MODULE 14. “Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)”

PIECEPIECEProgram for North American Mobility In Higher EducationProgram for North American Mobility In Higher Education

MODULE 14. “Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)”MODULE 14. “Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)”4 steps of LCA, approaches, software, databases, 4 steps of LCA, approaches, software, databases, subjectivity, sensitivity analysis, application to a classic subjectivity, sensitivity analysis, application to a classic example. example.

Module 14 – Life Cycle Assessment 22

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Tier IICase Study Application of

Life Cycle Assessment


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What is the purpose of this module?What is the purpose of this module?

Case Study Application of Life Cycle AssessmentCase Study Application of Life Cycle Assessment. . Demonstrates the application of LCA to a Pulp & Paper Demonstrates the application of LCA to a Pulp & Paper case study including the interpretation stage.case study including the interpretation stage.

Statement of intentStatement of intent


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Finkbeiner M., Wiedemann M., Saur K.; A Comprehensive Approach Towards Product and Finkbeiner M., Wiedemann M., Saur K.; A Comprehensive Approach Towards Product and Organisation Related Environmental Management Tools. Organisation Related Environmental Management Tools. Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040) and Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001). Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040) and Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001). PE Product Engineering GmbH, Kirchheimer Str., Dettingen/ Teck, Germany.PE Product Engineering GmbH, Kirchheimer Str., Dettingen/ Teck, Germany.

HUIJBREGTS M (1998a): “Application of Uncertainty and Variability in LCA. Part I: A HUIJBREGTS M (1998a): “Application of Uncertainty and Variability in LCA. Part I: A General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment”. Int J LCA 3:5, 273-280Assessment”. Int J LCA 3:5, 273-280

HUIJBREGTS M (1998b): “Application of Uncertainty and Variability in LCA. Part II: Dealing HUIJBREGTS M (1998b): “Application of Uncertainty and Variability in LCA. Part II: Dealing with Parameter Uncertainty and Uncertainty due to Choices in Life Cycle Assessment”. Int J with Parameter Uncertainty and Uncertainty due to Choices in Life Cycle Assessment”. Int J LCA 3:6, 343-351LCA 3:6, 343-351

Maurice B. et al; Uncertainty Analysis in Life Cycle Inventory. “Application to the Maurice B. et al; Uncertainty Analysis in Life Cycle Inventory. “Application to the Production of Electricity with French Coal Power Plants”; J. Cleaner Prod 8 95- 108 (2000) Production of Electricity with French Coal Power Plants”; J. Cleaner Prod 8 95- 108 (2000)

Salazar E. Munnoch K. Samson R. Stuart P. “Assessment of opportunities for Salazar E. Munnoch K. Samson R. Stuart P. “Assessment of opportunities for environmental impact reduction from newsprint production using Life Cycle Assessment environmental impact reduction from newsprint production using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)”, Tappi journal(LCA)”, Tappi journal

Salazar E. Munnoch K. Samson R. Stuart P. “Development of a LCA Baseline Model for Salazar E. Munnoch K. Samson R. Stuart P. “Development of a LCA Baseline Model for Newsprint Production”, Int J LCA Newsprint Production”, Int J LCA

ReferencesReferences


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http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/tools.html#emshttp://www.epa.sa.gov.au/tools.html#emshttp://www.epa.gov/ems/info/index.htm. http://www.epa.gov/ems/info/index.htm.

http://ohioline.osu.edu/cd-fact/0188.htmlhttp://ohioline.osu.edu/cd-fact/0188.htmlhttp://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~rer/rerhtml/rer_65.htmlhttp://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~rer/rerhtml/rer_65.html

ReferencesReferences


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1.1. Case study example of the application of the LCA at an integrated Case study example of the application of the LCA at an integrated newsprint mill including:newsprint mill including:a.a. Description of the System StudiedDescription of the System Studiedb.b. Goal and Scope definitionGoal and Scope definitionc.c. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)d.d. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)e.e. Model Interpretation including Parameter Sensitivity AnalysisModel Interpretation including Parameter Sensitivity Analysis

2.2. ““Classical” model application to identify opportunities for environmental Classical” model application to identify opportunities for environmental improvements.improvements.

3.3. Insight into how this model might be used for “Life Cycle Thinking”:Insight into how this model might be used for “Life Cycle Thinking”:a.a. In EMS to demonstrate continuous environmental improvement.In EMS to demonstrate continuous environmental improvement.b.b. In EIS to quantify and communicate environmental impactsIn EIS to quantify and communicate environmental impacts

4.4. Multiple choice questionsMultiple choice questions

Tier II: OutlineTier II: Outline


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1.1. Case study example of the application of the LCA at an integrated Case study example of the application of the LCA at an integrated newsprint mill including:newsprint mill including:

a.a. Description of the System StudiedDescription of the System Studied



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1.1. Integrated Newsprint MillIntegrated Newsprint Mill1.1. Description of the System 1.1. Description of the System

StudiedStudied IntroductionIntroduction

Life Cycle Thinking is being promoted among different sectors involved on Life Cycle Thinking is being promoted among different sectors involved on product chains. This concept implies that the impacts of all life cycle stages product chains. This concept implies that the impacts of all life cycle stages are comprehensively considered when taking informed decisions on are comprehensively considered when taking informed decisions on production and consumption patterns, policies and management strategies. production and consumption patterns, policies and management strategies. One of the most effective way to apply the Life Cycle Thinking concept in One of the most effective way to apply the Life Cycle Thinking concept in the pulp and paper industry is by using LCA in the assessment of process the pulp and paper industry is by using LCA in the assessment of process variants. variants.


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StudiedStudied Description of the StudyDescription of the Study

Standard newsprint production at a TMP/DIP integrated mill is the system Standard newsprint production at a TMP/DIP integrated mill is the system under study. The main production chain (i.e. woodlands, sawmill and under study. The main production chain (i.e. woodlands, sawmill and newsprint mill) is located in Northern Ontario and managed by the same newsprint mill) is located in Northern Ontario and managed by the same company. company.

Production of woodlands includes (in volume): 75% spruce and Production of woodlands includes (in volume): 75% spruce and 25% aspen. During winter spruce logs are transported 25% aspen. During winter spruce logs are transported to the integrated mill by trucks, while aspen is sold to to the integrated mill by trucks, while aspen is sold to plywood; therefore this is not included as part of the system.plywood; therefore this is not included as part of the system.

Lumber is produced from spruce logs in the on-site sawmill and is sold for Lumber is produced from spruce logs in the on-site sawmill and is sold for the construction industry; this product is also excluded from the system. the construction industry; this product is also excluded from the system. The on-site sawmill provides around 70% of the chips loaded to TMP and The on-site sawmill provides around 70% of the chips loaded to TMP and 55% of the hogfuel burnt at the boiler house. Additional chips and hog fuel 55% of the hogfuel burnt at the boiler house. Additional chips and hog fuel required to cover the mill needs are purchased from local area sawmills and required to cover the mill needs are purchased from local area sawmills and transported by truck to the integrated mill.transported by truck to the integrated mill.


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StudiedStudied

TMP yield is around 95%. Refining consumes 70% of the total electricity at TMP yield is around 95%. Refining consumes 70% of the total electricity at the mill, but part of this energy is recovered as steam, which constitutes the mill, but part of this energy is recovered as steam, which constitutes 20% of the total amount of steam consumed at the mill. The secondary 20% of the total amount of steam consumed at the mill. The secondary fiber furnished to the DIP process includes Old Newspaper (ONP) and Coated fiber furnished to the DIP process includes Old Newspaper (ONP) and Coated Groundwood Specialty (CGS); they are purchased mainly from Ontario and Groundwood Specialty (CGS); they are purchased mainly from Ontario and USA and transported to the mill by truck or rail. The yield of the DIP by USA and transported to the mill by truck or rail. The yield of the DIP by Dissolved Air Floatation process is around 85%. TMP and DIP pulps are Dissolved Air Floatation process is around 85%. TMP and DIP pulps are furnished to four paper machines in a ratio of 4 to 1, respectively to produce furnished to four paper machines in a ratio of 4 to 1, respectively to produce standard newsprint. This newsprint is distributed to Ontario, Quebec and US standard newsprint. This newsprint is distributed to Ontario, Quebec and US cities by truck and rail.cities by truck and rail.


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StudiedStudied

The steam required for the process is produced on-site from the following The steam required for the process is produced on-site from the following energy sources: hog fuel (44%), natural gas (48%) and sludges (8%). Most energy sources: hog fuel (44%), natural gas (48%) and sludges (8%). Most of the steam is consumed by the paper machines (70% of the total process of the steam is consumed by the paper machines (70% of the total process steam). The effluents of the integrated mill receive primary and a steam). The effluents of the integrated mill receive primary and a secondary treatment, the sludges produced in the effluent treatment plant secondary treatment, the sludges produced in the effluent treatment plant are combined with those from DIP and then dewatered, 50% of the sludge is are combined with those from DIP and then dewatered, 50% of the sludge is burnt in the boiler house and the rest is landfilled on-site.burnt in the boiler house and the rest is landfilled on-site. Almost all the electricity consumed at the integrated mill (around 98%) is Almost all the electricity consumed at the integrated mill (around 98%) is purchased from the grid, where the at-source power mix is the following: purchased from the grid, where the at-source power mix is the following: 33% fossil (coal), 39% nuclear and 28% hydro. 33% fossil (coal), 39% nuclear and 28% hydro.


