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UNIT 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
Introduction:
This unit introduces you to the concept of education and meaning
of education in
general. A number of scholars are mentioned without many details
about them. It
will be your personal interest to investigate further about
them.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
Define the term education.
Discuss the concepts in used in education
Illustrate different types of education.
1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION
The word education has its origin in a Latin word educatio of
which in turn has
been derived from the verb educare, which means, to bring up,
bringing up of
rearing of children or animals. It may also mean educere that
means to lead out of
ignorance.
Education has been defined in different ways by different
scholars:
J. S Farrant defines education as total process of human
learning by which
knowledge is imparted, faculties trained and skill developed. R.
S Peters defines
education as something worthwhile is being or has been
internationally transmitted
in morally accepted manner. He goes on to say education is a
process, which
provides man and woman with skills necessary for them to take
place in society and
seek further knowledge, R. S Peters further defines education as
initiation because
it prepares children for social life.
Schuffler defines education as: a process of developing and
transmission of
knowledge.
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Education is societys cultural reproductive system. It helps
society reproduce itself
by passing its main characteristics to the next generation.
Education keeps society
alive.
You will find that in each society the education system is
influenced by political,
economic and social belief of that particular society.
As we have discussed the definition of education, it will be
necessary at this point to
look at different educationists definitions.
Pestalozzi- Education is a natural harmonious and progressive
development of
mans innate powers
David Whitehead- Education is life in all its
manifestations.
John Dewey- Education is a process of living though a continuous
reconstruction of
experience.
Ross James- the influence of a person who holds a vital belief
brought to bear on
another person with the object of making him also to hold that
belief.
1.2 EDUCATION
Education may also be looked as concept that might mean;
i. A system or institution for example a school
ii. It could also refer to the curriculum or content (Approved
body of knowledge
for teaching).
iii. Another meaning of education could be that of an activity
by the adults upon
the young to make them ready for social life
(socialization).
iv. Another school of thought describes education as a process
of providing
people with information about an important spectrum/ topic/ body
of
knowledge or themes.
v. Education can be described as a universal practice engaged by
societies at all
levels of development. It is leading out in new knowledge and
experience.
vi. Other scholars like Farrant describe education as a tool
used to explain the
total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted,
faculties
trained, skills and competences developed.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT 1 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 1
Introduction: 1
1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION 1
1.2 EDUCATION 2
TABLE OF CONTENT 3
1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION 7
1.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION 8
1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION 9
UNIT 2 11
2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL EDUCATION 11
Introduction: 11
2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 13
2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 13
2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION 15
2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 15
2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING 15
2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION 16
2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING 16
2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING 16
2.7 FORMAL LEARNING 16
2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 16
2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 17
2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION 18
2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION 18
SUMMARY 19
ACTIVITY 19
UNIT 3 20
3.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924 20
3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION 20
Introduction: 20
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3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 21
3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA? 21
3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890 22
3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL 22
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 22
3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 23
3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND
EDUCATION-1890-1924
23
3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924) 24
3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL 25
3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANYS NON PROVISION OF
EDUCATION 25
3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924 26
3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were: 26
3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference: 26
3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS CONTRAVERSIAL
PART 27
3.6.1 2nd
General Missionary Conference of 1919 28
3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922 28
SUMMARY 29
UNIT 4 31
3.0 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA 1931-1953 31
Introduction: 31
4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL AFRICA/NORTHERN
RHODESIA-1925 32
4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923 34
4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION 34
4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were:
35
4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS 35
4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF
EDUCATION 35
4.3.4 4th
General Missionary Conference 1924 38
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4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS 38
4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 1-1925-1931 38
4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925 39
ACTIVITIY 40
4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT 40
SUMMARY 41
5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963 42
Introduction: 42
5.1EDUCATION 42
5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961 43
5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED 44
5.2.2 TARGETS SET 44
5.2.4SHORT TERM PLANS 45
5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (HRD)
STRATEGY 45
SUMMARY 47
ACTIVITY 47
UNIT 6 48
6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION 48
Introduction: 48
6.1 POLICY 48
6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964 49
6.3 CHALLENGES 49
6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS 50
6.5 TYPES OF SCHOOLS 50
6.6 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING 50
6.7 BEFORE INDEPENDENCE 51
6.8 AFTER INDEPENDENCE 51
6.9 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION 52
6.9.1 LOCKWOOD RECOMMENDATIONS 52
6.9.2 PROGRESSION 53
6.9.3 CHALLENGES 53
SUMMARY 53
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UNIT 7 54
7.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION 54
7.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UPTO 1974 (FIRST TEN YEARS)
54
Introduction: 54
7.1.1 BACKGROUND: 54
7.1.2 PATTERN OF REFORMS 55
7.1.3 RESULTS OR OUTCOMES 55
7.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REFORMS 55
7.1.5 WHY REFORMS FAILED? 56
7.1.6MAJOR TRENDS/PATTERNS IN EDUCATIONAL REFORMS 56
7.1.7 STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION 57
7.2 EVOLUTION OF POLICIES 58
SUMMARY 59
59
UNIT 8 60
8.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION POLICIES 60
8.1 Focus on Learning 1992. 60
8.2 EDUCATING OUR FUTURE 60
8.3 BASIC EDUCATION SUB-SECTOR INVESTMENT PROGRAMME
(BESSIP) 61
8.4 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION STRATEGIC PLAN (2003-2007) 61
8.5 THE VISION 2030 61
SUMMARY 62
REFERENCES 63
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1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION
You will realize that education in any society had its own
objectives and generally to
produce an individual who would fit in a society in which one
lived. The relationship
between an individual and the society has been utmost value and
concern for social
scientists. For this reason, we may be tasked to questions such
as education for
what/who?
Aims of education can be social or individual;
Individual aims include:
a) Career prospects-to develop a vocation skill.
b) Self development- though education individual develop their
full
potential.
c) Development of language skills- education helps individuals
to
develop their imaginative expressive powers.
d) Education helps individuals to develop spiritually,
emotionally,
morally etc.
e) Education for self expression- e.g in art, music, literature,
drama etc.
f) To make one fit in society- to help a child to be adaptive to
changing
society, to understand a world outside his own environment.
Social aims of education include:
a) Patriotism- appreciates one cultural heritage, to appreciate
ones role
as a citizen.
b) Education for social service- helping the society though
different
careers e.g Doctors, teachers, engineers etc.
c) Education for economic development- to develop creative
and
innovative skills, to appreciate the dignity of labour.
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From the above aims, you will understand that education was
multi-dimension in
such a way that whatever form it might be, it required certain
aspects in order for one
to benefit from the education.
1. Explain the benefits of each aim to both the individual and
the society.
2. Which aim explains well the aims of education and explain
your answer.
1.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION
Education involves a lot of processes and methods and some of
them are as follows:
a) Teaching- This involves imparting of knowledge or skills to a
person.
There is instruction, discussion and explanation. The learner
participates in
the discussion as the teacher guides.
b) Learning- A conscious activity involving the acquisition of
new
knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviour, manners etc.
c) Instructing- This involves imparting knowledge of facts or
giving
orders, rules, modes of operating and instructions. The learner
follows these
orders.
d) Drilling- This is a situation where a piece of learning is
repeated over
and over until a person can do the skill without making a
mistake.
e) Training- It is a process that helps to produce particular
skills for
example an electrician, a carpenter and a footballer among
others.
f) Conditioning- This is where the learner performs actions
against his
wishes usually through the use of force or threats.
g) Brainwashing- This is making someone change the way of
believing
without much reasoning. For example an advertisement for MTN
Everywhere You Go
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h) Indoctrination-This is where one accepts the beliefs
without
questioning usually achieved through propaganda. Once one is
indoctrinated,
the recipient holds on such views dogmatically and unshaken in
spite of
reason.
