultivation patterns by extension of mainly industrial/commercial and mineral extraction sites or urban fabric. From the perspective of internal agricultural flows, the conversion of pasture to arable and permanent crops is more frequent, however, also the intensity of these internal exchanges is quite low. Geographically, agricultural conversions are concentrated almost exclusively in the small lowland around the capital city Podgorica.
2110.4%
2211%
2220.1%
2230.2%
23112%241
0.1%
24213%
24374%
2440.2%
4.12. Agricultural areas 2012 [% of total area]
-9.8
9%
-0.3
6%
-1.1
2%
-0.2
1%
-0.0
6%
4.02
%
7.02
%
0.23
%
0.05
%
0.01
%
-300
-100
100
Non
-irr
igat
ed a
rabl
e la
nd
Per
man
ently
irriga
ted
land
Ric
e fie
lds
Vin
eyar
ds
Fru
it t
rees
and
ber
ry p
lant
atio
ns
Oliv
e gr
oves
Pas
ture
s
Ann
ual/
pe
rman
ent
crop
s
Com
plex
cul
t. p
atte
rns
Agr
icul
ture
with
nat
. ve
g.
Agr
o-fo
rest
ry a
reas
4.13. Development of agricultural areas 2006-2012– detailed balance [ha]
Consumption of initial land cover
Formation of new land cover 211 Non-irrigated arable land
212 Permanently irrigated land
213 Rice fields
221 Vineyards
222 Fruit trees and berry plantations
223 Olive groves
231 Pastures
241 Annual crops associated with permanent crops242 Complex cultivation patterns
243 Agriculture land with significant areas of natural vegetation244 Agro-forestry areas
-40-30-20-10
0102030
Non
-irr
igat
ed a
rabl
e la
nd
Per
man
ently
irriga
ted
land
Ric
e fie
lds
Vin
eyar
ds
Fru
it t
rees
and
ber
ry p
lant
atio
ns
Oliv
e gr
oves
Pas
ture
s
Ann
ual/
per
man
ent
crop
s
Com
plex
cul
t. p
atte
rns
Agr
icul
ture
with
nat
. ve
g.
Agr
o-fo
rest
ry a
reas
4.14. Mean annual agricultural change by class [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
5
Forest & nature (2006-2012)
76%
10%
10%
1%3%
5.15. Forest & nature areas 2012
[% of total area]
Forest
Semi-natural vegetation
Open spaces/ bare soils
Wetlands
Water bodies
Frequent forest and shrub fires
Development of natural landscape is the most powerful land cover change driver in Montenegro. However, much of this flow is realized through frequent forest fires, which occurred between 2006 and 2012. These fires were by far not so frequent in the previous period. As a result, net formation of burnt area is about 217% in this period. Mostly broad-leaved forests or transitional woodlands were destroyed by the fires. Despite losing about half of its intensity, compared to period 2000-2006, forest creation and management is the second most intensive change driver in the country. It is represented mostly by recent felling and also by afforestation of burnt areas. Externally, natural land is consumed by sprawl of economic sites and infrastructures. This mainly concerns broad-leaved forests and transitional woodland and shrub areas.
-0.6
1%
-0.2
9%
-0.2
7%
-0.0
4%
-0.5
8%
-0.3
8%
-0.7
2%
-0.0
3%
-49.
19%
0.02
%
0.01
%
0.40
%
0.28
%
0.03
%
245.
95%
-3000
-1000
1000
3000
Bro
ad-l
eave
d fo
rest
Con
ifero
us for
est
Mix
ed for
est
Nat
ural
gra
ssla
nd
Moo
rs a
nd h
eath
land
Scl
erop
hyllo
us v
eget
atio
n
Tra
nsitio
nal w
oodl
and
shr
ub
Bea
ches
, du
nes,
san
d
Bar
e ro
ck
Spa
rsel
y ve
geta
ted
area
s
Bur
nt a
reas
Gla
cier
s/pe
rp.