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a.a. Description of the System StudiedDescription of the System Studiedb.b. Goal and Scope definitionGoal and Scope definition



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1.1. Integrated Newsprint MillIntegrated Newsprint Mill1.2. Goal and Scope definition1.2. Goal and Scope definition

Goal and scopeDefinition

(ISO 14041)

InventoryAssessment(ISO 14041)

ImpactAssessment(ISO 14042)

LifeCycle

Interpretation(ISO 14043)

• Objectives of study• Functional unit• System boundaries • Included and excluded unit processes• Data categories • By-products Allocation• Data Quality Requirements

Principles and Framework (ISO 14040)


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The objective of the study is to build a baseline model that can be used to The objective of the study is to build a baseline model that can be used to demonstrate continuous environmental improvement and to assess future demonstrate continuous environmental improvement and to assess future major process modifications.major process modifications.

The functional unit was defined as the production an distribution of 1 ton of The functional unit was defined as the production an distribution of 1 ton of newsprint with 10% moisture content (air dried metric ton: admt); the newsprint with 10% moisture content (air dried metric ton: admt); the system boundaries include the production chain from wood extraction to system boundaries include the production chain from wood extraction to newsprint distribution (cradle-to-gate). The next figure depicts the system newsprint distribution (cradle-to-gate). The next figure depicts the system boundaries.boundaries.

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ElectricityProduction

On-site steamgeneration

ChemicalsProduction

Fossil fuelsProduction


ChemicalsProduction


Forestry

SawmillOperations

Washing Pre-heating PressureRefining

AtmosphericRefining

Thickening Cleaning Screening Latency

RejectsRefining

Cleaning Screening Deflaking

Flotation Cleaning

Pulping

StockPreparation

Calendering/Reeling/Winding

Forming Pressing Drying

PAPER MACHINEPaper Making

Deink PulpTM PulpRejects

Accepts

Steam to heat recovery unitThermo-mechanical Pulping Deinking Pulping

Chips

Logs

Newsprint toPressrooms

Integrated Mill

Wastepaper


On-site steamgeneration

ChemicalsProduction



ChemicalsProduction


Forestry

SawmillOperations

Washing Pre-heating PressureRefining

AtmosphericRefining

Thickening Cleaning Screening Latency

RejectsRefining

Cleaning Screening Deflaking

Flotation Cleaning

Pulping

StockPreparation

Calendering/Reeling/Winding

Forming Pressing Drying

PAPER MACHINEPaper Making

Deink PulpTM PulpRejects

Accepts

Steam to heat recovery unitThermo-mechanical Pulping Deinking Pulping

Chips

Logs

Newsprint toPressrooms

Integrated Mill

Wastepaper

Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Newsprint Production


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Transportation of waste paper from warehouses and its disposition in Transportation of waste paper from warehouses and its disposition in municipal landfills as the alternative of recycling at the mill were modeled in municipal landfills as the alternative of recycling at the mill were modeled in order to assess potential changes on the DIP content of the newsprint.order to assess potential changes on the DIP content of the newsprint.Raw materials (i.e. logs, chips, hogfuel and waste paper) transportation is Raw materials (i.e. logs, chips, hogfuel and waste paper) transportation is included. Wastepaper transportation from curbside to material recovery included. Wastepaper transportation from curbside to material recovery facilities as well as chemicals transportation to the newsprint mill are facilities as well as chemicals transportation to the newsprint mill are excluded since they are negligible in comparison with the raw material excluded since they are negligible in comparison with the raw material transportation (Terrachoice 1997).transportation (Terrachoice 1997).

Newspaper printing, use and disposal are excluded because it is assumed Newspaper printing, use and disposal are excluded because it is assumed that process variants do not significantly affect the environmental impacts that process variants do not significantly affect the environmental impacts of these stages. For instance, the increase of recycled content of the of these stages. For instance, the increase of recycled content of the newsprint affects the printability and appearance properties of newspapers newsprint affects the printability and appearance properties of newspapers in pressrooms and consequently more ink is required (Smook 1992). in pressrooms and consequently more ink is required (Smook 1992). However this effects are negligible compared with others involved in this However this effects are negligible compared with others involved in this kind of modification (e.g. more wastepaper transportation, less electricity kind of modification (e.g. more wastepaper transportation, less electricity consumption, less wastepaper to landfill, etc).consumption, less wastepaper to landfill, etc).

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Manufacturing, maintenance and disassembly of assets are not included in Manufacturing, maintenance and disassembly of assets are not included in the system boundaries since these are used for a large number of functional the system boundaries since these are used for a large number of functional units during their life cycles and their impact for one functional unit is units during their life cycles and their impact for one functional unit is negligible.negligible.

Data categories used on the study:Data categories used on the study:

By type: measured, calculated, estimatedBy type: measured, calculated, estimated By source: primary (from the studied site/company) and secondary (from By source: primary (from the studied site/company) and secondary (from commercial databases) commercial databases)

According to ISO, for process with outputs that can be partially co-products According to ISO, for process with outputs that can be partially co-products and partially wastes, the environmental burdens can be allocated only to and partially wastes, the environmental burdens can be allocated only to the co-products (ISO 1999). In this case study, the environmental burdens the co-products (ISO 1999). In this case study, the environmental burdens are allocated among lumber, chips and hog fuel because newsprint are allocated among lumber, chips and hog fuel because newsprint production depends on the latter two outflows to cover their fiber and production depends on the latter two outflows to cover their fiber and energy requirements, respectively, and otherwise they would be substituted energy requirements, respectively, and otherwise they would be substituted by other virgin materials. Nonetheless, the effect of alternative allocation by other virgin materials. Nonetheless, the effect of alternative allocation approaches on the results is assessed in the interpretation phase.approaches on the results is assessed in the interpretation phase.

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Data Sources and Data Quality RequirementsData Sources and Data Quality Requirements

For the inventory analysis, its used primary data for the processes with For the inventory analysis, its used primary data for the processes with major contributions (i.e. integrated mill, electricity production) and major contributions (i.e. integrated mill, electricity production) and secondary data for the background systems with less contribution (i.e. fuel secondary data for the background systems with less contribution (i.e. fuel and chemical production, industrial landfill) and we modeled the system in and chemical production, industrial landfill) and we modeled the system in the LCA software SIMAPRO 5.1. the LCA software SIMAPRO 5.1.

Chemicals and fuels production as ell as landfill are modeled using Chemicals and fuels production as ell as landfill are modeled using commercial databases. The following data quality requirements were commercial databases. The following data quality requirements were initially set:initially set: Time : The year of inventory collection is 2001. Data from five years Time : The year of inventory collection is 2001. Data from five years before is desirable.before is desirable. Geography : The system under study is located in Northern Ontario. North Geography : The system under study is located in Northern Ontario. North American data is desirable.American data is desirable. Technology : Average technology is desirable.Technology : Average technology is desirable.

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However, only for fuels production the available databases matched with However, only for fuels production the available databases matched with these criteria (i.e. Franklin database: American average 1995-1999). For these criteria (i.e. Franklin database: American average 1995-1999). For chemicals production, European databases are used (i.e. IVAM and BUWAL: chemicals production, European databases are used (i.e. IVAM and BUWAL: European averages 1990-1994; KCLECO: Finnish averages 1992). European averages 1990-1994; KCLECO: Finnish averages 1992).

In the case of chemicals for which no specific databases were available (e.g. In the case of chemicals for which no specific databases were available (e.g. chelan, coagulants, flocculants and polymers), general databases (e.g. chelan, coagulants, flocculants and polymers), general databases (e.g. chemicals organic ETH: European averages 1990-1994) are used instead. chemicals organic ETH: European averages 1990-1994) are used instead. Landfill models are as well based on a European database (i.e. KCLECO).Landfill models are as well based on a European database (i.e. KCLECO).

The effect of the gaps between the initial data quality requirements and the The effect of the gaps between the initial data quality requirements and the quality of data actually used on the base line model is assessed on the quality of data actually used on the base line model is assessed on the interpretation phase.interpretation phase.

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a.a. Description of the System StudiedDescription of the System Studiedb.b. Goal and Scope definitionGoal and Scope definitionc.c. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)



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1.1. Integrated Newsprint MillIntegrated Newsprint Mill1.3. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)1.3. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)


(ISO 14041)



LifeCycle


• Primary data fornewsprint andelectricity production• Secondary data forfuels and chemicalsproduction• Modeled on SIMAPRO• Aggregated inventoryper 1 admt



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1.1. Integrated Newsprint MillIntegrated Newsprint Mill 1.3. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)1.3. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

The inventory results per 1 admt of newsprint, includes hundreds of The inventory results per 1 admt of newsprint, includes hundreds of substances, from which the most important in terms of mass are presented substances, from which the most important in terms of mass are presented and discussed in this section. In order to have a better visualization, we and discussed in this section. In order to have a better visualization, we have grouped the inventory substances and present the results in graphs, have grouped the inventory substances and present the results in graphs, showing the contribution of different system processes to the total amount showing the contribution of different system processes to the total amount of substance emitted. Note that in some cases, the scales have been of substance emitted. Note that in some cases, the scales have been modified in order to show all the substances of a group in the same graph. modified in order to show all the substances of a group in the same graph.

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Sawmill ModelSawmill Model

Around 30% chips and 40% hogfuel consumed by the newsprint mill is Around 30% chips and 40% hogfuel consumed by the newsprint mill is supplied by local sawmills, having independent supply systems (i.e. chips supplied by local sawmills, having independent supply systems (i.e. chips and hogfuel usually are not supplied by the same sawmill).and hogfuel usually are not supplied by the same sawmill).