1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION
There are three types of education and these include: formal,
non formal and
informal education
1. Formal Education- this is usually organized and structured
learning which is
found in schools, colleges and universities.
2. Non-formal- this is an organized learning activity outside
formal education
and aimed at meeting the specific needs of a particular group of
people and
3. Informal Education- this is unorganized and unplanned
Type of Education Characteristic Features Agents
a) Formal
Education
-Learning done in
specially built institutions
such as schools, colleges,
and universities.
-Programmes are
structured in form of
syllabus, curriculum,
schemes, timetables
-Learning is supervised
by internal administrative
body
-Certificates awarded to
those who are successful
-People are trained and
employed to do the job
and are paid.
-Governments,
companies, individuals
and churches
b) Non formal -Loosely structured
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Education programmes
-Certificate of attendance
maybe awarded
-No special buildings may
be required
-Loosely supervised at
times not supervised by
an internal administrative
body
c) Informal
Education
-Learning is unplanned
-Learning is not
structured
-No awards of certificates
-Long life process
In this chapter, we have looked at the meaning of education and
how various scholars
have defined it. The chapter has further discussed the aims and
types of education,
including the common concepts found in education.
1. List down and give examples of the types of education that
are found in
Zambia
2. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the types of
education in question 1.
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UNIT 2
2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL
EDUCATION
Introduction:
This unit looks at the education systems that existed before the
coming of the
Missionary/modern education in Africa. Different themes have
been explored to help
understanding the nature of the education that was there.
Learning Outcomes
Education is part of every society, whether simple or
sophisticated. Each community
has evolved its own forms of education based on the religious,
social, political,
economic and cultural values of that community (Tiberondwa:
1989). In this unit,
we are analyzing;
a) the aims of indigenous education
b) components of indigenous education
c) the curriculum of Indigenous African education
d) methods of indigenous African Education
e) methods of testing in indigenous education
f) characteristics of indigenous education
g) the merits and demerits of Indigenous African education
During the pre-colonial period, Africans had already developed
their own systems of
education. The first Europeans, who came to Africa, viewed
Africa as a savage, a
pagan with no history and culture to perpetuate that he was
primitive, that he knew
nothing and that Africans never taught their young. This was a
mistaken belief which
reflected the ignorance of the Europeans about African education
systems. It also
help to explain why the first Europeans educationists never
considered that the
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formal schools they were introducing had any relationship to the
largely informal
education, the African children were receiving in their
communities. The basic
assumption was that they were introducing something totally new.
In this, there was
no social interaction or rather socialization. This meant that
adults never made a
deliberate attempt to bring up children to be the kind of men
required by the society.
Secondly, since Africans had neither reading nor writing skills,
some scholars tended
to assume that they had no system of education. Hence the
conclusion that they had
no content and no methods to pass on to the young. To such
scholars then, education
in Africa would mean nothing else but western civilization.
Therefore, no western
civilization, no education. The scholars neglected anything
traditional because of
their restricted view of the nature of the education. It is
definitely fallacious to define
education in terms of school or reading and writing, because
schooling and education
are not synonymous in any way at all. Education is defined as
the whole process by
which one generation transmits its culture to the succeeding
generation, or a process
by which people are prepared to live effectively and efficiently
in their environment.
On the basis of this definition then, it is quite easy to see
that before the coming of
the Europeans, there was an effective education system in each
African clan,
chiefdom or kingdom. African traditional education was effective
ever since the
evolution of the African race. It was tangible, definite and
clearly intelligible.
There have been no single indigenous form of education In
Africa. Societies
differing from each other, developed different systems of
education to transmit their
own particular knowledge and skills. The differences were not
necessarily great, but
it as quite clear that indigenous forms of education were
sometimes remarkably
similar but differed in methods and content. One form could be
seen to have
influence over another. This was due to the fact that certain
specialists were
extremely mobile, just like in the case of western type and
Islamic systems. The
mobility of specialists such as the Dyula dyers and Numu
blacksmiths of Ivory Coast
and Ghana was in large measure responsible for this.
Another misconception is that within one particular society, all
young people learned
the same skills. This may have been so in ethnic groups, where
all families followed
roughly the same economic pursuits and where political and
social roles were
relatively undifferentiated. Some traditional societies like
Yoruba, had marked
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specialization in occupation as well as pronounced political and
hierarchies.
Although they shared general knowledge, a child at the royal
court of Ife had a
different orientation and training in skills from that of a
blacksmiths son in the war
camp of Ibadan.
2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
To socialize and initiate an individual into the tribal or
ethnic group in
a communal perspective.
To help people conform to cultural norms and roles.
It exposed the young to checks and balances.
2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
The education in Africa before the coming of the European was an
education that
prepared one for the responsibilities as an adult in the home,
the village and within
the tribe. The education varied from the simple instruction
given by the father or
mother to the youths to complex educational system of highly
organized and
sophisticated such as the one among the Poro in West Africa
which had myriad of
ceremonies and countless degrees. Most societies fell between
the simple and
sophisticated with respect to the educational arrangements they
provided for their
youth, offering rituals to mark the end of puberty and relying
heavily upon the
custom and example as the principal educational agents.
1. History of Ethnic group. The education looked at what
happened and why things happened the way they did. For
example,
where did we come from, when, why did we settle here? Why are
we
having the drought this year? Why floods along the Zambezi river
for
example. The questions which were asked made the society
develop
a sense of security consciousness, religious beliefs and sense
of
belonging. The history was reflected much in the songs,
dances
myths. The young were taught and reminded about their names,
surnames, clans, totems and cousin relationships. There were
also
stories in the evenings around the fire places about heroic
deeds of
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ancestors, how they developed loyalty and pride in membership
of
the tribe.
2. Apprenticeship in Practical Skills. The African
Indigenous
education stressed the skills according to sex roles. For
example boys
were taught by men such as fathers, uncles, and grandfathers
about
the uses of herbs, flowers and fruits, farming and raising
cattle. They
also learnt how to set traps, hunting and other skills in line
with men.
On the other hand girls learnt through close contact with
mothers,
aunties and grandmothers in the kitchen. They learnt how to
cook,
wash calabashes, pots and how to brew beer. They further learnt
the
art of being good wives and mothers.
3. Social Obligations and Inculcation of Good Manners.
Children learnt the correct way of greeting different ages, how
to sit,
how to address other members of the tribe and elders among
them.
They were to respect the old and to extend hospitality to
all.
4. Religious Teaching. Their religious teaching centred on
the
Supreme Being who controlled all the tribal fortunes. The
young
learnt the influence of the spirits in the society and how to
appease
the spirit of the departed. They also learnt about different
spirits (bad
and good spirits) and the mysteries of religion.
5. Initiation Ceremonies. This was done after one had
reached
the puberty stage and it marked an epoch in ones life as the
child was
being introduced by elders to the legends surrounding
previous
exploits of ones tribe and community responsibilities. It was
an
intensive course of instruction which was done in seclusion and
the
initiates were exposed to tests of physical endurance. For
example
Nyau among the Chewa people in Zambia were exposed to harsh
environment and taught survival skills such as swimming. They
were
also exposed to hot pots as a way of training them endurance.
Of
course there were clever women who could only put the pot on
the
fire when they were about to come and pick it. They were
given
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instructions in hygiene, sexual behaviour, expectations in
marriage
among other areas. In some societies secrecy surrounded the
event.
2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN
EDUCATION
In traditional African society people learnt what they lived and
lived what they
learnt. Education was a life long process; it began at birth and
ended at death.
