Mohammed Khalid: India in the Changing Geopolitics of the Indian Ocean

INDIA IN THE CHANGING GEOPOLITICS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN

By:*Dr. Mohammed Khalid

ABSTRACT

Indian and the Indian Ocean are two inseparable entities. India owes its geophysical existence to the Indian Ocean. Throughout history India has been interacting with the lands and the peoples of its littoral through religion, culture and other means. There existed a certain unity in the Ocean for centuries till it was broken by the advent and impact of the advancing European colonial powers after 16th century.

Exist of the colonial powers -the British, Dutch, French etc.- from the region after the Second World War made the countries of the region to refashion their foreign policies keeping in view their national interests, the emerging geopolitical realities and the dawning of Cold War in the region.

India, uniquely positioned in the centre of the Indian Ocean realm opted for the non-alignment as its foreign policy and stood for making Indian Ocean a 'Zone of Peace'. On the other hand India started building up new relations with the littoral states of the Ocean. Over the last sixty years, India is more engaged than ever in the region through trade, aid and financial assistance. The Country is an important source of science and technology, education, turn-key projects in industry etc. Inspite of the efforts made in this regard, a lot needs to be done and that can happen only if India encashes upon the needs of development starved countries of the region. As an emerging economic and technological power India must consider the Indian Ocean region as the core area of its foreign policy and reinvent and reinvigorate its policy in this regard. It is incumbent on India to play a larger role in the region for its own economic development and to promote prospects of peace and cooperation in the region.

* Sr. Lecturer in Political Science, Dept. of Evening Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh

1

Embedded, and terrestrially moored to the surrounding ocean,

India is a gift of the Indian Ocean.1 The splitting of Gondwanaland

and drifting apart of the continents in their present shape about 150

million years ago,2 defined the contours, character and geographical

parameters of the South Asian sub-continent, of which India is a

preponderant feature.

Named after India by the Arabs who called it Bahr-e-Hind,

Indian Ocean had served as a protective shield around the sub-

continent till maritime activity perforated this shield through the

advent of the Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Until then,

life and history of India was entirely north-bound.3 The advent and

subsequent impact of the Europeans brought about a qualitative

change in the life of the South Asian sub-continent. The

ramifications and resonance of the change defined and determined

the extent and intensity of the Ocean’s linkages with contemporary

India. The experience and the legacy of colonialism–imperialism

have notably contributed to the Country’s consciousness of Indian

Ocean.

India has a long and rich history of cultural and commercial

interaction with the littoral and other territories of the Ocean. In

those times India influenced and attracted the peoples of Indian

Ocean through culture, religion, trade and commerce rather than

through military engagements and war. It is now used as an

ideological- spiritual input, or a buttress for India’s foreign policy

and position there. Otherwise, it is the immediate colonial past that

largely contributes to the present Indian orientation towards the

ocean.

The north-orientation and pre-occupation of Indian state with

the lands and peoples of central and west Asia continued

2

undiminished even under the colonial rule.4 The Second World War

changed this perspective drastically. The importance of the Indian

Ocean was realized in the wake of Japanese penetration of South

Asia, following the fall of Singapore in 1942.5 The “unfortunate

tendency to overlook the sea in the discussion of India’s defence

problems”, was pointed out by Pannikar, who said “India never lost

her independence till she lost the command of the sea in the first

decade of the 16th century.” He emphasized on the setting up of

distant basis like Singapore, Mauritius, Aden and Socotra as

outposts of the country’s defence, so that Indian Ocean must remain

truly Indian.6 Another view in this regard holds that even if India

does not rule the waves of all the oceans of the world, it must at

least rule the Indian Ocean by becoming undisputed power over its

waters.7

India is uniquely located with its triangular shaped southern

peninsula jutting out into the sea. It is washed by the Bay of Bengal

on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west. The 5,700 km8 long

coastline of the mainland has in its eastern part a number of deltas.

The west coast includes two peninsulas of Kutch and Kathiawar.

Western coastline runs more or less straight, the Cape Comorin to

the 22o parallel N. The coastline in the east runs in wide curves,

changing directions from north to north-east from the 16o parallel.9

India has a continental shelf varying in its width from 100 metres to

350 km at varying depths.

Indian Islands:

The Indian territory includes a number of islands in the Bay of

Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The islands in the Bay of Bengal -the

Andaman and Nicobar- are larger and more habitable in contrast to

the Lakshdweep islands in the Arabian Sea, which are small and

3

mostly uninhabited. The former represent elevated portions of

submarine mountains, while the latter islands are entirely built on

corals. The Andamans include 257 islands and Nicobar is composed

of 62 islands in the Bay of Bengal.10 Lying between 14o and 6o S

latitude, they are scattered over an area of 6,374 and 1,645 sq kms

respectively.11 Before independence, these groups of islands were

only marginally bound with the Indian mainland. After

independence, planned development was undertaken to integrate

them with India. These islands provide India a prime geographic

position which no other country enjoys in the Indian Ocean realm.