In this study, on-site sawmill model is considered as an average for the In this study, on-site sawmill model is considered as an average for the production of the total amount of chips and hogfuel required per 1 admt of production of the total amount of chips and hogfuel required per 1 admt of newsprint. In fact, electricity and steam consumptions are similar between newsprint. In fact, electricity and steam consumptions are similar between involved sawmills, the only difference can be the energy sources, especially involved sawmills, the only difference can be the energy sources, especially for steam because the fuel breakdown in the newsprint mill boiler house for steam because the fuel breakdown in the newsprint mill boiler house might not be representative for all the local sawmills. However, this might not be representative for all the local sawmills. However, this difference can be considered negligible if we take into account that steam difference can be considered negligible if we take into account that steam consumption from sawmill is only 5% of the total system consumption.consumption from sawmill is only 5% of the total system consumption.

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Transportation ModelsTransportation Models

Round trip is considered for logs transportation and fuel consumption is Round trip is considered for logs transportation and fuel consumption is based on primary data. One-way trip is considered for chips, hogfuel and based on primary data. One-way trip is considered for chips, hogfuel and wastepaper supply as ell as for newsprint distribution; return is not included wastepaper supply as ell as for newsprint distribution; return is not included because usually cargo from other companies or systems is transported in because usually cargo from other companies or systems is transported in the round way. Fuel consumption is based on mass transported (t or number the round way. Fuel consumption is based on mass transported (t or number of loads) and average distances, using fuel efficiency factors (L/km or L/t-of loads) and average distances, using fuel efficiency factors (L/km or L/t-km) for truck and locomotive recommended in EPDS guidelines (Terrachoice km) for truck and locomotive recommended in EPDS guidelines (Terrachoice 1997).1997).

Air emissions are calculated based on fuel consumption using emissions Air emissions are calculated based on fuel consumption using emissions factors from the references recommended by EPDS guidelines (Terrachoice factors from the references recommended by EPDS guidelines (Terrachoice 1997); and from Franklin database, sourced on USEPA AP-42 MOBILE model, 1997); and from Franklin database, sourced on USEPA AP-42 MOBILE model, in the case of particles.in the case of particles.

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COCO22 Emissions from Biomass Combustion Emissions from Biomass Combustion

There is debate among life cycle practitioners about whether or not include There is debate among life cycle practitioners about whether or not include COCO22 emissions from biomass combustion in the inventory analysis, emissions from biomass combustion in the inventory analysis, especially when comparing two alternative energy sources (Reijnders et al. especially when comparing two alternative energy sources (Reijnders et al. 2003).2003).

In this case study, it was applied the natural approach recommended by the In this case study, it was applied the natural approach recommended by the International Council of Forest and Paper Association which is compatible International Council of Forest and Paper Association which is compatible which most internationals protocols, including that of the IPPC. This which most internationals protocols, including that of the IPPC. This approach is based on the assumption that COapproach is based on the assumption that CO22 emitted from biomass emitted from biomass combustion is the atmospheric COcombustion is the atmospheric CO22 that was sequestered during growth of that was sequestered during growth of the tree; hence, there is no net contribution to the atmospheric COthe tree; hence, there is no net contribution to the atmospheric CO22 level level (NCASI 2001).(NCASI 2001).

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Air EmissionsAir Emissions

The following figures present the inventory results for Green House Gases The following figures present the inventory results for Green House Gases (GHG), gases and particulates, respectively. For all the air emissions, the (GHG), gases and particulates, respectively. For all the air emissions, the contribution from chemical production is negligible compared with the other contribution from chemical production is negligible compared with the other processes (<5%), therefore it is not shown in the graphs. processes (<5%), therefore it is not shown in the graphs.

From the next figure: CO2 is emitted in much higher amounts than methane From the next figure: CO2 is emitted in much higher amounts than methane and N2O. Most of the CO2 (i.e. 79%) is emitted from electricity production; and N2O. Most of the CO2 (i.e. 79%) is emitted from electricity production; note however that data of GHG emission from electricity production was note however that data of GHG emission from electricity production was collected already as CO2 eq. For methane and N2O, the mill direct collected already as CO2 eq. For methane and N2O, the mill direct emissions present more important contributions: 88% of methane is emitted emissions present more important contributions: 88% of methane is emitted from industrial landfill and 55% of N2O from biomass combustion at the from industrial landfill and 55% of N2O from biomass combustion at the boiler house.boiler house.

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0CO2(200 kg) CH4(kg) N2O(10g)

Electricity production Biomass combustion Natural gas combustionFuels production Transportation Landfill industrial

GHG emissions per 1 admt of newsprint


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The next figure shows that there is less variability on the amount of gases The next figure shows that there is less variability on the amount of gases emitted compared to the GHG results. SO2 is the gas emitted in the highest emitted compared to the GHG results. SO2 is the gas emitted in the highest amount, mainly from electricity production (57%) and fuels production amount, mainly from electricity production (57%) and fuels production (38%). CO and NOX are emitted almost in equal amounts; their main (38%). CO and NOX are emitted almost in equal amounts; their main contributors are biomass combustion (43% on CO) and electricity production contributors are biomass combustion (43% on CO) and electricity production (45% on NOX). VOC is emitted in the least amount, mainly from fuel (45% on NOX). VOC is emitted in the least amount, mainly from fuel production (69%).production (69%).

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Gas emissions per 1 admt pf newsprint

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1

0CO NOX SO2 VOC

TMP Electricity production Biomass combustionNatural gas combustion Fuels production Transportation

Substance

kg


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The next figure shows the emissions of particulates according to their size. The next figure shows the emissions of particulates according to their size. The contribution of electricity is the most important for TSP (60%) and PM10 The contribution of electricity is the most important for TSP (60%) and PM10 (52%); however for PM2.5, which are the particles of major concern, the (52%); however for PM2.5, which are the particles of major concern, the contribution from transportation becomes more important (45%) than that contribution from transportation becomes more important (45%) than that from electricity production (32%). The combustion of biomass to at boiler from electricity production (32%). The combustion of biomass to at boiler house is the third most important contributor with around 10% on TSP and house is the third most important contributor with around 10% on TSP and PM10; and 16% on PM2.5. PM10; and 16% on PM2.5.

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Particulate emissions per 1 admt

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0TSP PM 10 PM 2.5

Electricity production Biomass combustion Natural gas combustion Fuels production Transportation

g

Particulate Size


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Water EmissionsWater Emissions

The following figures shows water emissions respectively: solids, organic The following figures shows water emissions respectively: solids, organic load, nutrient and metals. load, nutrient and metals.

From the next figure: The major contributions for suspended solids are from From the next figure: The major contributions for suspended solids are from the newsprint mill (65%) and, in less extent, from electricity production the newsprint mill (65%) and, in less extent, from electricity production (33%); contributions from chemicals and fuels production are negligible. On (33%); contributions from chemicals and fuels production are negligible. On the other hand, fuel production has a significant contribution on dissolved the other hand, fuel production has a significant contribution on dissolved solid result (93%).solid result (93%).

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Solid emissions to water per 1 admt of newsprint

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0Suspended Dissolved

Newsprint production Electricity production Chemicals production Fuels production

kg

Type


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The next figure shows the results for two organic load indicators: BOD5 and The next figure shows the results for two organic load indicators: BOD5 and COD. Around 99% of the organic load (for both indicators) comes from COD. Around 99% of the organic load (for both indicators) comes from newsprint mill. Indirect emissions are shown separately for a better newsprint mill. Indirect emissions are shown separately for a better visualization and it is observed that among the indirect emitters, fuels visualization and it is observed that among the indirect emitters, fuels production has the highest contribution.production has the highest contribution.

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BOD (g) BOD (100g) COD (10g) COD (kg)

Newsprint production Electricity production Chemical production Fuels productionType

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Organic load to water per 1 admt of newsprint


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The next figure shows the nutrient load in two indicators: N-t and P-t. Like in The next figure shows the nutrient load in two indicators: N-t and P-t. Like in the case of organic load, the major contribution comes from newsprint the case of organic load, the major contribution comes from newsprint production: 99% on N-t and 93% on P-t. The second major contributor to P-t production: 99% on N-t and 93% on P-t. The second major contributor to P-t emissions is electricity production with 7%. emissions is electricity production with 7%.

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N-t (g) N-t (100g) P-t (g) P-t (100g)

Newsprint production Electricity production Chemical production Fuels production Industrial landfill

Type

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Nutrient load to water per 1 admt of newsprint


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The next figure shows the most significant metals en terms of mass (i.e. >1 The next figure shows the most significant metals en terms of mass (i.e. >1 g/admt). Only for Zn and Mn which are natural wood constituents, g/admt). Only for Zn and Mn which are natural wood constituents, newsprint production presents the highest contribution (around 98%); while newsprint production presents the highest contribution (around 98%); while for the rest of the metals, the major contributor is the chemicals production. for the rest of the metals, the major contributor is the chemicals production.

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Na(2.5g) Zn(g) Zn(50mg) Mn(g) Mn(50mg) Fe(g) Al(g) Mg(g)

Newsprint production Electricity production Chemical production Fuels production

Substance

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

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2

0

Metal emissions to water per 1 admt of newsprint


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a.a. Description of the System StudiedDescription of the System Studiedb.b. Goal and Scope definitionGoal and Scope definitionc.c. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)d.d. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)



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1.1. Integrated Newsprint MillIntegrated Newsprint Mill1.4. Life Cycle Impact 1.4. Life Cycle Impact

Assessment (LCIA)Assessment (LCIA)


(ISO 14041)



LifeCycle


• Linear modeling• Site and time generic• Global, regional and(global) “local” impacts• Tool for the reductionand assessment ofchemical and otherenvironmental impacts(TRACI)• Results aggregatedper impact category• Optional elementsdiscussed



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1.1. Integrated Newsprint MillIntegrated Newsprint Mill1.4. Life Cycle Impact Assessment 1.4. Life Cycle Impact Assessment

(LCIA)(LCIA)

Main Assumptions and SimplificationsMain Assumptions and Simplifications

For this study, the output related impact categories proposed by For this study, the output related impact categories proposed by SETACSETAC have been included.have been included.