Education enabled people to adapt to their environment in which
they lived. For
instance, those who lived in the equatorial rain forest and
those who lived in the plain
areas each had the curriculum to follow. At society, level
education was planned or
unplanned (incidental), formal (e.g initiation ceremonies) or
informal. Education
transmitted skills, modes of behaviour, essential for societys
survival. Learning was
by imitation, repetition and observation. Societys education was
determined by its
ideologies, dominant value or moral order. Education ensured
national unity and
ensured cultural survival. Alfred North White Head summed up the
contents of any
education as life in all its manifestations.
2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
In practical terms, the method of indigenous African education
was humanization of
man in society. Learning was expected to yield:
a) Cognition- knowledge in general, understanding.
b) Skills- which had relevance to their survival.
c) Volition- attitudes, values, feelings, appreciation etc.
d) Practice, not theory- what was learnt was put to use-
pragmatism/functionalism, practicality/utilitarianism was at the
centre of
learning.
e) Involvement- active participation in everyday life.
2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING
a) IMITATION
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Imitating others such as mothers, fathers, peers and
grandparents was part of
the learning process.
2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION
a) Conditioning Imitation- through which learners acquired
attitudes,
values, and forms of reasoning by virtue of being member of a
group, or
because of social pressure e.g sisters wanting to live like
mother Theresa.
b) Reinforcement Imitation- voluntarily participating in order
to win
social praise e.g mum, I can cook like you, sing, jump like
you.
c) Insightful Imitation- Deliberate copying of other peoples
acts or
methods of doing things in order to solve specific problems.
2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING
Initiative to learn comes from elders who want an individual to
acquire a particular
skill e.g grooming someone to be a king, to marry a kings
daughter etc.
Many techniques were used to induce or stimulate learning:
-praise an incentive
-Rewards e.g cattle
-Story telling on heroic deeds
-Ridicules etc.
2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING
a) Most widespread
b) Reflected in doing, working, participation, playing,
attending funerals and
observation, in every activity.
2.7 FORMAL LEARNING
This is organized, planned and structured learning e.g.
initiation ceremonies.
2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
The education in an African set up required that the individual
had to change in order
to adjust for a living. Though very few people failed, testing
was one of the ways to
confirm if there was education going on. It involved both
diagnostic and prescriptive
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that made rise to the remedial lessons or for further perfection
of skills, manners,
attitudes, perceptions and behaviour among other areas of
interest. The testing was in
form of:
i. Assigning work to an individual and monitoring of the results
closely.
ii. Sometimes girls were sent to take care of the elderly
relatives to see
how they could manage. This was in view of the other elderly
people
that one might live with in future especially after marriage as
African
societies lived in communities.
iii. A boy could be given an opportunity to express his
personality as a
man. For example how to protect ones siblings.
iv. Some customs required bridegrooms to take care of their in
laws for
some years until when the in laws were satisfied that one could
take
care of their daughter.
v. The cultures that were pastoralists, boys were asked to
identify their
cattle or goats from the rest of the herds of the community.
vi. Some societies asked the children to name the relatives both
the
maternal and the paternal.
2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
i. Multiple learning (Wholesticism). The education system had
no
much room for specialization but equipped boys and girls with
a
number of occupations with related skills. This meant that a boy
could
be taught how to fish, geography of an area, interpretation of
the
seasons, building and farming among them. On the other hand
girls
were taught gardening, cooking, laundry, and simple skills of
nursing.
The education was centred on the whole life of the society.
ii. Integration. The education depended on what was available
without
fixing of time for learning. Children learnt how to welcome
visitors
when there were visitors (situational learning). Teaching for
sex roles
was done during initiation.
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iii. Utilitarian/Functionalism. Whatever was taught had to be
useful as
the education produced the skills which were used in
practice.
iv. Perenialism. There were skills which were only taught
during
specific seasons such rain season (planting and ploughing).
v. Communalism. Most of the lessons were done in communal
manner.
Education was a responsibility for the whole community. For
example
working in fields, construction of houses, child discipline
etc.
2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION
a) It relied on memory and oral tradition. It had no device for
recording
acquired knowledge for future use.
b) Punishment was too harsh and non-reformatory.
c) It was tribal and so skills of one tribe could not be
transmitted to the
other. There was no common language for different tribes.
d) It stressed gender roles.
e) It was conservative because society changes were not as rapid
as they
are today. But measured against the people it had to serve.
Traditional
education was very successful. Snelson (1974) contends that this
form of
education was conservative and not progressive, some teachers
were
incompetent, so were some learners. Kelly (2006) adds that it
was orally
based with no written records, it could not fully cope with
scientific concepts,
it was static and did not embrace aspects of innovation inquiry
and change.
In the final analysis, the onus is on the modern student to
critically analyse
and subject the aforesaid to reason and take a position out of
an academic and
informed decision.
2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION
In any case, traditional education is believed to have been
meaningful, unifying,
holistic, effective, practical, relevant and community based.
There was no separation
between education and the world of work. Graduates were readily
absorbed in
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19
society upon completion of their induction or socialization
(Kelly, 2006; Farrant,
1980).
African traditional education developed and educated the whole
person. This type of
education involved the entire society or community. Because it
was human centred,
it promoted and developed very good and strong bonds among the
people. This
education had clear values, attitudes and morals for its
curriculum. This was to
exploit the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
SUMMARY
The chapter has apart from defining what indigenous or
traditional education means,
also discussed the components, curriculum, methods, merits and
demerits of
Indigenous Education.
ACTIVITY
1. There are some elements in traditional education which are
relevant to an
individuals life in a community. Discuss this assertion in
relation to modern
way of life.
2. Discuss the weaknesses of indigenous education.
3. African Indigenous education was very primitive. Discuss the
assertion.
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UNIT 3
3.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924
3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION
Introduction:
The unit looks at the education that prevailed during the time
of the
Missionaries and the British South African Company (BSACo).
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
To define missionary education.
Explain for coming of missionaries in Africa.
Compare between the indigenous education and missionary
education
Trace the first schools in Zambia
Explain the characteristics of missionary education
Discuss the involvement of the BSACo in Education.
Missionary education refers to Western education as opposed to
the African
indigenous education. It was based on literacy (ability to read
and write) and
numeracy (ability to work with numbers) There are differences
between the two
types of education mentioned above in many aspects.
Compare and comprehend the two types of education in order
to
comprehend them.
Missionary education derives its name from the group of people
who first brought it
to Africa from Europe-the church people or the missionaries.
Between 1890 and
1924, many mission groups came to Africa and Northern Rhodesia
(Zambia) in
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
21
particular. They settled in different parts of the country and
opened many stations
(Missions) as well as schools to offer what became known as
missionary education.
3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION
Missionaries built schools with specific aims or goals. Some of
these were:
a) To enable Africans read and write so that they could help in
the
evangelization process: ability to read and interpret the Bible
in a local
and English Languages.
b) To harness or tame Africans for them to co-operate with
missionaries in
their work (Trying to create some common working ground entice
them
to European culture).
c) To de-culture Africans and make Europeans out of Africans e.g
French
policy of Assimilation.
d) To give Africans some technical schools in capentry,
agriculture, brick
laying etc.
3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA?
Different missionary groups came to Africa as a follow up to
David Livingstones
exploration works and reports he sent back to Europe(United
Kingdom in particular).
Secondly, early exploration works by different explorers such as
Bartholomew Diaz,
Mungo Park, Henry Morton Stanley etc also helped to stimulate
missionaries to
come to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). What were their
aims?