The geopolitical significance of these two groups of islands lies

in that they extend India’s boundary deep south into the Indian

Ocean, simultaneously making Indonesia, a close neighbour.12 By

extending India’s continental shelf that the archipelago of these

islands provides, the country’s area for exploitation of the shelf and

the Indian Ocean seabed is significantly enlarged.

Centrality of India

By virtue of its location, India has close neighbourhood not

only with Indonesia, Malaysia Thailand, Burma, Bangladesh, Sri

Lanka, Maldives and Pakistan, but it is also central to the entire

Indian Ocean. The African continent and Arabian peninsula to its

west and southwest, and southeast Asia to its east, impart unique

centrality to India in the Indian Ocean.

At independence, the leadership of the country headed by

Jawaharlal Nehru was fully conscious of the implications of this

geographical position. It was duly taken into account in the shaping

of India’s foreign relations. Country’s rapid economic development

was an urgent, high priority, which could not occur unless security

4

environment in its neighbourhood, and the Indian Ocean region as a

whole was congenial and conducive. For achieving an enduringly

peaceful security environment, it was imperative for India not

merely to stay away from the then emerging Cold War and military

alliances following the World War II, but also to see that their

pernicious impact did not impinge or enter this region. Nehru

regarded India as too big a country to be bound down in military or

political alliances of any kind to any country, however big that

country may be.13 He maintained:

"I do not say that our country is superior or that we are

above passion and prejudice, hatred and fury. But as

things are, there are certain factors which help us. First

of all, we are geographically so situated that we are not

drawn into controversies with that passionate fury that

some other countries are. This is not due to our

goodness or badness, but is a matter of geography".14

The geographical insularity caused by the Himalayas and the

Indian Ocean also made Nehru15 think that India is going to be a

meeting ground of various trends and forces in the region. India’s

abysmal poverty and economic backwardness had also to be shed

away through mutual economic relations and help with other

countries of the Region. Nehru was clear: “ultimately, foreign policy

is the outcome of the economic policy, and until India has properly

evolved her economic policy, her foreign policy will be rather vague,

rather inchoate, and will be groping.16 It was quite impossible for

India to invest in military build up without jeopardizing the outlays

for her economic development. So the Indian leadership decided to

concentrate on economic diplomacy17 instead of diverting the

country’s limited resources into expensive military build up.

5

Under the circumstances, the posture, credo and policy of

non-alignment meant non-involvement in power politics which had

hitherto permeated and characterized the world. Nonetheless, an

active and moral role in the affairs of the world must be played in

the cause of promotion and preservation of peace. The policy

reflected “at once a desire to avoid commitment -an understandable

attitude for any people of meager resources- and a wish to be

among those who count in world affairs.”18

The manifestations of Cold War were more prominent in the

Indian Ocean region. The Korean War in the vicinity of the Region

was the first demonstration of emerging Cold War. Indian Ocean and

its littoral was effectively used by the US to contain the Soviet

Communism. The British withdrawal from the east of Suez in 1971

and corresponding entry of the US naval forces to fill the so called

“power vacuum” in the region conspicuously brought the Cold War

at India's doorsteps which made its commitment stronger to

campaign against the Cold War. India’s policy was “of trying to

realize security largely through promoting peaceful regional

cooperation among the littoral and hinterland states and preventing

the militarisation of the Indian Ocean.”19

India’s concern over the security of the Indian Ocean was in

evidence as early as 1965. In November that year Britain granted

independence to Mauritius and Seychelles. The British detached the

Islands of Aldabra, Furquhar and Desroches from Seychelles and

Diego Garcia from Mauritius to establish British Indian Ocean

Territory (BIOT). Later, Diego Garcia was transferred to USA,

ostensibly to set up a communication facility but was gradually

expanded as an effective naval base.20 The growing US naval

presence was counter productive as Soviet naval forces too began

6

showing their presence in the region and look out for possible naval

bases around the ocean littoral.21 India also contested the concept of

“power vaccum”. Prime Minister Mrs. Gandhi never missed an

opportunity of proclaiming that Indian Ocean should be kept a

nuclear free area.22 The Lusaka conference of non-aligned heads of

state, in September 1970, adopted the resolution to consider and

respect “the Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace.”23 India sharply