Most of the category indicators have been chosen at midpoint, except for Most of the category indicators have been chosen at midpoint, except for human health particles which is assessed at endpoint level.human health particles which is assessed at endpoint level.

TRACITRACI is used for the assessment after verifying that meets the ISO is used for the assessment after verifying that meets the ISO requirements and SETAC recommendations.requirements and SETAC recommendations.

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Selection of Impact Categories, Category Indicators and Selection of Impact Categories, Category Indicators and Characterization ModelsCharacterization Models

Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterization Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterization models was performed according to the objectives and context of the study models was performed according to the objectives and context of the study and based on SETAC best available practices which are ISO compatibles and based on SETAC best available practices which are ISO compatibles (Udo de Haes et al. 1999a). The next table summarizes the results of this (Udo de Haes et al. 1999a). The next table summarizes the results of this process. process.

Input related impact categories (i.e. abiotic resources and land use) are not Input related impact categories (i.e. abiotic resources and land use) are not included on the study mainly because best available methods have not been included on the study mainly because best available methods have not been yet identified (Udo de Haes et al. 2002). Furthermore, the impact of biotic yet identified (Udo de Haes et al. 2002). Furthermore, the impact of biotic resources is not relevant to this study since the wood resource in the system resources is not relevant to this study since the wood resource in the system (i.e. spruce) is from man-controlled cultures and therefore is not depleted (i.e. spruce) is from man-controlled cultures and therefore is not depleted (Udo de Haes et al. 2002). (Udo de Haes et al. 2002).

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(LCIA)(LCIA)

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TRACI – MichiganDALYHuman health criteria pollutantsTRACI – USAg C7H7eqHuman health-non cancerTRACI – USAg C6H6eqHuman health-cancerTRACI – USAg 2,4Deq

Local

Eco-toxicityTRACI – Michigang NOxeq/mPhoto-oxidant formationTRACI – Michigang NeqEutrophicationTRACI – Michiganmol H+eq

RegionalAcidification

WMOg CFC11eqOzone depletionIPCCg CO2eqGlobal

Climate change

Characterization ModelsCategory I ndicators

ScaleI mpact Categories


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In the case of land use, available methods were reviewed (Weidema 2001, In the case of land use, available methods were reviewed (Weidema 2001, Lindeijer et al 2002), however the lack of the specific data for the activities Lindeijer et al 2002), however the lack of the specific data for the activities related with the system studied was a constraint to characterize this impact. related with the system studied was a constraint to characterize this impact. Nonetheless, inventory data is included in the base line model in order to Nonetheless, inventory data is included in the base line model in order to analyze results at inventory level and incorporate the appropriate models analyze results at inventory level and incorporate the appropriate models when they are available.when they are available.

All the output related impact categories recommended by SETAC are All the output related impact categories recommended by SETAC are included (Udo de Haes et al. 1999b). Global impacts are modeled at included (Udo de Haes et al. 1999b). Global impacts are modeled at midpoint level using the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, time midpoint level using the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, time horizon: 100y) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO, time horizon: horizon: 100y) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO, time horizon: infinite) characterization factors for global warming and ozone depletion, infinite) characterization factors for global warming and ozone depletion, respectively.respectively.

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Regional impacts are modeled at midpoint using the Toll for the Reduction Regional impacts are modeled at midpoint using the Toll for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemicals and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) and Assessment of Chemicals and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) method from the United States Environmental Protection Agency. This method from the United States Environmental Protection Agency. This method was selected because it includes spatial differentiation in fate and method was selected because it includes spatial differentiation in fate and sensitivity recommended by SETAC (Udo de Haes et al. 1999b) and because sensitivity recommended by SETAC (Udo de Haes et al. 1999b) and because it has been demonstrated the potentially important influence of release it has been demonstrated the potentially important influence of release location upon the strength of expected impact (Norris 2003, Hauschild et al. location upon the strength of expected impact (Norris 2003, Hauschild et al. 2003). 2003).

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For local impacts, Traci models were also selected. Ecotoxicity, human For local impacts, Traci models were also selected. Ecotoxicity, human health cancer and human health non cancer are modeled at midpoint level health cancer and human health non cancer are modeled at midpoint level using multimedia fate modeling for US average conditions while human using multimedia fate modeling for US average conditions while human health particles is modeled at endpoint level and characterization factors health particles is modeled at endpoint level and characterization factors are available per state (Bare et al. 2003). are available per state (Bare et al. 2003).

Michigan was selected as reference state in the latter case. Compatibility Michigan was selected as reference state in the latter case. Compatibility with SETAC recommendations were as well identified for these impacts with SETAC recommendations were as well identified for these impacts including the use of midpoint toxicity indicators for species composition for including the use of midpoint toxicity indicators for species composition for terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the division of human health impacts terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the division of human health impacts in disability-type subcategories (Udo de Haes et al. 1999b).in disability-type subcategories (Udo de Haes et al. 1999b).

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The next table shows the impact assessment results for the impact The next table shows the impact assessment results for the impact categories. As a consequence of the impact assessment, we have reduced categories. As a consequence of the impact assessment, we have reduced the hundreds of inventory indicators in 9 impact category indicators which the hundreds of inventory indicators in 9 impact category indicators which allow a better analysis of the environmental performance of the system allow a better analysis of the environmental performance of the system studied. studied.

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1.18e-4DALYHuman health criteria pollutants3.75e+5g C7H7eqHuman health-non cancer7.61e+1g C6H6eqHuman health-cancer3.19e+3g 2,4DeqEco-toxicity2.54e00g NOxeq/mPhoto-oxidant formation4.53e+2g NeqEutrophication3.01e+2mol H+eqAcidification6.06e-3g CFC11eqOzone depletion1.19e+6g CO2eqClimate change

TotalCategory IndicatorsImpact Categories


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Particle Size DistributionParticle Size Distribution

The following assumptions and models were applied in order to calculate the The following assumptions and models were applied in order to calculate the particulates size distribution for these processes:particulates size distribution for these processes:

Natural gas pre-combustion and combustion: Particulates emitted from Natural gas pre-combustion and combustion: Particulates emitted from natural gas combustion are smaller than 1 micrometer (USEPA 1998). In the natural gas combustion are smaller than 1 micrometer (USEPA 1998). In the natural gas production process, particulates are emitted from compressor natural gas production process, particulates are emitted from compressor engines that fire natural gas (USEPA 1995a); therefore, the same engines that fire natural gas (USEPA 1995a); therefore, the same particulates size distribution is used.particulates size distribution is used.

Diesel pre-combustion: Size distribution for industrial boilers firing Diesel pre-combustion: Size distribution for industrial boilers firing residual oil (USEPA 1995b) was included on the model. Actually, in the diesel residual oil (USEPA 1995b) was included on the model. Actually, in the diesel production process there is also particulates emission from the cracking production process there is also particulates emission from the cracking processes; however, due to lack of information about the size distribution of processes; however, due to lack of information about the size distribution of this operation, distribution for industrial boilers is considered as this operation, distribution for industrial boilers is considered as representative for the whole process.representative for the whole process.

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Transportation road/rail: Size distribution for diesel vehicles (USEPA 2003) Transportation road/rail: Size distribution for diesel vehicles (USEPA 2003) was included on the model.was included on the model.

Emission data from processes with small contribution on the particulate Emission data from processes with small contribution on the particulate inventory per 1 admt of newsprint were not refined by including size inventory per 1 admt of newsprint were not refined by including size distribution (i.e. chemicals production as well as gasoline, propane and distribution (i.e. chemicals production as well as gasoline, propane and kerosene combustion and pre-combustion).kerosene combustion and pre-combustion).

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Total Suspended Solids (TSS) CharacterizationTotal Suspended Solids (TSS) Characterization

TSS refers to the amount of fiber in pulp and paper mill effluents and it is TSS refers to the amount of fiber in pulp and paper mill effluents and it is regulated by the Canadian Pulp and Paper Effluent Regulation under the regulated by the Canadian Pulp and Paper Effluent Regulation under the Fisheries Act (Environmental Canada 2003).Fisheries Act (Environmental Canada 2003).

TSS is not characterized by existent life cycle impact assessment models. TSS is not characterized by existent life cycle impact assessment models. However, due to its biological nature, it can be assumed that TSS impacts However, due to its biological nature, it can be assumed that TSS impacts are already accounted by BOD characterization in eutrophication impact are already accounted by BOD characterization in eutrophication impact category.category.

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Organic Load CharacterizationOrganic Load Characterization

TRACI eutrophication model includes separate characterization factors for TRACI eutrophication model includes separate characterization factors for BOD and COD (i.e. Chemical Oxygen Demand) and recommends BOD and COD (i.e. Chemical Oxygen Demand) and recommends characterizing only COD when both parameters are available for any unit characterizing only COD when both parameters are available for any unit processes, in order to avoid double counting (Norris 2003).processes, in order to avoid double counting (Norris 2003).

This recommendation has been applied in all the unit processes of the This recommendation has been applied in all the unit processes of the system studied but the newsprint mill because the effluent characteristics system studied but the newsprint mill because the effluent characteristics (i.e. low biodegradability of the organic suspended solids and nutrient (i.e. low biodegradability of the organic suspended solids and nutrient content) correspond to those for which COD is an overestimation of the total content) correspond to those for which COD is an overestimation of the total environmental oxygen demand (Norris 2003).environmental oxygen demand (Norris 2003).