Missionary groups and their stations
Many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in the
period under
review. Each group claimed areas of influence and built schools
and clinics there.
i) Draw the map of Zambia. On it show mission stations and years
when
established.
ii) Below the map, make a list of these church groups indicating
who were
their leaders at that time. For instance
NatashaHighlight
NatashaHighlight
NatashaHighlight
NatashaHighlight
NatashaSticky Notepreaching of the word of God
NatashaSticky Noteassimilado
NatashaHighlight
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
22
1. Brethren in Christ Church-Macha mission in Choma(1906)-Leader
was
Francis Davidson.
2. Catholics-Society of Jesus (Jesuits)-Chikuni Mission in
Chisekesi,
Monze(1905), Leader was Fr. Moreau.
3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890
There are many missionary groups that had already established
their mission
settlements and schools before 1890. Indicators are that the
under listed were in
Northern Rhodesia before 1890:
a) Paris Evangelical Mission-1885
b) United Free Church of Scotland-1895
c) The Largest Society-the White Fathers-1895
d) The Dutch Reformed church Mission-1895
e) The London Mission Society-1883
f) The Primitive Methodist-1893
g) Christian Missions in Many Lands-the Open Brethren-1897
3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL
Missionary education in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) owes its
establishment to
David Livingstones exploration works which exposed the interior
of Africa to the
European people. As a follow up to Livingstones reports on
events in Africa and
Northern Rhodesia in particular, many missionary groups came to
Northern
Rhodesia.
In March 1883, the first school was opened in Limulunga by Arnot
of the Paris
Evangelical Missionary society with three pupils all male.
It situated at Kanyonyo whose name it adopted. Later it became
National Barotse
School.
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION
1. It is foreign or alien to Africans and is based on reading
and writing
2. It carries with it European/Western culture and norms
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
23
3. It does alienate (separate the learner from the
society-village set up/family) to
some place of employment. It also alienates the learner in a
host of cultural
aspects as the two cultures clash.
4. It is believed that it has the capacity to explain scientific
concepts. That it is
dynamic helps to make people adaptive and universal in
nature.
5. Perceived as a tool for national development.
6. From the African perspective, it may be seen as a lazy mans
chain. It
promotes white collar job syndrome as opposed to manual work
that
demands physique.
7. It is more practical in problem solving than other types:
through medicines,
industries, technology and various disciplines of education
itself like social
sciences etc.
8. It is seen as a tool or means to acquire prestigious status
in society. It is said
that it enhances social position and status for the elite.
3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION
Depending on ones view point it can be said that there are many
benefits.
a) Western education through missionaries helped to replace
slave trade with
modern trade.
b) It helped Africans to open up and started fighting for
independence until it
was achieved.
c) It changed the status of Africans as a continent as well as
the status of
Africans themselves.
d) A lot of what was perceived as bad cultural practice was
phased out or
moderated e.g. using skin clothing, polygamy, worshipping
ancestral spirits
etc.
e) It brought modern social services, schools, hospitals,
industries and modern
way of life supported by technology.
3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND
EDUCATION-1890-1924
According to Manchishi and Chondoka (1999), the pioneers of
Western education in
colonial Zambia were the European Christian Missionaries who
started their work in
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
24
the country from 1883.(ERIP report:5). This was adequately shown
in earlier lesson
on missionary education 1883-1889.
3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924)
Cecil Rhodes is a key player in the formation and administration
of the British South
African Company. He founded the company in 1889 after making a
fortune in
diamond mining at Kimberley, in South Africa.
He got authority from the Crown (British Monarchy) to administer
what was then
known as North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia. In turn, he
got support from
the mother country, Britain. His entry point was North-Western
Rhodesia (1897)
after signing concessions with Lewanika in 1890, 17th October.
The treaty of the
BSA company mineral rights in all areas under King Lewanika in
turn the BSA
company protected the Lewanikas Kingdom and gave him an annual
grant of 850
pounds. The prime aim of the BSA company was to:
a) Exploit minerals and make profits
b) Use North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia sources of
cheap
mineral and human resources for the development of South
Africa.
Although when signing concessions, Cecil Rhodes accepted
responsibility to provide
social services to the Africans in practice it was a
non-starter. He was a first class
capitalist Snelson(1974) spells out the position of the BSA
regarding the provision of
education to the Africans as well as the development of colonial
Zambia: the BSA
records in regard to African education was one of the consistent
neglect.
It is further noted that for three decades BSA co. consistently
refused to give
financial assistance to missionary education in the country. It
failed lamentably and
shamefully to implement clear promises regarding education which
had been part of
the treaties with Lewanika. Three treaties were signed which the
BSA never fulfilled:
the Lochner treaty (1890, 1898, and 1900).
One clause found in these treaties read: The BSA co. further
agrees that it will aid
and assist in the education and civilization of the native
subjects of the king by the
establishment, maintenance and endowment of schools and
industrial
establishment(vocational trade schools), Sneson:122).
Find out why things happened like way.
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25
3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL
Due to pressure from the Chewa chiefs in Nyasaland,(Malawi), the
BSA opened
Livingstonia mission school and funded it in a little way. This
was facilitated by
Rhobert Codrington, the administrator. In colonial Zambia, the
same was done in
1907 by the BSA co. at Kanyonyo village-Mongu. This school was
only one partly
funded by the BSAco. And came to be known as Barotse National
School. It opened
in March 1907 with Austin R William as headteacher. African
teachers were drawn
from Basutoland (Lesotho). Curriculum:carpentry, bricklaying,
thatching, forestry
other than reading, writing and arithmetic. This school was
under the Paris
evangelical Mission led by Francis Coillard.
By 1911/12, a few Africans from this school had become teachers
or were employed
as clerks, shopkeepers, office orderlies etc. While company rule
did not support
African education, missionary groups continued expanding in this
area. They called
on the company to give grants to mission schools, the move which
the BSA co.
rejected. In 1911, the BSA co. formerly amalgamated N.E and N.W.
Rhodesia into
one territory called Northern Rhodesia.
3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANYS NON PROVISION
OF EDUCATION
a) Lost opportunity:
The B.S.A. co. lost a golden chance to change its African
education stance in 1906.
In this year, Alfred Beit died and donated money-200,000 pounds
for education and
other public social services in his will. B.S.A. through
Codrington and Wallace
indicated that Northern Rhodesia had no financial need.
Missionary groups at that time through Native Affairs department
placed for
governments funding of missionary education.
Both mission schools and government officials saw the need to
have a coordinated
curriculum or common curriculum in addition to financial grants.
The B.S.A. as
government had a duty to provide such a policy.
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
26
3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924
In July 1914, what one may call as the first General Missionary
conference was held
under the auspices of the Primitive Methodists. This group was
used to work with
other churches. They did so when they translated the New
Testament in Ila.
These church groups did take part in this conference held in
Livingstone in Coillard
memorial hall.
a) Primitive Methodists
b) Paris Evangelical Mission
c) Brethren in Christ Church
d) U.M.C.A and Weslayan Methodists
3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were:
i) To foster cooperation between and among all church groups
ii) To evangelize North Western Rhodesia
iii) To give civic education/awareness to local people about
missionary work
as well as to care for the locals.
Reverend Edwin Smith was elected chairperson of the conference.
Rev. John Fell
presented a paper on Ideas and Methods in Native Education-it
was the main agenda
item.
3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference:
a) Encouraging government to take a keen interest in the
education for local
people.
b) Government to fund education in Northern Rhodesia
c) Urgent need to provide well trained local teachers by
government
d) Government must subsidize approved elementary schools as was
in Southern
Rhodesia.
By about 1915/16, the B.S.A. co. had this concern with the
government as well; the
quality of teachers and their reliability. A form of control was
needed. This led to the
Native schools Proclamation of 1918. Its contents were:
a) To define a school and a teacher
i) School meant a school or class for teaching or instruction of
local people
whether held in a building of not.