reacted in 1970 to the British intent to supply “limited categories of

defensive weapons to South Africa under Simons Town Agreement

in 1970.24

The Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference was

held at Singapore in January 1971. India’s Minister of Foreign Affairs,

Swarn Singh elaborated India’s position and concern about Indian

Ocean at the conference. He expressed “concern” at the arrival of

the “power game” in the Indian Ocean. Until now a peaceful ocean,

he dismissed the Soviet threat as “hypothetical”, the littoral states,

he said, were “far more concerned over the growth of South African

military power” and the construction of the Diego Garcia base was

sure to bring in other big powers. “India would like all big powers,

including the Soviet Union, United States, France, Britain to leave

the area alone.”25 At the United Nations, India, together with Sri

Lanka succeeded in having a resolution adopted by the General

Assembly on 16 December 1971, which called for peace zone to be

established in the Indian Ocean and “that the area should be free of

nuclear weapons.”26 The power rivalry and its inevitable pernicious

consequences for the region became a major issue which India

relentlessly pursued at the conferences and meetings of the non-

aligned, the Commonwealth, the Afro-Asian countries, the Arab

League, the OAU and so on, as also in various bilateral discussions.27

7

India’s naval outreach in the Ocean

With a coastline of 7,516 km with a total of 1,197 island

territories in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, India has an

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.01 million Sq.km. About 90

percent by volume and 77 percent of total value of India’s trade

comes through the ocean. The resource rich EEZ provides 68% of its

oil production (at Bombay High) and fish production of 2.82 million

tones. Country's entire oil and gas supplies are imported through

the ocean. Therefore its economy and development is crucially

dependent on the waters of Indian Ocean.

Apart from the foreign policy measures, to provide naval

security to these crucial maritime interests, India has built a

formidable navy and Coast Guard. For this purpose its navy has

three commands, i.e., Western, Eastern and Southern with their

headquarters at Mumbai, Vishakhapatnam and Kochi. Navy has two

fleets, the Western and Eastern comprising ships, air crafts and

submarines. Over the years the country has developed major Naval

air bases at Goa and Arkonnam and other air bases at

Visakhapatnam. To protect its economic and territorial interests in

the deep south of the ocean it has also developed air bases at Port

Blair and Car Nicobar in the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Minor

naval establishments are also strategically located at Chennai,

Kolkata, Chilka, Lonavala and Jamnagar.28

Set up in August 1978, the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) is

entrusted to protect India’s national interests in its maritime zone.

This force keeps regular surveillance of India’s EEZ to prevent

poaching and smuggling. The Coast Guard conducts rescue

operations and protects marine environment etc.29 To augment its

naval strength further, India has launched Project Seabird, which

8

consists of the Karawar (Karnataka) naval base, an air force station,

a naval armament depot, and missile silos to be realised in next five

years. Kadamba in Karawar is being developed as a naval base to

protect country's Arabian Sea maritime routes. The entire project

will cost 8.13 billion US dollars.30 No other country in the region has

such an impressive and powerful navy. It speaks of India's growing

involvement in the ocean to protect its maritime interests and

secure the sea lanes of communication and transportation.

Defence Cooperation

Having one of the most elaborate defence establishment in

the region and effective naval presence, India has extended helping

hand to the friendly countries of the Indian ocean region by training

their defence, para-military and police personnel in various fields. In

the College of Defence Management Secundrabad, these foreign

defence persons attend Campus programmes to learn modern,

scientific management. Training is also given to middle level officers

from these countries at Defence Services Staff College, Wellington.

The Military College of Telecommunication Engineering, Mhow,

imparts training in signals, information technology and

communication to the defence and para military forces. At the Army

School of Physical Training Pune, instructors are trained from the

countries like Maldives, Mauritius, Myanmar and Sri Lanka.31 India

also provides assistance under Indian Technical and Economic

Cooperation (ITEC) programme of Ministry of External Affairs, by

providing training to Army personnel from the countries of

Southeast Asia, Africa and neighouring countries. Similarly National

Defence College, New Delhi trains defence personnels from these

countries in Politico-Strategic Gaming Exercises and Research

activities etc.

9

India has intensified its pace of cooperation with the countries

of Indian Ocean region. After the success of tsunami diplomacy,32 it

is looking forward to evolve new channels of naval diplomacy with

these countries. Joint naval exercises with Malaysia, Singapore,33

Iran are frequently taking place to transfer naval warfare technology

and training to these countries. Indian warships are making port-

calls in Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. In July 2006, the country handed

over a 26 ton fast track craft –INS Tilanchang-- to Maldives. By these

and many other such measures India has sufficiently demonstrated

its naval capability and outreach in the Ocean and its littoral. India's

defence exports touched 13 million US dollars topped by the supply

of advanced light helicopter (Dharuv), Lancer attack helicopter and

Dornier transport planes to Mauritius. It has also supplied radars to

Indonesia and Sudan.34

The Economic thrust

During the last sixty years, India has adopted many pronged

strategy towards the Indian Ocean. Its foreign policy of non-

alignment and refusal to be drawn into international military power

politics; opposition to Cold War; contesting the so called "power

vacuum" theory promoted by the West to justify US presence in the

Indian Ocean; efforts to declare Indian Ocean as a peace zone; build

up of a strong navy and offering naval cooperation with the

countries of the region are one aspect of this strategy. On the other

hand India has engaged in varied economic activities like trade, aid

and setting up of joint ventures, business subsidiaries and transfer

of technology to these countries. This growing economic partnership

has been widely recognized by these countries. India's economic

interests in the region are served through trade, commerce and

technical assistance.