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NormalizationNormalization

Two references recommended by ISO (ISO 2001a) were evaluated for Two references recommended by ISO (ISO 2001a) were evaluated for normalizing the characterization results in order to understand better the normalizing the characterization results in order to understand better the relative magnitude of the impacts from newsprint production. However, the relative magnitude of the impacts from newsprint production. However, the lack of representative data was a constraint for the quantification.lack of representative data was a constraint for the quantification.

Baseline scenario for the system under studyBaseline scenario for the system under study: The average cradle-to-gate : The average cradle-to-gate life cycle of newsprint production in North American context is the best life cycle of newsprint production in North American context is the best reference scenario for this particular case study. However, it is not yet reference scenario for this particular case study. However, it is not yet available.available.

Emissions per capitaEmissions per capita: Data to calculate the normalization factors for this : Data to calculate the normalization factors for this reference is available; however, some data gaps were found referred to reference is available; however, some data gaps were found referred to significant emissions from the system (e.g. BOD) that did not allow significant emissions from the system (e.g. BOD) that did not allow calculating a representative normalization profile. calculating a representative normalization profile.

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For the intended applications (i.e. assessment of process modifications, For the intended applications (i.e. assessment of process modifications, demonstration of continuous improvement and design of minimum impact demonstration of continuous improvement and design of minimum impact mill configuration), it is recommended to use the characterization results of mill configuration), it is recommended to use the characterization results of this baseline model as normalization reference.this baseline model as normalization reference.

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WeightingWeighting

The question of weighting arises when trade-offs among impacts categories The question of weighting arises when trade-offs among impacts categories are involved (i.e. when it cannot be unambiguously decided that one option are involved (i.e. when it cannot be unambiguously decided that one option is environmentally preferable to another for all the impact categories is environmentally preferable to another for all the impact categories included on the study). This optional step is therefore not applied on this included on the study). This optional step is therefore not applied on this descriptive study but it will be most likely necessary to include in the descriptive study but it will be most likely necessary to include in the intended applications. intended applications.

Various weighting methods are covered on the literature and it has been Various weighting methods are covered on the literature and it has been showed that they may lead to different results. However, they remain a showed that they may lead to different results. However, they remain a controversial issue and it does not exist a single favored weighting method controversial issue and it does not exist a single favored weighting method for the use in LCA (Udo de Haes et al 2002, Hofstetter 1999, Finnveden for the use in LCA (Udo de Haes et al 2002, Hofstetter 1999, Finnveden 1999). 1999).

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Organic Load CharacterizationOrganic Load Characterization

For the case studies referred to the intended applications, the definition of For the case studies referred to the intended applications, the definition of weighting factors must be transparent; sensitivity analysis should be weighting factors must be transparent; sensitivity analysis should be performed in order to illustrate the effects of this choice and the weighted performed in order to illustrate the effects of this choice and the weighted profile should be considered as an input to the interpretation phase as profile should be considered as an input to the interpretation phase as opposed to the final answer, as recommended by (Bengtsson et al. 2000).opposed to the final answer, as recommended by (Bengtsson et al. 2000).

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Peer Review ProcessPeer Review Process

A formal internal peer review of this case study is being carried out by LCA A formal internal peer review of this case study is being carried out by LCA experts from the Interuniversity Reference Centre for the Life Cycle experts from the Interuniversity Reference Centre for the Life Cycle Assessment, Interpretation and Management of Products, Processes and Assessment, Interpretation and Management of Products, Processes and Services (CIRAIG) from the Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, following ISO Services (CIRAIG) from the Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, following ISO protocol (ISO 1997). This peer-review includes the methodology for each of protocol (ISO 1997). This peer-review includes the methodology for each of the four LCA phases as well as the calculation procedures, input data and the four LCA phases as well as the calculation procedures, input data and results. results.

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a.a. Description of the System StudiedDescription of the System Studiedb.b. Goal and Scope definitionGoal and Scope definitionc.c. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)d.d. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)e.e. Model Interpretation including Parameter Sensitivity AnalysisModel Interpretation including Parameter Sensitivity Analysis



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1.1. Integrated Newsprint MillIntegrated Newsprint Mill1.5. Model Interpretation1.5. Model Interpretation


(ISO 14041)



LifeCycle


• Uncertaintycharacterization• Semi-quantitativeassessment ofparameter uncertainty• Identification of keyinput parameters• Sensitivity analysis• Scenarios developmentand analysis• Conclusions andrecommendations



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DiscussionDiscussion

Twenty six parameters were selected as “key”. Most of the impact Twenty six parameters were selected as “key”. Most of the impact categories showed significant sensitivity (>10%) on energy consumption at categories showed significant sensitivity (>10%) on energy consumption at the newsprint mill, including electricity and natural gas consumption. the newsprint mill, including electricity and natural gas consumption. Eutrophication showed significant sensitivity only on N-t emissions in the Eutrophication showed significant sensitivity only on N-t emissions in the newsprint mill effluent.newsprint mill effluent.

Among background parameters, sensitivities higher than 20% were found Among background parameters, sensitivities higher than 20% were found for data on ozone depleting emissions from DTPA (i.e. chelant) production, for data on ozone depleting emissions from DTPA (i.e. chelant) production, arsenic emission to water from soda production, mercury and arsenic arsenic emission to water from soda production, mercury and arsenic emissions to air from electricity production and methane emissions from emissions to air from electricity production and methane emissions from industrial landfill. The impact categories affected for these parameters were industrial landfill. The impact categories affected for these parameters were global warming, ozone depletion, ecotoxicity and human toxicity. global warming, ozone depletion, ecotoxicity and human toxicity.

For the assessment of methodological choices, the analysis of two For the assessment of methodological choices, the analysis of two alternative by-product allocation approaches in sawmill operations shows a alternative by-product allocation approaches in sawmill operations shows a variation on the category indicator results from 2% to 13% when the total variation on the category indicator results from 2% to 13% when the total burdens are allocated to the main product (i.e. lumber). It was also found burdens are allocated to the main product (i.e. lumber). It was also found that the exclusion of wastepaper collection from the system does not affect that the exclusion of wastepaper collection from the system does not affect the final results.the final results.

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Identification of Key ParametersIdentification of Key Parameters

A large number of parameters are introduced in the life cycle inventory A large number of parameters are introduced in the life cycle inventory phase, depending on the scope and complexity of the system under study. phase, depending on the scope and complexity of the system under study. Therefore, it is important to systematically select the key parameters on Therefore, it is important to systematically select the key parameters on which the interpretation analysis will be focused.which the interpretation analysis will be focused.

A broad sensitivity analysis using standard uncertainty estimates has been A broad sensitivity analysis using standard uncertainty estimates has been recommended (Sakai et al. 2002, Heijungs et al. 2001, Heijungs 1996). recommended (Sakai et al. 2002, Heijungs et al. 2001, Heijungs 1996). However, a disadvantage of using a standard sensitivity range is that However, a disadvantage of using a standard sensitivity range is that parameters with a minor contribution to LCA outcomes but with a large parameters with a minor contribution to LCA outcomes but with a large unknown uncertainty range are eliminated from the analysis (Huijbregts unknown uncertainty range are eliminated from the analysis (Huijbregts 1998b). An alternative approach is to identify the key input parameters 1998b). An alternative approach is to identify the key input parameters based on the contribution of input data to the results and a qualitative based on the contribution of input data to the results and a qualitative assessment of the data uncertainty (Maurice et al 2000). assessment of the data uncertainty (Maurice et al 2000).

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This latter approach is applied on the baseline model, with some This latter approach is applied on the baseline model, with some modifications. The procedure is performed per impact category and is modifications. The procedure is performed per impact category and is explained below, illustrating it with the example of Global Warming (GW).explained below, illustrating it with the example of Global Warming (GW).

Step 1:Step 1: Calculate the contribution per substance and do a cut off (e.g. Calculate the contribution per substance and do a cut off (e.g. 1%) in order to reduce the analysis only for those substances with major 1%) in order to reduce the analysis only for those substances with major contributions to the indicator result.contributions to the indicator result.

Ex: From thirteen green house gases (GHG) included on the study, 99.2% of Ex: From thirteen green house gases (GHG) included on the study, 99.2% of the total GW indicator result represents the contribution of CO2 (90.6%) and the total GW indicator result represents the contribution of CO2 (90.6%) and methane (8.6%).methane (8.6%).

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Step 2:Step 2: Calculate the contribution of unit processes on the total Calculate the contribution of unit processes on the total emission of each substance selected in step 1.emission of each substance selected in step 1.

Ex: The next table shows the contribution of unit processes on total CO2 Ex: The next table shows the contribution of unit processes on total CO2 emission (only contributions higher than 1% are shown, however none cut emission (only contributions higher than 1% are shown, however none cut off were applied on this step).off were applied on this step).

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1.06Transportation by rail1.54Boiler house – natural gas pre combustion3.62Transportation by truck11.57Boiler house – natural gas combustion79.02Electricity production

Contribution (% )Unit processUnit processes contribution on total CO2 emission


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Step 3: Step 3: Calculate the contribution of each unit process/emission pair to Calculate the contribution of each unit process/emission pair to the category indicator result by multiplying the contributions calculated in the category indicator result by multiplying the contributions calculated in steps 1 and 2.steps 1 and 2.

Ex: The next table 3 shows the contribution of unit processes on the total Ex: The next table 3 shows the contribution of unit processes on the total GW potential due to CO2 and methane emissions (only contributions higher GW potential due to CO2 and methane emissions (only contributions higher than 1% are shown, however none cut off were applied on this step).than 1% are shown, however none cut off were applied on this step).