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
27
ii) Teacher meant any local person teaching in a school
b) No opening of new schools without consent of government
(administration)
or any other authorized officer.
c) All existing schools were to be registered within 90 days of
issue of 1918
proclamation.
d) Administration could close any school seen detrimental to
national peace and
security through the behaviour of its pupils and teachers.
e) Administration could close school that was contrary to wishes
of the society.
3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS
CONTRAVERSIAL PART
This was the first educational legislation (law) in Northern
Rhodesia. It seems its
first part was user friendly but the other part was seen to be
anti-development in the
area of education provision.
a) No person shall be a teacher in any school unless duly
qualified
b) To be considered duly qualified, one needed to be given a
certification of
efficiency and competence by the administrator.
c) In schools not headed by Europeans, to be a teacher there one
needed to be
married and lived with a wife.
d) Breach of the above would lead to a fine not more than twenty
five pounds or
to be jailed for not more than three months or both.
e) Any teacher guilty/suspected for interference in the works of
the
administrator, chief, headman and other government officers
would be black
listed.
f) The native schools Proclamation of 1918 gave powers to
magistrates and
Native Commissioners to inspect schools.
g) This law (Proclamation) gave power to the administrator to
prescribe
qualifications of teachers to provide competence certificates to
teachers as
well as reports of good conduct, locating of building new
schools.
The law gave sweeping powers to control education system and
provision
without any financial part. Missionary groups, who were the main
providers of
education in Northern Rhodesia at this time, became disappointed
and bitter.
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
28
3.6.1 2nd General Missionary Conference of 1919
The general dissatisfaction and disapproval of the 1918
Proclamation by all the
missionary groups in Northern Rhodesia led to the 1919
conference. It was held in
Livingstone from 18-22 July 1919. Rev. Adolphe Jalla of Paris
Evangelical
Missionary Society was elected chairperson and Rev. John Fell of
Primitive
Methodists was elected Secretary. The Conference proposed
amendments to: Clause
that referred to churches as schools and the marriage
clause.
Resolutions passed:
a) The Government should give grants to schools
b) Accepted school code drawn by Rev. Fell
c) Agreed to invite missionary societies in Northern Rhodesia to
next
conference.
In response to the missionary conference, resolutions of 1919,
the government
repeated the 1918 Native Schools Proclamation. It was replaced
by the January 1922
New Native Schools Proclamation. In this law:
a) The controversial marriage-teacher clause was dropped.
b) Teachers were to be certified by the missionary in charge
c) Definition of a school now excluded holding of a religious
service
d) Missionaries in charge to inspect schools at least twice a
year.
3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922
The conference was held in Kafue from 17-23 July 1922 and was
attended by eleven
missionary societies. The Conference discussed different items,
key among them
were three papers. Coxhead presented the first paper which
advised/suggested
recruitment of agriculture expert to advise mission groups on
agricultural education.
The Government was to pay 1/3 of experts salary. Coxhead was
searching for Native
affairs.
Loram presented a second paper that advocated for retention of
primary education in
the hands of missionaries and that Government should support
missionaries
financially. He urged the Government to be responsible for
secondary education.
Loram also suggested the establishment of a college/university
as was the case in
South Africas Fort Hare. Loram had come from Natal and was
outstanding
educationists.
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
29
Latham G.C. presented the 3rd
paper. He was part-time inspector of schools for the
country. He advised missionary groups to be well-coordinated and
respect each
other. He advised that denominational differences be buried and
that a first class
normal school like Sefula be made in central area for teacher
training.
His paper indicated that missionary education should include:
spiritual, moral, social
and economic progress of the local people. He proposed for a
good balance between
religious, academic and individual components.
Provisional agreement was made to use Kafue institute for
teacher training to be
offered by the Primitive Methodists. But later the idea was
abandoned to differences
that arose.
1. Primitive Methodists did not support John Fell
2. U.M.C.A. did not support Bishop May idea to fund the
program-five
hundred pound per annum. The B.S.A co. director did not support
the
idea. But the major success of the conference was that the
Government was clearly made to understand it needed to fund
education sooner than later. Lathan was regarded as a radical:
He said,
We can not educate the natives without allowing them some share
in
their government, sooner than later.
Very few people-whites then accepted the eventual
self-government rule coming to
pass. For the future, Lathan recommended Industrial training for
learners at least 2
hours per day in addition to other subjects (Literacy and
numeracy).
In 1923, there was a General Missionary Council Executive
Committee attended by
Lathan. In that meeting, he recommended to the council that the
Government should
not run away from funding education and that the Government
needed a policy on
Native education.
SUMMARY
The Chapter looked at the coming of the missionaries and what
was referred to as
Missionary Education. It also looked at the BSA Company and what
it had to offer in
terms of education
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
30
1. Missionary education and teachers have been criticised as
having
facilitated colonialism and imperialism in Africa. Discuss
this
assertion citing six countries.
2. Compare and contrast Indigenous type of education with
the
Western type of education. Examine how education has
influenced
development in Zambia.
3. Trace the way in which the White Collar Worker syndrome
developed and manifested itself in Zambias education system
during the 1960s. How did the new Republic of Zambia attempt
to
address the White Collar Worker
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
31
UNIT 4
3.0 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA
1931-1953
Introduction:
This unit will introduce you to the activities that followed
after the two groups
involvement in education as observed in unit 3.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
Discuss the Phelps Stoke Commission
Illustrate the recommendations by the Phelps Stoke
Commission.
Explain the challenges faced by the Phelps Stoke Commission.
Analyse the British policy in Tropical Africa.
A lot of educational events took place between the time of
Lathan left Northern
Rhodesia in July 1931 and the time when the Federation of
Rhodesia and Nyasaland
started in 1953.
In order to capture as many events as possible in this period of
time (era), the time
chart method will be applied. This is to capture events that
happened as early as
when Northern Rhodesia became a British Protectorate or British
Crown in 1924.
1928 First departmental exams for teachers was held based on
government
standard 4 syllabus.
There was a paper on teaching theory and school management, as
well
as practical test on First-Aid.
In the same year, governments Jeanes Agricultural, Normal
and
Primary schools were being built.
1931 Lathan left Northern Rhodesia as director of African
Education.
1938 Jeanes school close due to the change in Native Reserve
boundary
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
32
1939 A new Jeanes and Teacher Training Centre was opened at
Chalimbana (NISTICOL)
Munali Secondary School opened in Lusaka.
1946 Chipembi Girls School opened by the Methodist Mission
1947 Nursing school for African nurses started at Chikankata
Mission
1951 New Munali Secondary School was opened
Hodgson Training Centre expanded
12 Trades school operational.
One major characteristic of education in the era under review
was an attempt to
implement mass education. An attempt was also made to phase out
racial school.
4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL
AFRICA/NORTHERN RHODESIA-1925
It is believed that the above policy came about as a result of
the Phelps-Stokes
Commission Report. This report influenced the Advisory Committee
on Native
education to come up with the first ever policy memorandum in
March, 1925. Its title
was Education Policy in British Tropical Africa.
Through this policy, the influence and impact of the commissions
chairperson
became vivid. This was Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones. The policys entry
point was that:
The Controlling Power is responsible as Trustee for the Moral
advancement of
the Native Population.
The main principles of the 1925 education policy were:
a) To govern the direction of educational development in
Northern
Rhodesia and elsewhere in British African dependencies or
colonies.
b) Government welcomed partnership with other stakeholders
in
provision of education to local people.