10

Trade:

Till independence, India had little trade with the countries of

the region as its economy was bound with and subservient to that of

Great Britain and some Commonwealth Countries. Even after

independence the direction of trade did not immediately shift much

to its neighbourhood but instead to the eastern bloc countries and

the Soviet Union. India’s dominant trade activity in the region till

the end of 1970s was oil import from the Persian Gulf region and

export of some foodstuffs to them.35

Over the last few decades India’s foreign trade has undergone

a complete change so far as its direction and composition is

concerned. The exports now cover a wide range of traditional and

non-traditional items and nature of imports has also undergone a

change. Till 1990 India’s foreign trade was subject to strict

bureaucratic and legal controls and foreign exchange regulations

were tight. It was a trade deficit economy where imports included

capital goods, defence equipments, petroleum products and raw

materials. Exports were unduly sluggish.

After1991, the government introduced a series of reforms to

liberalise and globalise the foreign trade. Its exports have grown

from Rs. 32,558 crore in 1990-91 to Rs. 2,91,582 crore in 2003-04

and imports from Rs. 43,193 crore in 1990-91 to Rs. 3,53,976 crore

in 2003-04.36

India has emphasized to develop close trade relations with the

countries of the Indian ocean region. The major commodities India

exports include textiles, chemical and related products, engineering

goods, gems and jewelry, petroleum products and agricultural

11

products etc.37 Indian Exports (by value in crore rupees) to the

countries of Indian Ocean are shown below.

Table – 1

Value of Exports from India to the Countries of Indian Ocean

Region

Country April-Feb.

2007

%share of Exports

South Africa 8,926.28 1.75

Mozambique 770.46 0.15

Tanzania 1,172.18 0.23

Kenya 5,367.24 1.05

Ethiopia 473.15 0.09

Djibauti 1,311.40 0.26

Israel 5,358.63 1.05

Jordan 725.02 0.14

Saudi Arabia 10,123.24 1.98

Yemen 4,952.75 0.97

Oman 2,588.84 0.51

UAE 49,090.65 9.62

Qatar 1,305.43 0.26

Bahrain 750.17 0.15

Iraq 856.33 0.17

Iran 6,048.28 1.18

Pakistan 5,481.10 1.07

Bangladesh 6,568.44 1.29

Myanmar 561.59 0.11

Thailand 5,897.36 1.16

Singapore 24,616.62 4.82

12

Indonesia 8,462.33 1.66

Australia 3,707.92 0.73

Sri Lanka 9,262.88 1.81

Maldives 278.51 0.05

Mauritius 2,957.71 0.58

Madagascar 173.63 0.03

Reunion 84.39 0.02

Seychelles 52.35 0.01

Comoros 22.79 -

Source: System of Foreign Trade Analysis, Dept. of Commerce, govt. of India. See. www.commerce.nic.in/India_trade.htm

The exports from India indicate that their nature and quantum

has diversified. Almost nil at the time of independence, about one-

third of India’s exports are now directed towards the countries of

the region. Significantly, India exports its goods to all the countries

and island states of the Region.

Major import commodities to India include petroleum, which

constitutes 32.10%, electronic goods 6.86%, gold 7.97%, machinery

7.63% and metal ores and scraps 4.62% of its total imports.38 From

Saudi Arabia, emanate 7.62% of Indian imports and 4.68% from

UAE.39 Imports (by value in crore rupees) from the countries of the

region is shown below.

Table – 2

Value of Imports to India from the countries of Indian Ocean Region

13

Country April-Feb.

2007

%share of Exports

South Africa 10,530.65 1.43

Mozambique 82.85 0.01

Tanzania 403.15 0.05

Kenya 228.33 0.03

Somalia 79.22 0.01

Ethiopia 48.80 0.01

Djibouti 8.55 -

Israel 4,465.96 0.61

Jordan 2,020.21 0.27

Saudi Arabia 56,140.83 7.62

Yemen 8,360.99 1.13

Oman 1,983.82 0.27

UAE 34,502.82 4.68

Qatar 8,699.83 1.18

Bahrain 1,938.33 0.26

Kuwait 24,479.61 3.32

Iraq 23,065.98 3.13

Iran 30,554.25 4.15

Pakistan 1,390.52 0.19

Bangladesh 931.30 0.13

Myanmar 3,134.39 0.43

Thiland 7,007.94 0.95

Singapore 22,426.71 3.04

Malaysia 21,739.15 2.95

Indonesia 16,586.76 2.25

Australia 28,335.58 3.84

14

Sri Lanka 1,916.30 0.26

Maldives 12.72 -

Mauritius 59.62 0.01

Madagascar 73.92 0.01

Reunion 23.63 -

Seychelles 2.98 -

Comoros 18.38 -

Source: System of Foreign Trade Analysis, Deptt. of Commerce, Govt. of India. See, www.commerce.nic.in/ftpa/comq.asp.