snow
Inl
and
mar
shes
Pea
tbog
s
Sal
t m
arsh
es
Sal
ines
Int
ertida
l fla
ts
Wat
er c
ours
es
Wat
er b
odie
s
Coa
stal
lago
ons
Est
uaries
Sea
and
oce
an
5.16. Development of forest & nature areas 2006-2012 – detailed balance [ha]
Consumption of initial land cover
Formation of new land cover
-400
-100
200
Bro
ad-l
eave
d fo
rest
Con
ifero
us for
est
Mix
ed for
est
Nat
ural
gra
ssla
nd
Moo
rs a
nd h
eath
land
Scl
erop
hyllo
us v
eget
atio
n
Tra
nsitio
nal w
oodl
and
shr
ub
Bea
ches
, du
nes,
san
d
Bar
e ro
ck
Spa
rsel
y ve
geta
ted
are
as
Bur
nt a
reas
Gla
cier
s an
d pe
rpet
ual s
now
Inl
and
mar
shes
Pea
tbog
s
Sal
t m
arsh
es
Sal
ines
Int
ertida
l fla
ts
Wat
er c
ours
es
Wat
er b
odie
s
Coa
stal
lago
ons
Est
uaries
Sea
and
oce
an
5.17. Mean annual forest & nature change by class [ha/year]2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
6
Annex: Land cover flows and trends Land cover flows 2006-2012
4% 2%8%
73%
2%
11%
6.18. Consumption of land cover2006-2012 [% of total change
area]
18%
4%
2%
24%
52%
6.19. Formation of land cover 2006-2012 [% of total change
area]
A rtific ial areas A rable land & permanent c rops Pas tures & mosaics Fores ted land
Semi-natural vegetation O pen spaces/ bare soils Wetlands Water bodies
lcf13%
lcf22%
lcf313%
lcf45%
lcf51%
lcf724%
lcf952%
6.20. Drivers of change (LC FLOWS)2006-2012 [% of total change area]
lc f1 U rban land management
lc f2 U rban res idential sprawl
lc f3 Sprawl of economic s ites and infras truc tures
lc f4 A griculture internal convers ions
lc f5 C onvers ion from fores ted & natural land to agriculture
lc f6 Withdrawal of farming
lc f7 Fores ts c reation and management
lc f8 Water bodies c reation and management
lc f9 C hanges due to natural and multiple causes
Montenegro
7
Artificial areas
Arable land &
permanent crops4%
Pastures & mosaics
29%
Forested land49%
Semi-natural
vegetation12%
Open spaces / bare soils
6%
7.21. Consumption by artificial land take2006-2012 [% of total]
Disc. urban fabric12%
Industrial/commerc.
17%
Road/rail network
5%
Mineral extraction
37%
Dump sites4%
Construct.10%
Sport/leisure17%
7.22. Formation by artificial land take2006-2012 [% of total]
0.26%
0.55%
0 50 100
2000-2006
2006-2012
7.23. Net formation of artificial area [ha/year, % of initial year]
-20 10 40
lcf11Urban development/ infilling(cons.)
lcf11Urban development/ infilling(form.)
lcf12 Recycling of developed urbanland (cons.)
lcf12 Recycling of developed urbanland (form.)
lcf13 Development of green urbanareas (cons.)
lcf13 Development of green urbanareas (form.)
lcf21 Urban dense residential sprawl
lcf22 Urban diffuse residential sprawl
lcf31 Sprawl of industrial &commercial sites
lcf32 Sprawl of transport networks
lcf33 Sprawl of harbours
lcf34 Sprawl of airports
lcf35 Sprawl of mines and quarryingareas
lcf36 Sprawl of dumpsites
lcf37 Construction
lcf38 Sprawl of sport and leisurefacilities (cons.)
lcf38 Sprawl of sport and leisurefacilities (form.)
lcf54 Conversion from developed areasto agriculture
lcf72 Forest creation, afforestation
lcf81 Water bodies creation
lcf911 Semi-natural creation
lcf913 Extension of water courses
lcf92 Forests and shrubs fires
lcf93 Coastal erosion
lcf99 Other changes and unknown(cons.)
lcf99 Other changes and unknown(form.)