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
33
c) Government reserved the right to have total control of
education
through inspections, monitoring and giving the general
direction.
d) Advisory Boards of education were to be set up in all
dependencies upon which agencies and others who have
experience in social welfare should be accorded
representation.
e) Education for adaptation was stressed as a principle in the
policy.
Education should be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes,
occupations and traditions of the various peoples, conserving
as
far as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric
of
their social life.
The content and method of teaching in all subjects should be
adapted to the local
conditions.
i. Relevant text books and the use of vernacular language was
stressed and was
to be observed.
ii. The aim of education was to be spelt out- to render the
individual more
efficient in his/her condition of life and promote the
advancement of the
community as a whole through the improvement of agriculture,
the
development of native industries, the improvement of health, the
training of the
people in the management of their own affairs and the
inculcation of true ideals
of citizenship and service.
iii. The teaching of higher education as well as Religious and
moral instruction
was to be observed. Character training was to be founded on the
formation of
habits of industry, of truthfulness, manliness, readiness for
social service and of
disciplined cooperation.
iv. Improved conditions of service were to be implemented to
attract the best
available men both British and African.
v. Grants in aid were to be paid to approved non-government
schools, who met
the required standards.
vi. Teacher education/training and gender balances was another
principle in the
1925 policy. The native teaching staff should be adequate in
numbers,
qualifications, in character and should include women. The key
to a sound
system of education lies in the training of teachers and this
matter was to
receive primary consideration.
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
34
The policy went on to state that other than initial training,
teachers were to receive
further education from time to time (in service) or continuing
professional
development (CPD). One way this could be done for rural school
concept of visiting
teachers.
a) The policy included the need to provide technical and
vocational training to
counteract the white collar jobs syndrome and the tendency to
look down on
manual labour/practical jobs.
b) Girl education re-emphasised within the policy. The education
of girls and
women was a challenge at that time, but more needed to be done
at once.
The memorandum stressed that it was important to provide
educated mates for
clever boys. It was viewed as cardinal for girls to have lessons
in hygiene and public
health, child welfare, domestic economy and home management.
The policy advised that adult education be given once the
experimented stage/version
was confirmed. In contrast to the 30 years of BSA rule which had
no education
policy in Northern Rhodesia, Colonial rule at least introduced
one. What remained to
be seen was its implementation for the benefit of the territory
and its people.
4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923
This was set up to advise the secretary of state on matters of
Native Education in
British colonies and protectorate in Tropical Africa. The work
of this committee was
made easy by the Phelps-Stokes Commission which had recent
records or reports on
south and Western Africa in of educational activities
(1920-1921).
4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION
The commission was set using the funds under the will of Miss
Calorine Phelps-
Stokes. The aim of the fund was to enhance the education of
Negroes in Africa and
United States of America.
The members were: Dr. James Aggrey distinguished educationist
from Gold Coast,
Dr. J H. Dillard (USA), president of the Jeanes Fund, Dr. H.L
Shantz agriculturalist
and botanist (USA), Rev: Garfield Williams, Educational
secretary, Colonial Office
Advisory Committee on Native Education in Tropical Africa, C.T
Loram (South
Africa), Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones-Chairperson (USA) and James
Dougall (Scotland)
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
35
4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission
were:
i. To investigate educational needs of the people in the light
of their religions,
social, hygiene and economic conditions.
ii. To ascertain the extent to which peoples needs were being
met in rural areas.
iii. To assist in the formulation of plans to meet educational
needs of local people
(ethnic group)
The commission set out to do its work by sending an education
commission to west,
south and Equatorial Africa in 1920-1921. The report of the
first tour encouraged the
Phelps Stokes Commission to send another group to survey
educational needs of
local people in east and Central Africa. This decision was made
in 1923, and
implemented between January and July 1924. The countries visited
were: French
Somaliland, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika,
Zanzibar,
Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland Southern Rhodesia, Northern
Rhodesia (8-13
June 1924). Much of the information from Northern Rhodesia was
provided by
Lathan and representatives of Missionary societies.
4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS
i. Appointing a director of native Education whose task would be
to co-ordinate
and unite educational activities of the missionary societies and
orders
ii. To appoint an advisory committee on education with
representatives from the
government, missions and settlers. The important thing was that
the native
opinion was to be sought as soon as possible.
iii. Establishing teacher training institutions at selected
mission stations.
iv. Providing funds for the training and employment of visiting
teachers based on
the Jeanes School operating in USA.
4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF
EDUCATION
This memorandum governed the direction of Education development
in Northern
Rhodesia and elsewhere. It contained the following
principles:
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
36
a) The government was going to encourage all voluntary effort
which
conformed to the general policy but the government was to
reserve the right
to intervene over the general direction of educational policy
and the
supervision of all educational institutions by inspecting and
other means.
b) Cooperation between government and other educational agencies
was to be
encouraged which led to the formation of advisory boards of
education in
British dependencies in each province there was a committee.
c) Adoption of education to the African environment was to be
one of the aims
of education. This implied that the system was going to be
adapted to the
mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various
people.
d) The need for higher education was also acknowledged. This
education was
going to be given to those who by character, ability of
temperament showed
themselves fitted to profit by such education.
e) The importance of religion was also emphasized.
f) Financial assistance was also to be given to voluntary
schools.
g) The memorandum also recommended that the status and
conditions of service
in the education department should be such as to attract the
best available
staff. Both the British and the African
h) The memorandum also urged that the native teaching staff
should be adequate
in numbers, qualifications and character which should include
women.
i) Supervision of the education system was also encouraged.
Government
inspectorate was to be established and each mission was
encouraged to
inspect its own schools.
j) It also encouraged the establishment of technical and
vocational training
schools.
k) Girls were to be trained in hygiene and public health, child
welfare and
domestic economy. Adult education for women was to be
encouraged. Soon
after the presentation of the above document. The first director
of native
education was appointed. This was Geofrey Chitty Laterin.
l) The first survey of the state of education in British
Tropical Africa was done
in a period of eighteen months. The Phelps-Stokes Commission
which had
made a rapid tour of West Africa in 1919, completed a similar
tour of East
Africa in 1924 and produced detailed reports which provided the
Advisory
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
37
Committee of Education in the colonies with clear picture of
educational
needs.
The trustee of the Phelps-stokes Fund, in November 1919, adopted
the following:
that a survey of educational conditions and opportunities among
the Negros of
Africa, with a special view of finding the type or types of
education best adapted to
meet the needs of the Natives, be undertaken by the Phelp-Stokes
Commission.
In 1925, the principles on which the educational system of the
dependencies were to
be based were set out. In summary the points were:
a) Governments themselves control educational policy but they
should
cooperate with other educational agencies. Each territory should
have an
advisory board on which all educational interests should be
represented.
b) Education must adapt the mentality, aptitude occupations, and
traditions of
various peoples, conserving as much as possible all sound and
healthy
elements in the fabric of their social life, adapting them where
necessary to
changed circumstances and progressive ideas as an agent of
natural growth
and evolution. This meant maximizing the use of African arts and
culture
and hoped that it would narrow the gap between the educated
class and the
rest of the community.
c) Religious training and moral instruction should be regarded
as fundament to
the development of a sound education and should be accorded
complete
equality with secular subjects.
d) Educational services must be made to attract the best men
from Britain,
whether for permanent careers of for short service
appointments.
e) Grants should be given to aid voluntary schools which
fulfilled requirements.
f) African languages, as well as English, should be used in
education; content
and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the
conditions of
Africa, special text books should be prepared.
g) African teaching staff had to be adequate in numbers,
qualifications and
character which required the inclusion of women. The training
was essential.
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4.3.4 4th General Missionary Conference 1924
It is important to note by this time the BSA rule had ended on
April 1st 1924.
