TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING – KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES 1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning. 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to: define the nature of language describe the language learning process in early childhood list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning differentiate between language acquisition and language learning 1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS 1
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Module TSL 3103 ELT Methodology for PISMP TESL Semester 2
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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING – KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:
define the nature of language
describe the language learning process in early childhood
list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning
differentiate between language acquisition and language learning
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
1
Language Acquisition
and Learning – Key Concepts
and Issues
Nature of Language
Language Learner Acquisition
versus Learning
Language Learning Process
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2 Language Acquisition and Learning – Key Concepts and Issues
It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and
an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of
what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your
philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the
nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach
your learners to learn a second language more effectively.
1.2.1 Nature of Language
Exercise 1: What is your definition of language?
Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.
Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.
Compare differences and similarities.
What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language.Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds
similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a
system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in
expressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many
forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using
expressions through body language.
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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings
by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having
understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English
Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most
common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a
way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.
There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.
Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current
approaches to language learning. They are:
The structural view of language
The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally
related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as:
phonological units (phonemes)
grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)
grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming
elements)
lexical items (function words and structure words)
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system.
The communicative view of language
The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle
for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and
communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the
grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target
of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and
Students are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace
Experiential learning is encouraged.
Exercise 4
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To what extent do you think schools give attention to the affective (emotions,
feelings) aspects of learning? Discuss by citing specific examples.
Summary.
What conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of
learning? Instructional learning theories are centred on the major schools of
educational psychology. From these so-called schools have evolved modern
thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the
classroom ultimately affects that learning. Each has its own merits and each has
shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.
Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,
Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to
classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our
classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many
different theories we have learnt.
Tutorial Task
Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoretical
perspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state
your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.
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TOPIC 3 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I) KRASHEN’S MONITOR MODEL
3.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory
called Krashen’s Monitor Model. There are five components or hypotheses
which form the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter
Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural
Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for
teaching.
3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashen’s Monitor Model
2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.
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3.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION THREE (6 Hours)
3.2 Krashen’s Monitor Model
Second language acquisition theory seeks to explain how and by what
processes individuals acquire a second language. A predominant theory of
second language acquisition was developed by Steven Krashen from the
University of Southern California. Krashen is a specialist in language acquisition
and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language
learning community.
The following are some quotes from Krashen (1982) about language
acquisition.
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."
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"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -
natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the
form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and
understanding."
“The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input'
in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to
hear. These methods do not force early production in the second
language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready',
recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and
comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are
willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."
Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls
hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the
components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The
five components are as follows:
1. The Input Hypothesis
2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
4. The Monitor Hypothesis
5. The Natural Order Hypothesis
3.2.1 Input Hypothesis
Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most
useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be just a little
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beyond the learner's present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not
pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.
The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she
receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of
linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage 'i', acquisition takes place when
he/she is exposed to 'comprehensible input' that belongs to level 'i + 1‘. Here “i”
refers to the current language level the learners are at. “i + 1” means a level
higher than the level the students are at or the next level along the natural order.
Natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring
that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her
current stage of linguistic competence.
Karshen suggests that teachers should give rough-tuned input and a wide variety of materials, supported by visual cues and realia which gives it a context within which the learner may guess at the content. As such,
language teachers must make input comprehensible by contextualizing it.
Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:
Effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child/ people speak
to children acquiring their first language in special ways.
Adults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid
comprehension. Adults roughly-tune to child’s level of linguistic
competence. These include use of baby-talk and short simple sentences.
Teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student.
Teachers simplify their language to make L2 learners understand or go
down to L2 learners’ comprehension.
Foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language
learner or acquirer
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Some of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower
pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress
on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.
L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period.
A learner is silent to build up competencies in 2nd language via listening.
Speaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the
language.
Krashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older
learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible
input the greater the L2 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays
language acquisition. As such teaching methods work according to the extent
that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is
successful because it provides comprehensible input. As for bilingual
programmes, they succeed to the extent teachers provide comprehensible input
3.2.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that
impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high
level of anxiety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from
acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,
confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have more success
acquiring a second language.
Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has
about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These
feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Hence, the teacher's
job is to make language learning free of stress and enjoyable.
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3.2.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are
independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.
The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition. When people learn their first language by speaking the language
naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Here
speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the
structure of their utterances.
On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where
students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.
One example of the learned system is the studying the rules of syntax.
The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Figure 1
below:
Acquisition Learning
implicit, subconscious explicit, conscious
informal situations formal situations
uses grammatical 'feel' uses grammatical rules
depends on attitude depends on aptitude
stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of
learning
Fig. 1: Differences between acquisition and learning
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3.2.4 Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis seeks to explain how the learned system affects
the acquired system. According to Krashen, the formal rule system acts as the
Monitor in the acquired system. When second language learners monitor their
speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and
initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have
ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.
The Monitor is best used when:
we have to be very careful
when language is necessarily formal
e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a
formal situation.
There are three conditions required by the Monitor:
Time
The learner must have time to use the monitor. Using the monitor
requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language.
Focus on correctness of form
The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. A
learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
Knowledge of rules
The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have
had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to
produce.
There three types of monitor users – over-users, under-users and optimal-
users. Monitor over-users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned
with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor under-
users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious
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knowledge of the language. Error correction by others has little influence on
them, as they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness.
Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the
monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.
They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,
but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can
therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired
competence
Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of
the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than
on the form of our utterances.
3.2.5 Natural Order Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second
language learners acquire their target language. Krashen states that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language and this order is roughly
the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.
Research shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the
learner's native language, the target language, and the conditions under which
the second language is being learned.
Mistakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.
These mistakes are not random, but are very similar to the errors that children make when learning their first language. The mistakes that students
make through time lie in a rough sequence.
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In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same
as the sequence of learned grammar items. Some grammatical morphemes
which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late - the
's' of PTS. Chinese learning English make the same mistakes, and will learn in
more or less the same order as the French. According to Krashen, this indicates
that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language. In addition, these mistakes will be made in the same order whether the learners have been taught the grammar or not, and that teaching grammar will not help them change the order.
The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the
diagram below.
Combined model of acquisition and production
3.2.6 Implications for Teaching
Krashen’s Monitor Model has its implications for ESL/EFL teaching. Input
hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at “i + 1” level. To enable learners
to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to expose them to large
amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in
terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students’ interests and
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purposes for learning the language. A wide variety of input, supported by visual cues and realia should be contextualized in a way that the learner can
understand a large amount of spoken or written language.
According to Krashen comprehension precedes production. As such, L2
learners often go through an initial Silent Period. Teachers should provide time
for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language
before they begin to produce it.
In line with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, language acquisition should be
done in relaxing and friendly conditions. Affective-humanistic activities such as
dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.
Tutorial Task
How does the Krashen’s Monitor Model help a teacher better to understand how
his/her second language students learn?
Design materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to
Krashen’s Monitor Model
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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TOPIC 4 OVERVIEW: APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES – ELT METHODS
4.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 4 introduces you to the
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
4.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
39
Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods
ELT Methods
Grammar-Translation Method
Direct Method
Audio-Lingual Method
Silent Way
Suggestopedia
Community Language Learning
Total Physical Response
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
CONTENT
SESSION FOUR (6 Hours)
4.2 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods
4.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method
4.2.2 Direct Method
4.2.3 Audio-Lingual Method
4.2.4 Silent Way
4.2.5 Suggestopedia
4.2.6 Community Language Learning
4.2.7 Total Physical Response
Tutorial Task
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TOPIC 5 ELT METHOD: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
5.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 5 introduces you to the
5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
5.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION FIVE (3 Hours)
5.2 ELT Method
5.2.1 Communicative Approach
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ELT Method
Communicative Approach
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 6 ELT METHODS: LEXICAL AND ECLECTIC APPROACHES
6.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to
6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
1. understand how figurative language is used in communication
2. use figurative and phrasal verbs in spoken and written language
6.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
SESSION SIX (3 Hours)
6.2.1 Lexical Approach
6.2.2 Eclectic Approach
Check your answers with your tutor!