7.24. Artificial development by change drivers(LC FLOWS) [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
8
Agriculture
Broad-leaved forest36%
Natural grassland
18%
Transition. woodland/
shrub44%
8.25. LC consumed by agriculture 2006-2012 [% of total]
Vineyards24%
Pastures15%
Agriculture with
natural veg.61%
8.26. Formation of agricultural land from non-agriculture 2006-2012 [% of total]
Non-irrigated arable11%
Pastures34%
Complex cultivation patterns
20%
Agriculture with
natural veg.35%
8.27. Consumption of agricultural landby non-agriculture 2006-2012 [% of total]
Disc. urban fabric19%
Industrial/commercial
38%
Road/rail network
3%
Mineral extraction
28%
Construct.7%
Sport/leisure
6%
8.28. Formation of non-agricultural landfrom agriculture 2006-2012 [% of total]
-1 1 3 5
Conversion from forest toagriculture
Conversion from dry semi-natural& natural land to agriculture
Conversion from wetlands toagriculture
Withdrawal of farming withwoodland creation
Withdrawal of farming withoutsignificant woodland creation
8.29. Main annual conversions between agriculture and forests & semi-natural land
2006-2012 [ha/year]
-35 -15 5
Extension of pasture, set asideand fallow land
Conversion from pasture toarable and permanent crops
8.30. Mean annual conversion between arable land and pasture [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
9
0 20 40
lcf411 Uniform extension ofset aside fallow land and
pasture
lcf412 Diffuse extension of setaside fallow land and pasture
lcf421 Conversion from arableland to permanent irrigation
perimeters
lcf422 Other internalconversions of arable land
lcf431 Conversion from olivesgroves to vineyards and
orchards
lcf432 Conversion fromvineyards and orchards to
olive groves
lcf433 Other conversionsbetween vineyards and
orchards
lcf441 Conversion frompermanent crops topermanent irrigation
perimeters
lcf442 Conversion fromvineyards and orchards tonon-irrigated arable land
lcf443 Conversion from olivegroves to non-irrigated arable
land
lcf444 Diffuse conversion frompermanent crops to arable
land
lcf451 Conversion from arableland to vineyards and orchards
lcf452 Conversion from arableland to olive groves
lcf453 Diffuse conversion fromarable land to permanent
crops
lcf461 Conversion frompasture to permanentirrigation perimeters
lcf462 Intensive conversionfrom pasture to non-irrigatedarable land and permanent
crops
lcf463 Diffuse conversion frompasture to arable and
permanent crops
lcf47 Extension of agro-forestry
9.31. Mean annual agriculture internalconversions [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
-40 -20 0 20
lcf13 Development of green urban areas
lcf2 Urban residential sprawl
lcf3 Sprawl of economic sites andinfrastructures
lcf511 Intensive conversion from forestto agriculture
lcf512 Diffuse conversion from forest toagriculture
lcf521 Intensive conversion from semi-natural land to agriculture
lcf522 Diffuse conversion from semi-natural land to agriculture
lcf523 Conversions from agriculture-nature mosaics to continuousagriculture (cont. agri. cons.)
lcf523 Conversions from agriculture-nature mosaics to continuousagriculture (cont. agri. form.)
lcf53 Conversion from wetlands toagriculture
lcf54 Conversion from developed areasto agriculture
lcf61 Withdrawal of farming withwoodland creation
lcf62 Withdrawal of farming withoutsignificant woodland creation
lcf81 Water bodies creation
lcf913 Extension of water courses
lcf92 Forests and shrubs fires
lcf93 Coastal erosion
lcf99 Other changes and unknown (agri.cons.)
lcf99 Other changes and unknown (agri.form.)
9.32. Mean annual conversions between agricultureand other LC types [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
10
Forest & nature
10.33. LC consumed by forest & nature2006-2012 [% of total]
10.34. Formation of forest & nature land from non-forest /nature 2006-2012
[% of total]
Broad-leaved forest29%
Coniferous forest3%
Mixed forest10%Natural
grassland7%
Scleroph. veg.11%
Transition. woodland/
shrub29%
Beaches, dunes,
sand plains2%
Sparsely vegetated
areas5%
10.35. Consumption of forest & nature landby non-forest/nature 2006-2012 [% of
total]
Disc. urban fabric9%
Industrial/commerc.
6%
Road/rail network
6%
Mineral extraction
39%
Dump sites5%
Construct.10%
Sport/leisure21%
Vineyards1%
Pastures1%
Agriculture with
natural veg.4%
10.36. Formation of non-forest/nature landfrom forest & nature 2006-2012 [% of total]
Broad-leaved forest43%
Conifer. forest11%
Mixed forest12%
Transit.woodland
shrub34%
10.37. Forested land 2012 [% of total area]
0 30 60 90
Consumption of forest land byurban sprawl
Conversion from forest toagriculture
Recent fellings and transitions
Withdrawal of farming withwoodland creation
Forest creation, afforestation
Conversion from transitionalwoodland to forests
Forest creation over wetlands
10.38. Main trends in woodland & forests consumption/formation 2006-2012
[ha/year]
Montenegro
11
Natural grassland
44%
Moors and
heathl.0.2%
Scleroph. veget.