Colonial office was now in charge of affairs in Northern
Rhodesia.
The conference was called in June 1924 at Kafue Institute. The
purpose for the
conference was to:
i. Get members of missionary societies meet Phelps-Stokes
Commission
ii. Make recommendation to the government (colonial office) on
the
educational policy for Northern Rhodesia.
4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS
a) Primary and secondary education be given in mission schools
with the help
from the government.
b) Higher education (tertiary) be done at government schools
with the help of
missionary societies.
c) It re-activated the 1914 resolutions for implementation.
d) Out of direct native tax money which was 100,000 pounds P.a.
Most of it was
to go to the education expenses for Africans.
4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 1-
1925-1931
Colonial office took over reins of government from BSA Co. in
April 1924. Among
the immediate tasks for the new government were to:
a) Act on the Phelps-Stokes reports and recommendations
b) Take over the supervision and financing of education from
missionaries.
c) Encourage technical and agricultural skills in education.
d) Set up Native education department.
e) Come up with an education policy in British Tropical
African.
f) Appoint a director of Native affairs (G.C. Lathan was
appointed).
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4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925
The colonial office spent the first one year to put in place
logistics for administering
education in Northern Rhodesia. This was enhanced by the
Advisory Board set in
1924, which had its first meeting in July 1925. Until 1943, the
Advisory Board only
comprised Missionaries, government and settlers without the
local people.
One key resolution of the Board was the issuing of the Native
School Code. In line
with the one passed out by the missionaries earlier on. The
difference here was the
emphasis put on Agriculture for the first time. Lathan on behalf
of the colonial office
spelt out the Education Policy in British Tropical Africa in the
White Paper No
Command 2374. This meant that the new government had a framework
to use in
running education affairs in Northern Rhodesia. Also that
structures for educational
administration were put in place for instance the Advisory
Board. Additionally,
these were made clear:
i. Conditions for paying grants to schools.
ii. The curriculum for village (rural) and station (urban)
schools were put in
place.
iii. The curriculum for agricultural training was agreed
upon.
iv. Teachers conditions of service and qualifications were
agreed upon and
made known.
v. Challenges of language teaching and proposed methodologies
were made
known.
Lathan drew up a transformation programme in the provision of
education in
Northern Rhodesia which tried to address these areas: teacher
training, salary, grants,
normal school syllabus, the Jeanes School concept/mode in
Mazabuka, village
schools, Native schools (Ammendment ) Ordinance 1927, the school
syllabus, girls
education, urban education, practical work, Finance and
Financial support from
oversees. According to Nelson (1974) Lathan did a lot in the
above sector of Native
education with a view of improving the quality of education
provided in Northern
Rhodesia by both government and missionaries
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ACTIVITIY
a) Lathan came to be known as father of African Education in
Northern
Rhodesia. What were his achievements as director of Native
Education from 1924-1931?
4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT
The name was derived from Miss Anna T. Jeanes an American
Quarker
Philantropist. She believed in the value of little schools for
Negroes in the Southern
States of USA. She gave her fortune to their improvement. Part
of the money was to
be used to train: travelling or visiting teachers. Travelling
(visiting) teachers were
supposed to be best trained teachers who would demonstrate new
methods and
techniques of teaching various subjects. These teachers were
expected to discuss
challenges visited teachers were facing so as to encourage and
inspire them to forge
ahead. These visiting teachers were supposed to be role models
and demonstrators
academically and professionally.
Impressed by the Jeanes school model, Lathan planned to have a
Jeanes Training
school in Northern Rhodesia. The Advisory Board approved that
plan and idea. In
1928, the Beit Railway Bequest (Trust) made available a grant of
12,000 Pounds for
the building of a Jeanes and agricultural school in Mazabuka.
This was accompanied
by a maintenance fund of 1,000 Pounds P.a for subsequent four
years.
John Fell became the Principal in January, 1929. Fell with the
help of Frederick
Hodgson superivised the building of the Jeanes school, which
opened on 3rd
February, 1930.
These institutions Jeanes school (now Mazabuka Basic school) and
Agricultural
schools (now Zambia Institute for Animal Sciences-ZIAS), became
the first
government educational institutions to open since 1906. Jeanes
school enrolled 21
while Agricultural school had 14 pioneer students.
Carmody (2004:12) states that the main purpose of the Jeanes
school was to train
African teachers to supervise village (rural) schools.
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SUMMARY
This chapter looked at the Phelps-Stokes Commission, its
recommendations and the
British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa or Northern
Rhodesia.
1) What was the Phelps Stokes Commission? Discuss the main
recommendations of this commission.
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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
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UNIT 5
5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963
Introduction:
In this unit you will be introduced to education system that
existed during the federal
period.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Explain the evolution of secondary education in Zambia
Discuss the Addis Ababa Conference
Discuss the search for human resource strategy
Illustrate the difficulties of the Addis Ababa Conference
The ten year era is known as the Federation Period. The
federation was an act of
bringing together Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe) and
Nyasaland (Malawi). The major attraction point for this merger
by Colonial Office
was copper in Northern Rhodesia.
Massive resources were taken from here to Salisbury (Harare)
which was the
Headquarters for the Federation. Southern Rhodesia greatly
developed from copper
resources from here including United Kingdom herself.
Capital projects built during this era included: Central African
Airways, Central
African Power Corporation, a university and Kariba dam among
them. Only mining
in Northern Rhodesia seem to have developed during 1953-1963
period. Agriculture
at the same time was the most affected in that prices fell due
to preferences given to
whites in Southern Rhodesia.
5.1EDUCATION
Education was racially structured. Northern Rhodesian government
was responsible
for Africans while Federal government was responsible for whites
and other races.
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Most of the resources went to fund education for non Africans.
However, from 1956,
the number of secondary schools and trade institutes increased.
One institute at that
time that became a major one was Hodgson Institute of Lusaka.
Between 1952-1953,
ideas to build a university in Northern Rhodesia were turned
down but preferred to
open one in Southern Rhodesia (University College of Rhodesia
and Nyasaland) in
March 1957. This is the current University of Zimbabwe.
The university through qualifications based on A-Levels did not
help many Africans.
No teacher training college was built in Northern Rhodesia
except for a few run by
missionaries. Unified African Teaching Service was put in place
to look into the
conditions of service for the teachers. The few Africans who
were exposed to
education led to the development of the African Elite. This
group made nationalists
movements. African National Congress (ANC), Zambia African
National Congress
(ZANC) AND United National Independence Party (UNIP).
After Ghanas independence in 1957, the wind of change across
Africa Nationalism
became the main stay especially in schools and places of work
(industries) or urban
centres. Continued passive resistance against Federation by
Africans led to its break
up on 31st December 1963.
5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961
The sponsors for this conference were UNESCO and Economic
Commission for
Africa. It was held in Ethiopia Addis Ababa from 15th
-25th
May, 1961. The
conference was for African Ministers of education, as for
resolution of the 11th
Session of UNESCO General Assembly.
The purpose and aim of the 1961 Addis Ababa conference was to
establish an
inventory of educational needs and make a programme to meet
those needs in the
coming years.
By the time of the conference, it was appreciated that many
African countries had
shown good efforts in the provision of education to their
citizens, and that many were
in the process of gaining their independence. The conference was
significant in that it
provided the first occasion when the education progress, needs
and problems of
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Middle Africa (Zambia inclusive) were dealt with as a whole,
with the drawing up of
a regional plan of educational development for the attainment of
the objectives
agreed on by the conference.
5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED
African countries were careful in aligning needs to educational
progress and
economic development. They also recognized the role of skilled
human resource.
They maintained the intra balance in education to reduce costs
and to seek external
aid.