The import statistics indicate that about 42.23% of India's

imports originate from the Region and from every country of the

Ocean littoral. Apart from trade, various Indian multinationals have

set up their subsidiaries and joint ventures in the countries of the

region.

Indian subsidiaries and joint ventures in the region

India is most developed of the developing countries in the

Indian Ocean. It is now one of the fastest growing economy in the

world. During the early decades after independence its economy

was inward looking and slow moving. Growth rates were very slow

in core sectors. After 1991 its economy started opening up to

integrate itself with the global economy.

First Indian company to set up its business venture abroad

was initiated by TATA in 1961 by setting up a subsidiary and first

industrial venture by Birlas in 1964 in Ethiopia. First joint venture

was initiated in 1970. Till 1991 there were 244 approved Indian joint

ventures abroad. These joint ventures in manufacturing, trading and

service sectors had mainly been concentrated in the countries of

15

Indian Ocean littoral. By 1991 there were 22 such ventures in

Malaysia, 17 in Thailand, 15 in Sri Lanka, 14 each in Nigeria and

Singapore, 13 in Indonesia, 11 in United Arab Emirates and 10 in

Kenya.40 During the span of eight years (1992-99) the number of

joint ventures has substantially increased. In this period alone

various Indian companies set up 5 new joint ventures in Australia,

12 in Bahrain, 10 in Indonesia, 4 in Kenya, 37 in Malaysia, 10 in

Saudi Arabia, 41 in Singapore, 54 in Sri Lanka and 68 in UAE.41

During the post-liberalisation period the number of Indian

wholly owned subsidiaries (WOS) has also substantially increased. In

1992, the approval to set up such subsidiaries was granted to 28

WOS which reached 143 in 1996 and 238 in 1999. By 2001 India

had about 2,368 business ventures abroad and a large number of

them were concentrated in the Indian Ocean region,42 as shown in

the Table below.

Table – 3

Indian subsidiaries (WOS) in the Indian Ocean region

Country No. upto 1991 No. between

1992-99

Total

Australia 1 8 9

Bahrain 1 1 2

Indonesia 1 5 6

Kenya 2 2 4

Malaysia 4 8 12

Mauritius - 81 81

Singapore 6 105 111

Sri Lanka 1 20 21

Thailand 2 - 2

UAE 1 26 27

16

Sources: Ritu Srivastava and Krishan Kumar, "India Business Ventures Abroad", op.cit.

Indian Business with other countries indicates that it is more

concentrated in about 11 out of 28 littoral and 7 island states.

Mainly the business has been set up in Southeast Asian countries

and the Persian gulf. Preference has been to set up subsidiaries in

the developed countries like UK or USA while joint ventures have

found preference in the developing countries of the Indian Ocean. In

the post liberalisation period, Indian investment abroad has

substantially increased and a lot needs to be done in this regard.

These joint ventures are mutually beneficial for India as well as the

host countries. For example, to augment the supply of fertilizer in

the long run, India intends to establish joint ventures for production

of urea in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Egypt and Mozambique.43 The share

of Indian Investment in the countries of Indian Ocean has increased

due to the setting up of subsidiaries and joint ventures.

Table – 5

Share of Indian Ocean littoral states in the total Indian

investment abroad (by mode and value of subsidiaries and

joint ventures)

Country Share Country Share

Oman 6.98% Bahrain 0.48%

UAE 5.04% Israel 0.41%

Mauritius 4.06% Jordan 0.40%

Sri Lanka 3.19% Saudi Arabia 0.38%

Singapore 3.18% Egypt 0.28%

17

Iran 2.96% Tanzania 0.17%

Thailand 1.31% Myanmar 0.16%

Malaysia 0.88% Australia 0.13%

South Africa 0.85% Kuwait 0.11%

Bangladesh 0.66% Maldives 0.02%

Indonesia 0.49% Seychelles 0.02%

Source: Ritu Srivastava and Krishan Kumar, "India Business Ventures Abroad", op.cit.

Of the total investment the Indian Ocean Countries share

32.16% i.e. about one-third of Indian investment abroad.

Aid and assistance

India has also provided aid to build economies and

infrastructure in these countries. For example, in the year 2003-04,

India initiated a "Team Nine" initiative to boost links with African

countries. Indian aid to African countries was Rs. 71.62 crores in

2003-04 which went up to Rs. 104.54 crores in 2004-05.44

India has abiding interest in providing assistance to

developmental projects in the countries of Africa and southeast Asia

and other regions. Overall budget allocation for the purpose was Rs.

3,410 crore in 2003-04 and Rs. 3,640 crore in 2004-05.45 During the

tsunami disaster which killed about 2,30,000 people and hit almost

all the littoral countries, India provided financial aid of Rs. 100 crore

to Sri Lanka, 5 crore to Maldives and provided relief and

rehabilitation packages to Indonesia and Thailand.