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Contribution of unit process/emission pairs on total GW potential

1.39CO2Boiler house – natural gas pre combustion3.28CO2Transportation by truck7.51MethaneIndustrial landfill10.48CO2Boiler house – natural gas combustion71.59CO2Electricity production

Contribution (% )EmissionUnit process


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Step 4: Step 4: Define Data Quality Indicators (DQI) appropriate to the study in Define Data Quality Indicators (DQI) appropriate to the study in order to evaluate quantitatively the uncertainty of unit process/emission order to evaluate quantitatively the uncertainty of unit process/emission pairs.pairs.

Ex: Four DQI were defined for this study: source of data, temporal Ex: Four DQI were defined for this study: source of data, temporal correlation, geographical correlation and technological correlation. The correlation, geographical correlation and technological correlation. The improved DQI matrix of Weidema (Weidema 1998) were used as reference, improved DQI matrix of Weidema (Weidema 1998) were used as reference, however we considered that the reliability of source and completeness however we considered that the reliability of source and completeness indicators were not fully suitable for the study. Reliability indicators involve indicators were not fully suitable for the study. Reliability indicators involve the evaluation of verification processes which are not informed in the the evaluation of verification processes which are not informed in the commercial databases used and completeness indicator is more appropriate commercial databases used and completeness indicator is more appropriate for data set (i.e. the entire unit process) than for an elementary flow (e.g. for data set (i.e. the entire unit process) than for an elementary flow (e.g. CO2 from electricity production). CO2 from electricity production).

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Therefore, these two latter indicators were replaced by the source of data Therefore, these two latter indicators were replaced by the source of data indicator and descriptions for the scores 1 to 5 were defined as follows, in indicator and descriptions for the scores 1 to 5 were defined as follows, in such a way that represent the different data sources used:such a way that represent the different data sources used:

Score 1: Average of continuous measurementsScore 1: Average of continuous measurements Score 2: Average of punctual measurementsScore 2: Average of punctual measurements Score 3: Calculated from measured dataScore 3: Calculated from measured data Score 4: Calculated from literature referencesScore 4: Calculated from literature references Score 5: Estimated or unknown source Score 5: Estimated or unknown source

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Despite Weidema’s recommendation on not to aggregate in any way the Despite Weidema’s recommendation on not to aggregate in any way the DQIs, we applied Maurice approach on calculating an average of them in DQIs, we applied Maurice approach on calculating an average of them in order to simplify the procedure, taking into account that these are order to simplify the procedure, taking into account that these are “intermediate indicators” used to select key parameters for which “intermediate indicators” used to select key parameters for which quantitative uncertainty will be calculated afterwards.quantitative uncertainty will be calculated afterwards.

Step 5:Step 5: Define the high and low levels for contribution and uncertainty Define the high and low levels for contribution and uncertainty in order to apply the approach proposed by Heijungs (Heijungs 1996) in order to apply the approach proposed by Heijungs (Heijungs 1996) illustrated in this figure.illustrated in this figure.Ex: For this study the limit between low and high contribution was defined Ex: For this study the limit between low and high contribution was defined as 10% and for low and high uncertainty, a DQI of 2.as 10% and for low and high uncertainty, a DQI of 2.

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Identification of Key Parameters by Impact CategoriesIdentification of Key Parameters by Impact Categories

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ContributionLow High

Unc

erta

inty

Perhaps a key parameter

Perhaps a key parameter

Not a key parameter

Key parameters

If there are more than one, it is

chosen the one with highest %

contribution

All the key parameters are chosen for the

sensitivity analysis

If there are more than one, it is

chosen the one with highest DQI


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Step 6:Step 6: Find the “key parameters” (quadrant II) by calculating the Find the “key parameters” (quadrant II) by calculating the average DQI of all the unit process/emission pairs with a contribution to the average DQI of all the unit process/emission pairs with a contribution to the impact indicator result higher than 10% and selecting those for which the impact indicator result higher than 10% and selecting those for which the DQI is higher than 2.DQI is higher than 2. Ex: Average DQIs were calculated for CO2 emissions from electricity Ex: Average DQIs were calculated for CO2 emissions from electricity production (71.6% contribution to GW) and from natural gas combustion at production (71.6% contribution to GW) and from natural gas combustion at the boiler house (10.5% contribution to GW). The results are 1.5 and 2.3 the boiler house (10.5% contribution to GW). The results are 1.5 and 2.3 respectively. Therefore CO2 emission from natural gas combustion to respectively. Therefore CO2 emission from natural gas combustion to produce steam at the boiler house was selected as “key parameter”.produce steam at the boiler house was selected as “key parameter”.

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Step 7:Step 7: Select representative “perhaps key parameters” from quadrant I Select representative “perhaps key parameters” from quadrant I and III. This step is important to perform because important parameters can and III. This step is important to perform because important parameters can be located in these quadrants. be located in these quadrants. In quadrant I we can find process parameters for which data are obtained on In quadrant I we can find process parameters for which data are obtained on site and therefore have good data quality and, at the same time, with high site and therefore have good data quality and, at the same time, with high contribution on the total category indicator results since they are closer to contribution on the total category indicator results since they are closer to the functional unit in the product chain. Opportunities to improve the the functional unit in the product chain. Opportunities to improve the environmental performance can be missed by not considering at all these environmental performance can be missed by not considering at all these parameters based on their good data quality.parameters based on their good data quality.

On the other hand, in quadrant III we can find background parameters (e.g. On the other hand, in quadrant III we can find background parameters (e.g. emissions from chemicals production) for which data are usually obtained emissions from chemicals production) for which data are usually obtained from commercial databases and therefore with higher uncertainty than the from commercial databases and therefore with higher uncertainty than the above parameters, but also with less contribution to the category indicator above parameters, but also with less contribution to the category indicator results. Opportunities to improve data quality can be missed by not results. Opportunities to improve data quality can be missed by not considering at all these parameters based on their low contribution. considering at all these parameters based on their low contribution.

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We propose the selection of “perhaps key parameters” based on their We propose the selection of “perhaps key parameters” based on their contribution which is a quantitative indicator more certain than the DQI. contribution which is a quantitative indicator more certain than the DQI. DQIs can be used as secondary criteria for the selection, for instance when DQIs can be used as secondary criteria for the selection, for instance when equal contributions are found for two different unit process/emission pair, equal contributions are found for two different unit process/emission pair, the one with higher DQI is selected. the one with higher DQI is selected.

Ex: CO2 emission from electricity production (71.7% contribution and 1.5 Ex: CO2 emission from electricity production (71.7% contribution and 1.5 DQI) is selected from quadrant I. Methane emission from industrial landfill DQI) is selected from quadrant I. Methane emission from industrial landfill (7.4% contribution and 3.5 DQI) is selected from quadrant III.(7.4% contribution and 3.5 DQI) is selected from quadrant III. Step 8:Step 8: For all the selected unit process/emission pairs, identify the For all the selected unit process/emission pairs, identify the elementary and intermediate flows that affect them. These parameters are elementary and intermediate flows that affect them. These parameters are analyzed in the next step of the interpretation procedure.analyzed in the next step of the interpretation procedure.

Ex: The next table 4 shows the list of the selected unit process/emission Ex: The next table 4 shows the list of the selected unit process/emission pairs with the related elementary and intermediate flows (i.e. key pairs with the related elementary and intermediate flows (i.e. key parameters) as well as their units. parameters) as well as their units.

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kg/kgMethane from landfillElementary

kg/admtProcess wastes to landfill

IntermediateIndustrial landfill/methane

kg/m3CO2 from natural gas combustion

Elementary

m3/admtNatural gas consumption

IntermediateBH-natural gas combustion/CO2

kg/kWhCO2 from electricity production

Elementary

kWh/admtElectricity consumption

IntermediateElectricity production/CO2

UnitKey ParameterType of FlowUnit process/ emissionSelected key parameters for the sensitivity analysis of GW potential results


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Definition of Uncertainty Ranges for Selected Key ParametersDefinition of Uncertainty Ranges for Selected Key Parameters

Uncertainty ranges for the selected key parameters were calculated in order Uncertainty ranges for the selected key parameters were calculated in order to perform the sensitivity analyses. The guidelines proposed by Maurice to perform the sensitivity analyses. The guidelines proposed by Maurice (Maurice et al. 2000) were considered for the calculation or estimation of (Maurice et al. 2000) were considered for the calculation or estimation of the uncertainty ranges, as follows:the uncertainty ranges, as follows:

For primary data in woodlands, sawmill and newsprint mill, the minimum For primary data in woodlands, sawmill and newsprint mill, the minimum and maximum values of monthly statistics for the year 2001 defined the and maximum values of monthly statistics for the year 2001 defined the uncertainty range.uncertainty range.

For primary data from electricity production, where only averages were For primary data from electricity production, where only averages were available from the production site, the assumption of ±20% for continuous available from the production site, the assumption of ±20% for continuous measurements and ±50% for punctual measurements was applied based on measurements and ±50% for punctual measurements was applied based on (Hanssen et al. 1996).(Hanssen et al. 1996).

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For secondary data from Franklin database: A percentage of variation was For secondary data from Franklin database: A percentage of variation was applied according to information from the database developers.applied according to information from the database developers.

For secondary data from other databases where no information on For secondary data from other databases where no information on uncertainty was available, the uncertainty range was based on comparison uncertainty was available, the uncertainty range was based on comparison of similar processes from different databases.of similar processes from different databases.

For secondary data where no information on similar processes from other For secondary data where no information on similar processes from other databases was available, the uncertainty range was based on the large databases was available, the uncertainty range was based on the large intervals proposed by Finnveden (Finnveden et al. 1998).intervals proposed by Finnveden (Finnveden et al. 1998).