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ELT Methods
Lexical Approach Eclectic Approach
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 7 SYLLABUS DESIGN – MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENGLISH CURRICULUM
7.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 7 introduces you to
7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
7.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)
7.2. Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum
7.2.1 Principles
7.2.2 Techniques
7.2.3 Strengths/Limitation
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Syllabus Design
Principles
Role of teacher, learners, and resources
Scheme of work – weekly, semesterTechniques
Strengths/Limitation
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
7.2.4 Role of Teacher, Learners, and Resources
7.2.5 Scheme of Work – Weekly, Semester
Tutorial Task
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TOPIC 8 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (II)
8.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 8 introduces you to
8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
8.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION EIGHT (6 Hours)
Universal Grammar Why a Universal Grammar What does a Universal Grammar consist of? Universal Grammar and first language acquisition Universal Grammar and second language acquisition
TOPIC 9 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE 45
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CLASSROOM
9.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 9 introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism. It also introduces the PPP procedure in language learning.
9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism
2. explain the different stages in the PPP procedure
3. devise a teaching plan using the PPP procedure
9.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
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SESSION NINE (3 Hours)
9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning
The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it
were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the PPP Approach
or procedure in the Communicative Language Teaching Method.
Exercise 1: 1. What is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is
based on?
2. State the principles of audiolingualism.
3. Name three techniques used in audiolingualism.
4. What are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism?
You would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audio-
lingual method in Topic 4. What we will discuss here briefly are the issues
related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of PPP Approach.
Audiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist Learning Theory relied
heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. Emphasis on accuracy of
the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive
reinforcement. However much of the audio-lingual method of language learning
remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real-life
context. Hence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational context.
This lead to introduction of the PPP Approach.
9.2.2 The PPP Approach
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The "Three Ps" procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. PPP
stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structural-
situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational
contexts. It is very important to understand what "Presentation", "Practice" and "Production" really are, and to see how they work in together to create
effective communicative language learning.
Presentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with
production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner
becomes a "user" of the language in contrast to a "student" of the language.
Practice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage
through to the final one.
This is how it works. At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces
a situation which contextualizes the new language to be taught. Then the
language or linguistic "model" is presented. With this "model" in mind, the
students practise the new language through a variety of "controlled" activities
such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills. After
sufficient practice, the students move into "productive" activity, where a situation
calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. For
example the students can construct their own sentences. In general, for
communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to
occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the next.
PRESENTATION
This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning
process. Presentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and
logical use of the new language. When the students recognize and understand
the "situation", they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the
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meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to
them. When the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual
meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a
linguistic "model". It is this linguistic model or language presented that the
students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity
without help.
It is important for the teacher to build on whatever English the students
have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and
getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. At
primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of
presenting new language. Dialogues and text can also be used when the
students have progressed.
There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic
‘models’ can be presented. What is important is that these presentations should
have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic
examples; have logical connection; contextualized; clear models; sufficient
meaningful repetition; are brief and can be recycled
PRACTICE:
The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative
language teaching. Sometimes this stage is “over-done" or used ineffectively.
This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used
as a natural progression or step towards production.
The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being
learned as well as the level and competence of the students. Practice is done to
ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students
to be familiar with the language. Hence an effective practice stage is one where
repetition leads to competence and accuracy.
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Practice activities need to be clear and understandable and should
promote a degree of confidence in the students. A well planned practice activity
will generate the students' motivation. Practice activities should be challenging,
but within the reach of the students.
Practice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual
drills to pair work such as chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work.
It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production.
PRODUCTION:
The production stage is the most important stage of communicative
language teaching. A good indicator of a successful production is when students
move from being "students" or learners of the language to "users" of the
language.
The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the
students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage
independently. The situation should allow the students produce more
personalized language. A successful production stage depends on an effective
practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the
students’ confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to
independently "use" it in the production stage.
One of the most important things you have to remember is that production
activities should not "tell" the students what to say. In the practice stage, the
students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage
they do not have the information and therefore must think. As such it would be
good if ‘real life" situations are given in the production stage. Getting students
engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive
ability. Hence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned
activities.
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Some good examples of effective production activities include situational