Technology transfer

18

Internationalization of technologies and production are

important to promote global competitiveness. India enjoys a unique

position as an emerging centre and source of science and

technology that could assist in the fulfillment of aspirations of the

countries of the Indian Ocean region. Capable of promoting exports

of high value added products and services, India has established

strong technological and industrial capabilities in several areas

which are of considerable relevance and utility to the countries if

the region. India is exporting its technology, directly or indirectly to

these countries by sending experts and skilled man power to them,

establishing joint ventures, undertaking turn-key projects, licensing

of know-how and providing training. Keeping this in view, the

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has started

International Technology Transfer Programme, which focuses on the

activities relating to promotion of international technology transfer

including export of technologies, services and technology intensive

products.46

The activities performed under ITEC programme include,

Building schools in Maldives, teaching unemployed youth in South

Africa (teaching book binding and biscuits making), sharing

experience in dry-farming techniques in Iraq, conducting feasibility

study for the establishment of airline in Malaysia. The ITEC has

recently undertaken different projects like: assistance in the

transformation of education system in South Africa, vocational

training centres for construction sector in Indonesia. It also sends its

experts in these countries, conducts study tours and sends aid for

disaster relief wherever required.47

India has many service providers in technology transfer like

web-designing, software developers, courier services etc.48 Transfer

19

of technology has a direct link with the economic development.

India has elaborate national policy on development, promotion and

transfer of identified technologies to some of the countries of the

Indian Ocean region.49

Research and exploration in the Indian Ocean

With a large coastline and EEZ, India has immense scope for

exploration and exploitation of the living and non-living resources.

Keeping in view the vastness, complexity and uncertainty of the

ocean environment, Department of Ocean Development (DOD) was

created in 1981 as a nodal and independent department under the

direct charge of the Prime Minister. The DOD organizes, coordinates

and promotes ocean development activities. It has Polymetallic

Nodules Programme, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area

Management, Ocean Observation and Information Services and

Assessment of the Marine Living Resources etc. The DOD lays

special emphasis to encourage research in Marine Geology,

Geophysics, Marine Biology, Marine Ecology, Coastal Engineering

etc. Since its incepting the department has supported hundreds of

R&D projects in the interdisciplinary field of Marine Science and

Technology. These autonomous institutions under the DOD Include

National institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai; National Centre for

Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa; and Indian National Centre for

Indian Ocean Information Services.50

The elaborate network of ocean research and development

only reiterates India’s concern on every aspect of its linkages with

the Indian Ocean. India had ratified the United Nations convention

of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in June 1995 and is a member of

almost all the institutions established under the convention

including the International Seabed Authority.51

20

As a center of higher education

Indian education system is well recognized the world over. The

country has 354 Universities, about 18 thousands of Colleges, 428

Engineering Colleges and hundreds of Medical Colleges. Indian

Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of Management

(IIMs) and Indian Institutes of Science (IISc) are highly respected

institutions in their fields. India has been attracting students from

other countries in its colleges and Universities. For students from

developing countries of Asia and Africa where facilities for medical

education are inadequate, a limited number of seats are reserved in

MBBS and BDS courses. Ministry of External Affairs has set up a

students cell to coordinate between prospective foreign students

and educational institutions in the country.52

Most of the foreign students join technology, management and

science courses. About 77 percent of them come for graduate

courses, 12.45 percent for post-graduate courses and only 1.3%

take up for research. Pune University has the highest number

(2,144, in 2004-05) of foreign students followed by Bangalore

University which had 1,966 in the same year. Manipal Academy of

higher Education, Mysore University and Jawaharlal Nehru University

are other favoured destinations for the students from other

countries. The United Arab emirates sends the highest number of

students to India which numbered 1,500 in 2004-05, followed by

Iran with 1,120 students.53

Promotion of Indian Culture

Under he aegis of Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR)

India is spreading its culture to the countries of Indian Ocean. It has

cultural exchange programmes with about 70 countries. Indian

21

dance troups, cultural delegations, singers and musicious visit and

perform in the countries like UAE, Singapore, Malaysia etc. The

country has set up Maulana Azad Centre for Indian Culture in Cairo

(Egypt), Indian Culture Centers in Durban, Johannesberg (South

Africa), Colombo (Sri Lanka) and Kualalumpur (Malaysia). Jawaharlal

Nehru Indian Cultural Centre is an important outpost of Indian

Culture at Jakarta, Indonesia.54

Indian Ocean is very important to India in many ways. It needs

a secure maritime environment to achieve sustained development.

India has a stable political system and a liberal-democratic polity. A

burgeoning economy, technologically advanced in many areas,

strong in naval and defence forces, with a large number of

educational institutions and largest technical manpower in the

region, India stands out as one of the leading countries of the

Region. From India’s broad interaction with the Indian Ocean and its

littoral states it can be easily inferred that the Region is its rightful

domain which extends from the Strait of Malacca to the Strait of

Hormuz and from the coast of Africa to the western shores of

Australia.