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Sensitivity Analysis on Key Foreground and Background ParametersSensitivity Analysis on Key Foreground and Background Parameters

The sensitivity analysis technique was selected from a study where fourteen The sensitivity analysis technique was selected from a study where fourteen methods were compared in terms of the required calculation effort, the methods were compared in terms of the required calculation effort, the sensitivity ranking of parameter and the relative method performance sensitivity ranking of parameter and the relative method performance (Hamby 1995). The study concludes that the Sensitivity Index (SI) is “the (Hamby 1995). The study concludes that the Sensitivity Index (SI) is “the easiest and most reliable method that can be performed without detailed easiest and most reliable method that can be performed without detailed knowledge of the parameter distribution”.knowledge of the parameter distribution”.The sensitivity index is a one-at-a-time method where one parameter is The sensitivity index is a one-at-a-time method where one parameter is varied at a time from its minimum to its maximum value (uncertainty range) varied at a time from its minimum to its maximum value (uncertainty range) while the others are holding fixed and the resulting output percent while the others are holding fixed and the resulting output percent difference is calculated and expressed as SI.difference is calculated and expressed as SI.

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Sensitivity Indexes were calculated for the selected key parameters and the Sensitivity Indexes were calculated for the selected key parameters and the results are analyzed separately for the foreground and background results are analyzed separately for the foreground and background parameters, in order to identify improvement opportunities on parameters, in order to identify improvement opportunities on environmental performance and data quality, respectively.environmental performance and data quality, respectively.

The next two figures show the results for foreground and background The next two figures show the results for foreground and background parameters. Twenty six key parameters were analyzed in total, but only parameters. Twenty six key parameters were analyzed in total, but only those with SI higher than 10% are shown. It can be observed that the those with SI higher than 10% are shown. It can be observed that the background parameters have in general higher sensitivity than the background parameters have in general higher sensitivity than the foreground parameters due to their higher uncertainty.foreground parameters due to their higher uncertainty.

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Global Eutrophication Acidification Photochemical Ecotoxicity Human Health Human Health Human HealthWarming Smog Cancer Non Cancer Particles

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Impact CategoriesElectricity consumption Natural gas consumption N-t from newsmill effluent Diesel consumption

SI (%

)

Sensitivity of Category Indicators Results on Key Mill Process Parameters

Results of Sensitivity Analysis on Foreground Parameters


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From this figure it can be concluded that the mill efforts to improve the life From this figure it can be concluded that the mill efforts to improve the life cycle environmental performance of the newsprint production should be cycle environmental performance of the newsprint production should be focus on the energy issues, especially the consumption of electricity and focus on the energy issues, especially the consumption of electricity and natural gas to produce steam that have an important sensitivity in most of natural gas to produce steam that have an important sensitivity in most of the impact categories. Also, the eutrophication category results can be the impact categories. Also, the eutrophication category results can be significantly reduced by taking actions to reduce N-t emissions from the significantly reduced by taking actions to reduce N-t emissions from the newsprint mill effluents.newsprint mill effluents.

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Results of Sensitivity Analysis on Background Parameters

Global Ozone Depletion Ecotoxicity Human Health Human HealthWarming Cancer Non Cancer

80

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60

50

40

30

20

CH4 from industrial landfill CO2 from electricity prod. Hg from elect. prod. As from elect. Prod.

Halon-1301 fromDTPAprod. CFC-114 from DTPA prod. As-w from NaOH prod.

SI (%

)

Sensitivity of Category Indicators Results on Key Mill Background Parameters

Impact Category


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From this figure it can be concluded that efforts to improve the data quality From this figure it can be concluded that efforts to improve the data quality should be focus on the ozone depleting emissions from DTPA (i.e. chelant) should be focus on the ozone depleting emissions from DTPA (i.e. chelant) production, arsenic emission to water from soda production, mercury and production, arsenic emission to water from soda production, mercury and arsenic emissions to air from electricity production and methane emissions arsenic emissions to air from electricity production and methane emissions from industrial landfill. The actions should be oriented first to improve the from industrial landfill. The actions should be oriented first to improve the estimated uncertainty ranges and then evaluate by a complementary estimated uncertainty ranges and then evaluate by a complementary sensitivity analysis if better production data quality is required.sensitivity analysis if better production data quality is required.

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Assessment of Uncertainties due to Methodological ChoicesAssessment of Uncertainties due to Methodological Choices

Examples of methodological choices that introduce uncertainty on LCA Examples of methodological choices that introduce uncertainty on LCA models are: the selection of functional unit, system boundaries, allocation models are: the selection of functional unit, system boundaries, allocation rules, the choice of using average data or average technology and selection rules, the choice of using average data or average technology and selection of characterization methods (Bjorklund 2002). In order to reduce this type of characterization methods (Bjorklund 2002). In order to reduce this type of uncertainty, it has been recommended to use standardized procedures of uncertainty, it has been recommended to use standardized procedures (i.e. ISO 14040 family), as well as to perform peer review processes when (i.e. ISO 14040 family), as well as to perform peer review processes when choices are judged (Huijbregts 1998a).choices are judged (Huijbregts 1998a).

In the development of the baseline model, besides the application of the In the development of the baseline model, besides the application of the recommended measures to reduce the uncertainty due to choices, the recommended measures to reduce the uncertainty due to choices, the effects of two methodological choices, for which different approaches are effects of two methodological choices, for which different approaches are discussed among practitioners, were analyzed.discussed among practitioners, were analyzed.

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By Product Allocation in SawmillBy Product Allocation in Sawmill

The approaches presented previously were modeled and the impact The approaches presented previously were modeled and the impact category results are compared with those from the baseline model in the category results are compared with those from the baseline model in the next figure. The profiles are normalized against the baseline model results.next figure. The profiles are normalized against the baseline model results.

Alternative Approach 1Alternative Approach 1: The environmental burdens are allocated only to : The environmental burdens are allocated only to lumber and chips.lumber and chips.

Alternative Approach 2Alternative Approach 2: The environmental burdens are allocated only to : The environmental burdens are allocated only to lumber.lumber.

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Acidification Ecotoxicity Eutrophication Global Human Health Human Health Human Health Ozone PhotoquemicalWarming Cancer Particles Non Cancer Depletion Smog

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

Impact CategoriesAlternative Approach 1 Alternative Approach 2

Sensitivity Analysis on Alternative Allocation Approaches

Norm

alize

d Va

lue

Results of Sensitivity Analysis on Alternative Allocation Approaches for Sawmill Operations


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The results show that whether or not we allocate burdens to hog fuel, the The results show that whether or not we allocate burdens to hog fuel, the results remain the same. But when environmental burdens are exclusively results remain the same. But when environmental burdens are exclusively allocated to lumber, the characterization results differ from the baseline allocated to lumber, the characterization results differ from the baseline model results in 2% to 13%, with higher values for human health particles model results in 2% to 13%, with higher values for human health particles and photochemical smog where transportation has a significant contribution and photochemical smog where transportation has a significant contribution and because diesel consumption for log transportation and sawmill and because diesel consumption for log transportation and sawmill operations represent around 75% of the total consumption for transportation operations represent around 75% of the total consumption for transportation by truck.by truck.

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Exclusion of Wastepaper CollectionExclusion of Wastepaper Collection

During the scope definition, transportation of wastepaper from curbsides to During the scope definition, transportation of wastepaper from curbsides to material recovery facilities in the cities was considered negligible when material recovery facilities in the cities was considered negligible when comparing with other transportation activities (i.e. log transportation, comparing with other transportation activities (i.e. log transportation, wastepaper transportation from material recovery facilities to the mill, etc.) wastepaper transportation from material recovery facilities to the mill, etc.) and therefore excluded from the system.and therefore excluded from the system.

On the interpretation phase this assumption was verified by using the On the interpretation phase this assumption was verified by using the municipal waste truck model from IVAM database, which is modeled by hour municipal waste truck model from IVAM database, which is modeled by hour and distance is not relevant; and average data on rate of old newspaper and distance is not relevant; and average data on rate of old newspaper collection during the year 1998 in the province of Ontario. The results show collection during the year 1998 in the province of Ontario. The results show that the contribution of wastepaper collection is negligible for all the impact that the contribution of wastepaper collection is negligible for all the impact categories (<<1%), being the highest one 0.00435% for human health categories (<<1%), being the highest one 0.00435% for human health particles.particles.

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2.2. Assessment of Opportunities to Improve the Environmental Performance Assessment of Opportunities to Improve the Environmental Performance of Newsprint Production Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)of Newsprint Production Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)



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2.2. Integrated Newsprint Mill : Integrated Newsprint Mill : Assessment of Opportunities for Assessment of Opportunities for Environmental ImprovementEnvironmental Improvement

This section shows the assessment of improvement opportunities, dividing This section shows the assessment of improvement opportunities, dividing the proposed alternatives in those related to the energy consumption and the proposed alternatives in those related to the energy consumption and those related with the effluent emissions. In the former group, we analyze those related with the effluent emissions. In the former group, we analyze the increase of DIP production and the implementation of co-generation the increase of DIP production and the implementation of co-generation systems; the results show important benefits for most of the impact systems; the results show important benefits for most of the impact categories (e.g. 20-40% reduction in Global Warming Potential), except for categories (e.g. 20-40% reduction in Global Warming Potential), except for acidification, photochemical smog and human health particles due to the acidification, photochemical smog and human health particles due to the increase of natural gas consumption per 1 admt. increase of natural gas consumption per 1 admt.