5%
Beaches, dunes
and sand 1%
Bare rock7%
Sparsely veget. areas42%
Burnt areas2%
11.39. Dry semi-natural areas 2012 [% of total area]
0 30 60 90
Consumption of dry semi-naturalland cover by urban sprawl
Conversion of semi-natural landcover to agriculture
Forest creation, afforestation overdry semi-natural land
Withdrawal of farming withoutwoodland creation
Decrease of permanent snow andglaciers
11.40. Main trends in dry semi-natural land consumption/formation 2006-2012
[ha/year]
Inland marshes
27%
Salt marshes
0.3%
Salines4%
Water courses
1%
Water bodies68%
11.41. Wetlands & water 2012[% of total area]
0 0
Consumption of wetlands by urbansprawl
Conversion of wetlands toagriculture
Forest creation and afforestationover wetlands
Withdrawal of farming withoutwoodland creation
Net water bodies creation
Net wetlands creation
11.42. Main trends in wetlands & water consumption/formation 2006-2012
[ha/year]
-500 -200 100
lcf13 Development of green urban areas
lcf2 Urban residential sprawl
lcf3 Sprawl of economic sites and infrastructures
lcf511 Intensive conversion from forest to agriculture
lcf512 Diffuse conversion from forest to agriculture
lcf61 Withdrawal of farming with woodland creation
lcf71 Conversion from transitional woodland to forest (cons.)
lcf71 Conversion from transitional woodland to forest (form.)
lcf72 Forest creation, afforestation
lcf73 Forests internal conversions (cons.)
lcf73 Forests internal conversions (form.)
lcf74 Recent felling and transition (cons.)
lcf74 Recent felling and transition (form.)
lcf8 Water bodies creation and management
lcf9 Changes of land cover due to natural and multiple causes (cons.)
lcf9 Changes of land cover due to natural and multiple causes (form.)
11.43. Mean annual conversions of forest & other woodland[ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
12
-100 100 300 500
lcf13 Development of green urban areas
lcf2 Urban residential sprawl
lcf3 Sprawl of economic sites and infrastructures
lcf521 Intensive conversion from semi-natural land to agriculture
lcf522 Diffuse conversion from semi-natural land to agriculture
lcf523 Conversions from agriculture-nature mosaics to continuous…
lcf62 Withdrawal of farming without significant woodland creation
lcf72 Forest creation, afforestation
lcf74 Recent felling and transition
lcf8 Water bodies creation and management
lcf82 Water bodies management
lcf911 Semi-natural creation (form.)
lcf912 Semi-natural rotation (cons.)
lcf912 Semi-natural rotation (form.)
lcf913 Extension of water courses (cons.)
lcf92 Forests and shrubs fires (cons.)
lcf92 Forests and shrubs fires (form.)
lcf93 Coastal erosion (cons.)
lcf94 Decrease in permanent snow and glaciers cover (cons.)
lcf94 Decrease in permanent snow and glaciers cover (form.)
lcf99 Other changes and unknown (cons.)
lcf99 Other changes and unknown (form.)
12.44. Mean annual conversions of dry semi-natural LC [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
-1 1 3
lcf13 Development of green urban areas
lcf2 Urban residential sprawl
lcf3 Sprawl of economic sites and infrastructures
lcf53 Conversion from wetlands to agriculture
lcf62 Withdrawal of farming without significant woodland creation
lcf72 Forest creation, afforestation
lcf8 Water bodies creation and management (cons.)
lcf81 Water bodies creation
lcf9 Changes of land cover due to natural and multiple causes (other thanLCF91)
lcf9 Changes of land cover due to natural and multiple causes (other thanLCF912)
lcf911 Semi-natural creation (form.)
lcf912 Semi-natural rotation (cons.)
lcf912 Semi-natural rotation (form.)
lcf913 Extension of water courses (form.)
12.45. Mean annual conversions of wetlands and water LC [ha/year]
2000-2006
2006-2012
Montenegro
13
CLC Changes 2006-2012
CLC Changes 2000-2006
Montenegro
14
Drivers of change 2006-2012
Drivers of change 2000-2006
Montenegro
15
Artificial sprawl 2006-2012
Artificial sprawl 2000-2006
Montenegro
16
Agriculture 2006-2012
Agriculture 2000-2006
Montenegro
17
Forest and nature 2006-2012
Forest and nature 2000-2006