Prominent needs included: finances, infrastructure, equipment,
Learning and
teaching materials, text books, trained teachers, curriculum
that would embrace
technical, vocational and girl education. Other areas included;
expansion of higher
and adult education components.
Due to economic challenges the conference gave priority to:
b) Secondary education
c) Curriculum reform and
d) Teacher Training.
5.2.2 TARGETS SET
The Addis Ababa conference set targets for a long term plan as
1960-1980. While
short term plan was set as 1960-1965. Features of the long term
plan included:
a) Primary education to be universal compulsory and free.
b) Education at the secondary level to be provided for 30% of
the children
completing primary education course.
c) Higher education to be provided mostly in Africa itself, to
20% of those
completing secondary education.
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5.2.3 SUCCESS OF THE CONFERENCE
a) It provided a Platform for regional approach to the
educational challenges in
Africa
b) Pooled ideas, visions, experiences, success and challenges
became available
for sharing in the administration of the entire education
sector.
c) The conference served as a bridge for cultural and academic
work between
French and English speaking people (nations).
d) It attracted attention from the developed world, to decide to
give aid to
African nations to help them develop their education
systems.
From this conference, African countries went to draw up their
domestic educational
plans to meet the agreed upon regional plan or framework.
5.2.4SHORT TERM PLANS
Primary education:
a) There was to be an annual increase of 5% of age groups
entering primary
school. There should be an increase in enrolment from 40%
-51%.
b) There was to be only 10% wastage each year during primary
cycle and
accumulative wastage target of 41% for 6 years.
c) Distribution of teachers on the basis of qualifications was
to be:
Highly qualified secondary education and 3 years of
professional
learning.
Adequately qualified (primary education and 4 years
training)
It was noted that by the time of the conference most of the term
of reference in short
term plans were already met by most countries.
5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
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(HRD) STRATEGY
It is believed that people or human resource is the most
important asset a country
has. All other resources such as financial, industrial, natural
and other are secondary.
This view is backed by on of the development theories called
Human Capital
Theory. The theory contends that educating and training people
is productive
investment with immeasurable returns in tems of national
development.
Therefore, the topic title under review mean that Zambia and
other newly
independent nations needed good formulae to develop peoples
potential to bring out
needed varied skills and competences. Developing nations
generally had no adequate
skilled people by the 1960s. This was caused by inadequate
schools for tertiary
education such as colleges and universities.
Other factors included: imbalance in status and payment between
white collar and
practical jobs, no role models in self employment
(entrepreneurs) and self made
people.
Another theory that supports Human Resource Development is
Modernization
Theory. This theory stresses the need to have educated people in
order to upgrade or
modernize the process of national development. However, other
people felt that
development theories and their strategies such as Human Resource
Development
were narrow in approach for they seem to only look at economic
development.
Areas over looked included: life long education, health,
cultural, traditions, religions
and moral values, leisure and elimination of poverty. Critics
argue that the Human
Resource Development were too much aligned to employment
aspects. Education
was seen as a tool of development.
Arising from the aforesaid, Zambia like other developing
countries embarked on an
ambitious human resource development programme. To do this
Zambia had planning
sessions called Matero and Mulungush Reforms. These reforms
advocated for a
speedy Zambianisation programme, to replace whites with
Zambians.
To this end the government was compelled to give Massive
education which was
free from primary to University level. Additionally, the
curriculum was tailored to
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producing workers for all the emerging industries although white
collar jobs seem to
have been the major output as opposed to practical oriented
vocations such as
farming, building and technical ones.
SUMMARY
This chapter looked at education between 1924-1953; in
particular, it looked at the
development of Secondary Education in Zambia, the 1961 Addis
Ababa Conference
and the search for human resource strategy.
ACTIVITY
1. Identify and discuss both the long term and short term
recommendations of
the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference on Education.
2. Discuss the provision of School education in Zambia during
the Federal
period of 1953-1963.
3. Critically discuss reasons that triggered the need for a
search for human
resource strategies in Africa and Zambia in the 1960s.
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UNIT 6
6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION
Introduction:
The unit looks at the happenings in the education provision in
the independent
Zambia.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Explain the post independence education provision
Discuss the education system at different levels
Analyse the education system in Zambia.
Post-independence refers to the period after 1964, when Zambia
got her
independence. Therefore the topic makes an attempt to review the
approach used to
provide education to citizens in Zambia, more so in the first
ten years 964 1974.
The review will cover these levels: Primary, Secondary,
Technical and Vocational
and University.
6.1 POLICY
At Independence in 1964, government policy was the accelerated
facilities. Universal
Primary Education was to be compulsory, free and given to all
citizens regardless of
their creed, colour and sex. Zambia advocated for multi-racial
education system.
The government used the 1966 Education Act and the First
National Development
Plan to execute its initial policy on education, during the
republican formative years.
National Policy on education :through the First National
Development Plan was very
precise on both Primary and Secondary levels. For instance, at
Primary level, it set
to:
(a) Provide sufficient places for primary education for every
child aged seven in
Zambia.
(b) Provide opportunities for all upper primary school children
in urban schools.
(c) 75% of children in rural areas to complete a 7year primary
course.
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At Secondary School level, the projections were related to the
economic needs of the
country:
(a) To expand secondary schooling to provide the manpower in the
numbers and
with the skills required for national development.
(b) To expand secondary school building programme already
started to cater for
most of the pupils in this sector form 1-5, (now grade
8-12).
In short, Zambias educational policy at independence hinged on
three principles:
(a) Provision of equal educational opportunities to all
citizens.
(b) Development of an education system that must foster a sense
of nationalism
or nationhood and promote national unity.
(c) Supply the much needed human resource in all sectors of the
Zambian
economy, by developing relevant training programmes.
6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964
At independence, government worked to provide non-racial as
opposed to racially
structured education. The policy stressed quality, while
practice stressed quantity to
accommodate most children. By 1970, many primary schools had
been built, many 7
year old children had places in schools, many teachers (primary)
were re-trained and
teacher training facilities were expanded to produce more needed
primary school
teachers. Government made sure that by 1970, there were no
racial schools in
Zambia. Within the first ten (10) years, government also spelt
out the policy of
universal primary education. This meant expand enrollments ad
free compulsory
education from grade 1-7.
By 1974, government had achieved a lot regarding the provision
of education at
Primary level.
6.3 CHALLENGES
In spite of successes recorded there were also notable
challenges which included the
following: Poor infrastructure (buildings), shortage of teachers
accommodation.
Poor conditions of service that led to major strikes e.g: 1968,
1970, large classes,
triple sessions, made grade 7 repetition a visible gap in
training between the old and
young teachers as well as high drop-out rates more so with girls
at grades 4 and 7.
This phenomenon seem to have been more in rural than urban
areas.
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Other challenges for the primary sector within the first decade
ie 1964-1974
included:
How to convince all stakeholders that primary education is
terminal, medium of
instruction in terms of English versus local languages, how to
enrich primary
education to help those who drop out at grade 7, what to do with
the increasing
number of grade 7 drop outs as well as the widening gap between
the number of
Primary and Secondary schools. At the same time, from 1975 to
date, Primary sector
has continued to expand and scoring a lot of successes in spite
of persistent
challenges of varied nature.
6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS
A lot of innovations have taken place in the Primary School
sector since mid 1970s.
Many primary schools have been built, many teachers trained as
well, courses for
both pupils and teachers have been revised and changed from time
to time eg:
Zambia Primary Course (ZPC), to Zambia Basic Course (ZBEC), to
Zambia Teacher
Education Course (ZATEC) which is being phased out for another
course to be
announced by MOE.
The term Primary is replaced with Basic. Basic education runs
from g