In the fast globalizing world, where India is emerging as

powerful political and economic player, there is need to direct its

foreign policy to the Indian Ocean and its littoral. The region is

starved of development and modernization. Most of the countries of

its littoral have few educational institutions, weak infrastructure,

and virtually no technology of their own. India must step in to fulfill

these decencies and needs. Inspite of various measures, India has

taken to maintain and improve its multifaceted presence in these

countries, a lot needs to be done. That is possible only if India

makes Indian ocean and its littoral as central to its foreign policy

22

and be ready to play a larger role there for its economic

development and to promote prospects of peace and cooperation in

the region.

Foot Notes

1. “It arose of its waters, settled in its present posture by the

force in it, acquired its shape from the ocean, and continues to

be subject to its enternal thrusts”. Chopra, Maharaj K: INDIA

AND THE INDIAN OCEAN, New Delhi, Sterling, p.1

2. The genesis of the Indian Ocean basin is believed to date back

to the Mesozoic Era (225 to 65 million years ago) when the

continent of Gondwanaland in the Southern Hemisphere broke

up into huge blocks (South America, Africa, Australia,

Antarctica, Madagascar and India) that subsequently drifted to

their present positions. See for details, ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA (1974), Vol. 9, p. 310, vol. 5, pp. 108-15.

3. During the Mauryan Period, Kautilya mentioned in his book,

Arthashastra, a separate administrative division of the

Overseas Maritime Activities. However, to north India the sea

meant very little. Even the Mughal Empire of Akbar had hardly

any navy. The Mughals never considered the sea important.

Inspite of this attitude, Indian Ocean remained under the

exclusive control of India in the past because of its proximity.

In fact India controlled the Indian Ocean till the middle of the

thirteenth century and no Asian power could challenge Indian

supremacy. See Slukhwal, Bheru L; Geopolitical and

Geostrategic Importance of the Superpower Rivalry in the

Indian Ocean", Asian Profile, Vol. 10, No. 1, February 1982, p.

26-27.

23

4. This is evident in the military and defence policies of the

British Empire in India all through. See, Kaushik, Devindra:

THE INDIAN OCEAN, A Strategic Dimension, Delhi, Vikas, 1983,

p. 84.

5. Ibid.,

6. Pannikar K. M; INDIA AND THE INDIAN OCEAN, London, George

Allen and Unwin, 1945, p. 14 and 82.

7. See, Vaidya, K.B: THE NAVAL DEFENCE OF INDIA, Bombay,

Jhacker, 1947, pp. 91-101.

8. THE GAZETTEER OF INDIA, Country and people 1973, vol. 1,

New Delhi, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and

Broadcasting, p.1. The total length of coastline, including that

of the mainland, Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep

islands, is 7,516.6 km. See INDIA, A Reference Annual, 1988-

89, Publication Division, Govt. of India, p.1.

9. Ibid., p. 55.

10. Chak, B.L: ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, New Delhi,

Publication Division, 1971, p. 1; also see, THE GAZETTEER OF

INDIA, Indian Union, vol. 1, 1973, op.cit. pp. 62-63.

11. LEXICON UNIVERSAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, New York, Lexicon Pub,

Vol. 1, 1987, p. 400: Vol. 14, p. 183. There are varying figures

regarding the exact number of islands, their total area and the

number of islands which are inhabited. See, INDIA 1988-89,

op. cit., p. 748-49; THE STATESMAN’S YEAR BOOK 1989-90,

London, Macmilan, p. 693-94.

12. Bose Ashish: POPULATION OF INDIA, 1991 Census Results and

Methodology, New Delhi, B.R. Publishers, 1991, pp.60.

24

13. Nehru, Jawaharlal: INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY, New Delhi,

Publication Division Government of India, 1967, p. 32.

14. Ibid., p.73.

15. India’s foreign policy since independence till 1964 was

completely dominated by what Nehru thought. As Michael

Brecher points out, “In other state does one man dominate

foreign policy as does Nehru in India. Indeed, so overwhelming

is the influence that India’s policy has come to mean in the

minds of people everywhere the personal policy of Pandit

Nehru". See, NEHRU, A Political Biography, London, 1959, pp.

564-5.

16. Nehru, INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY, op.cit. p.24.

17. Ibid., p. 79.

18. Martin, Lawrence W (ed): NEUTRALISM AND NONALIGNMENT

New York, Praeger, 1963, p. 28. For a full discussion and

analysis of non-alignment, see, Annals, AAPSS, no. 386,

November 1969.

19. Kaushik, op.cit., pp. 86-87.

20. For gradual expansion of US base at Diego Garcia see,

Banerjee, Brojendra Nath: INDIAN OCEAN, A Whirlpool of

Unrest, New Delhi, Peribus, 1984, pp. 257-280.

21. For Soviet presence in the Indian Ocean, see, Wall, Patrick

(ed): THE INDIAN OCEAN AND THE THREAT TO THE WEST,

London, Stacy International, 1975: Jukes, Geoffrey: THE

INDIAN OCEAN IN SOVIET NAVAL POLICY, London, International

Institute of Strategic Studies, 1972.

25

22. Kaushik, op.cit., pp. 91-92; Indian and Foreign Review, vol. 7,

No. 17, 15 June 1970, p. 6.

23. See, Joel Larus, “India’s Nonalignment and Super Pawer Naval

Rivalry in the Indian Ocean”, in Bowman, Larry Wand and

Clark, Ian (eds): THE INDIAN OCEAN IN A GLOBAL POLITICS,

Boulder, Westview, 1981, pp. 91-92; Paulose, T T, “Indian

Ocean: Prospects of a Nuclear-Free Peace Zone”, Pacific

Community, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1974, pp. 323-24; Kaushik, op.cit.,

p. 92.

24. Under the agreement (Concluded 4 July 1955) Britain

transferred the Simonstown naval base to South Africa but

retained over flight rights in South Africa. The base was to

remain available for the British navy and Britain’s allies in

war-time, even in a war in which South Africa itself was

neutral. Britain also supplied warships and other armaments

to South Africa under the agreement. For details see,

Keesing’s, 1955-56, pp. 14294; THE ANNUAL REGISTER OF

WORLD EVENTS, a review of the year 1955 (London) 1956, p.

43.

25. Kaushik, op.cit., p. 92.

26. Ibid., p. 95.

27. Namboodri, P K S (et al): INTERVENTION IN THE INDIAN

OCEAN, New Delhi, ABC Publishing House, 1982, p. 229.

28. INDIA, 2005, Publication Division, government of India, pp.

177-78.

29. Ibid, pp. 178-79.

26

30. “India’s Project Seabird and the Indian Ocean’s Balance of

Power,” The Power and Interest News Reports, 25 July 2007.

See, www.pinr.com.

31. See, http://india.gov.in/hindi/sectors/defence4.php

32. On 26th December 2004, tsunami waves hit the coastal areas

of many of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean. About

2,30,000 people were killed. India suffered great losses of life

and property. Showing its resilience and economic vigour,

India refused to accept aid from outside countries. Showing its

strategic interest in the region, India not only sent relief to

many countries but also deployed its naval ships aircraft and

helicopters to help rebuild the infrastructure in these

countries. This was seen as the new picture of India which was

ready to play the role of a regional power. It enhanced its

dignity among the countries of the region. Interview of India’s

External Affair Minister to outlook dated Jan. 17, 2005. See

www.indianembassy. Org.speeches/3.htm.

33. “India Singapore to enhance defence cooperation,” Bridge

Singapore, Business News, 15 August 2006, see, www.india-

defence.com.

34. See, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/ 1015812.

cms.

35. For Indian Ocean Trade, See, Wire, James C, "Access to the

Indian Ocean”, Military Review (Kansas) vol. IX, No. 11,

November 1980, p.65.

36. INDIA, 2005, op.cit., p.135: also see, commerce.nic.in/

indtrade.htm.

37. See table at, www.commerce.nic.in/ftpa/comq.asp.

27

38. See, Ibid.,

39. Ibid.,

40. Srivastva, Ritu and Kumar, Krishan, “India Business Ventures

abroad”, (IIM Luchnow). See, http://dspace.iimk.ac.in/

bitstream/ 123456789/6811/topic5_kk_ritu.pdf.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Statement by Ram Vilas Paswan, Union Minister of Chemical

and Fertilizers. Press Releases, Ministry of Chemical and

Fertilizers, dated May 23, 2007.

44. THE HINDU, Chennai, 9th July, 2004.

45. Ibid.,

46. INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PROGRAMME,

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ministry of

Science and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi.

47. See website of Indian and Economic Cooperation Division,

Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India.

48. Many Software companies from Bangalore and Delhi are

offering various IT solutions world-wide like Pixal Productions,

Sap Labs India, Strand Genomics, United Cad System etc. See,

“Technology Transfer from India”, www.tradeindia.com.

49. Virmani, B.R. and Kala Rao: ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING,

Technology Transfer and Human Resource Development, 22nd

Edition, New Delhi, Vedams eBook,1999.

50. For details see, “Ocean Development,” INDIA 2005, A

Reference Annual, op.cit., pp. 649-662.

28

51. Ibid., pp. 659-60.

52. See, THE HINDU, online Edition dated 19th September, 2003 at,

www.hindu.com/2003/09/19/stories.

53. See, The TIMES OF INDIA, at indiatimes.com/articleshow/

7733422.cms.

54. See, www.iccrindia.org.

.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-

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