In the latter group, we analyze tertiary treatment by coagulation/flocculation In the latter group, we analyze tertiary treatment by coagulation/flocculation as well as zero effluent by membrane filtration; these technologies show as well as zero effluent by membrane filtration; these technologies show significant improvement for eutrophication potential (i.e. 50-80% reduction), significant improvement for eutrophication potential (i.e. 50-80% reduction), with higher benefits from the membrane technology which completely with higher benefits from the membrane technology which completely eliminates the contribution from newsprint mill effluent to eutrophication, eliminates the contribution from newsprint mill effluent to eutrophication, optimizes water resource use and has available alternatives to sludge optimizes water resource use and has available alternatives to sludge landfilling.landfilling.


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In this In this publicationpublication we analyze and interpret systematically the baseline we analyze and interpret systematically the baseline model results in order to identify the process and non-process parameters model results in order to identify the process and non-process parameters with significant influence on the impacts of whole chain. Finally, we identify with significant influence on the impacts of whole chain. Finally, we identify and assess the potential improvement on the life cycle environmental and assess the potential improvement on the life cycle environmental performance from different mill configurations.performance from different mill configurations.


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Key ParametersKey Parameters

In this section, the attention is focused on the key mill process or foreground In this section, the attention is focused on the key mill process or foreground parameters, because they are the starting point for the definition and parameters, because they are the starting point for the definition and assessment of opportunities to improve the life cycle environmental assessment of opportunities to improve the life cycle environmental performance. The next figure shows the results of the sensitivity analysis performance. The next figure shows the results of the sensitivity analysis for these parameters.for these parameters.

Note: SI = Sensitivity Index, defined as:Note: SI = Sensitivity Index, defined as:

Where Dmin and Dmax represent respectively the minimum and maximum Where Dmin and Dmax represent respectively the minimum and maximum output values resulting from varying the input over its uncertainty range output values resulting from varying the input over its uncertainty range (Hamby 1994).(Hamby 1994).

max

minmax

DDD

SI


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Global Eutrophication Acidification Photochemical Ecotoxicity Human Health Human Health Human HealthWarming Smog Cancer Non Cancer Particles

Electricity consumption Natural gas consumption N-t from news mill effluent Diesel consumption

Impact Categories

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SI (%

)

Results of sensitivity analysis on foreground parameters


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From the previous figure it can be concluded that the mill opportunities to From the previous figure it can be concluded that the mill opportunities to improve the life cycle environmental performance of the newsprint improve the life cycle environmental performance of the newsprint production are in the reduction of energy use, especially of electricity and production are in the reduction of energy use, especially of electricity and natural gas which have an important sensitivity in most of the impact natural gas which have an important sensitivity in most of the impact categories. On the other hand, potential eutrophication can be significantly categories. On the other hand, potential eutrophication can be significantly reduced by reducing N-t emissions from the newsprint mill effluent.reduced by reducing N-t emissions from the newsprint mill effluent.


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Scenario AnalysisScenario Analysis

Energy Oriented ScenariosEnergy Oriented Scenarios

They are focused on reducing purchased electricity and natural gas They are focused on reducing purchased electricity and natural gas consumption. We consider the following strategies:consumption. We consider the following strategies:

Reduce the energy consumption of the mill by increasing the DIP Reduce the energy consumption of the mill by increasing the DIP production that is less energy intensive than the TMP process.production that is less energy intensive than the TMP process. Reduce the amount of energy purchased from the grid by co-generating Reduce the amount of energy purchased from the grid by co-generating steam and electricity, preferably from biomass.steam and electricity, preferably from biomass. A combination of these two strategies.A combination of these two strategies.

Based on these strategies, we developed three alternative mill Based on these strategies, we developed three alternative mill configurations presented in the next table.configurations presented in the next table.


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103188%Sludges36243244%Hog Fuel54735048%Natural Gas

Breakdown of energy sources to produce steam10010022%Co-generated on site

009898%Purchased from the gridElectricity Breakdown

21361216GJ /admt

Energy Consumption (electricity + steam)

1002010020%DIP content

100% CE +100% DI P100% CE100% DI PBaselineUnitsParameter

Alternative mill configurations to reduce energy consumption and its consequent impacts


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Energy Oriented ScenariosEnergy Oriented Scenarios

The increase of DIP production (100% DIP) results in a consumption of The increase of DIP production (100% DIP) results in a consumption of around one half of the electricity required in the baseline model; and at the around one half of the electricity required in the baseline model; and at the same time, an increase of 35% on the steam produced by the boiler house same time, an increase of 35% on the steam produced by the boiler house in order to replace the steam recovered from the TMP process in the in order to replace the steam recovered from the TMP process in the baseline model. As a consequence, there is an overall decrease in the baseline model. As a consequence, there is an overall decrease in the energy consumption from the mill. The main assumptions we made for the energy consumption from the mill. The main assumptions we made for the inventory analysis of this configuration are:inventory analysis of this configuration are:

The additional amount of ONP and GGS required is transported from the The additional amount of ONP and GGS required is transported from the same places as the baseline model. Furthermore, we consider a credit for same places as the baseline model. Furthermore, we consider a credit for recycling this amount of wastepaper which otherwise would be landfilled.recycling this amount of wastepaper which otherwise would be landfilled. The entire amount of DIP sludges can be dewatered and burnt in the The entire amount of DIP sludges can be dewatered and burnt in the boiler house.boiler house. The additional energy required in the boiler house to produce steam is The additional energy required in the boiler house to produce steam is covered by natural gas.covered by natural gas.


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As a consequence of the last assumption, we can observe in the previous As a consequence of the last assumption, we can observe in the previous table that the breakdown of natural gas and sludges increase comparing to table that the breakdown of natural gas and sludges increase comparing to the baseline model. Natural gas consumption increases around 40% and the baseline model. Natural gas consumption increases around 40% and the amount of sludges used as energy source is twice more than in the the amount of sludges used as energy source is twice more than in the baseline model.baseline model.

In the 100% CE configuration, we consider that all the electricity consumed In the 100% CE configuration, we consider that all the electricity consumed by the mill is co-generated on site. We do not include any energy reduction by the mill is co-generated on site. We do not include any energy reduction program, but we change the energy source: instead of buying the electricity program, but we change the energy source: instead of buying the electricity from the grid, we generate it from steam. However, the required amount of from the grid, we generate it from steam. However, the required amount of steam for this configuration is around twice more than for the baseline steam for this configuration is around twice more than for the baseline model. model.


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Therefore, the total amount of energy required at the mill also increases. To Therefore, the total amount of energy required at the mill also increases. To produce this additional steam entirely from biomass is not feasible due to produce this additional steam entirely from biomass is not feasible due to problems on hog fuel availability where the system is located. Therefore, problems on hog fuel availability where the system is located. Therefore, we assume that we cannot increase the current hog fuel consumption more we assume that we cannot increase the current hog fuel consumption more than 100% and that the rest energy needs are covered by natural gas. than 100% and that the rest energy needs are covered by natural gas. Observe the variations on the breakdown of these energy sources in the Observe the variations on the breakdown of these energy sources in the same table. As a result, natural gas consumption for this configuration is same table. As a result, natural gas consumption for this configuration is around 4 times more than the consumption for the baseline model. around 4 times more than the consumption for the baseline model.

Electricity consumption is reduced by shutting down TMP, but the steam Electricity consumption is reduced by shutting down TMP, but the steam requirements increase to replace the steam from TMP and to provide the requirements increase to replace the steam from TMP and to provide the energy required to co-generate 100% of the electricity needs. As a energy required to co-generate 100% of the electricity needs. As a consequence, the total energy requirements increase around 30%. For the consequence, the total energy requirements increase around 30%. For the additional amount of wastepaper required and sludge generated, we made additional amount of wastepaper required and sludge generated, we made the same assumptions as for 100% DIP configuration. For the additional hog the same assumptions as for 100% DIP configuration. For the additional hog fuel required, we made the same assumption as for 100% CE. Since there is fuel required, we made the same assumption as for 100% CE. Since there is more sludge that can be used as energy source and there is less electricity more sludge that can be used as energy source and there is less electricity required at the mill, natural gas consumption increases in less than twice required at the mill, natural gas consumption increases in less than twice compared to the baseline model.compared to the baseline model.


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Using LCA we can identify the benefits and impacts of going from the Using LCA we can identify the benefits and impacts of going from the baseline model to alternative configurations as well as identify the trade-offs baseline model to alternative configurations as well as identify the trade-offs and the origins of the impacts. For instance, the next figure shows a and the origins of the impacts. For instance, the next figure shows a comparison of the Global Warming Potential (GWP) for the baseline model comparison of the Global Warming Potential (GWP) for the baseline model and the designed energy-oriented scenarios. All the configurations involve and the designed energy-oriented scenarios. All the configurations involve improvements for this performance indicator, with reductions from 20 to improvements for this performance indicator, with reductions from 20 to 40%, despite of the fact that the overall energy consumption increases for 40%, despite of the fact that the overall energy consumption increases for the three scenarios. This result can be explained based on the energy the three scenarios. This result can be explained based on the energy source: we are replacing electricity sourced on coal at 33% with electricity source: we are replacing electricity sourced on coal at 33% with electricity generated from natural gas and biomass (CO2 neutral). generated from natural gas and biomass (CO2 neutral).


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0Baseline 100%CE 100%DIP 100%CE+

100%DIP

Electricity production Natural gas combustion Chemicals productionFuels production Transportation Landfill

Scenario

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O2eq

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GWP of alternative mill configurations


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Regarding the process contributions, we observe a reduction on the CO2eq Regarding the process contributions, we observe a reduction on the CO2eq emitted from electricity production along with an increase from the natural emitted from electricity production along with an increase from the natural gas combustion at the boiler house, in such a way that the combined impact gas combustion at the boiler house, in such a way that the combined impact to cover the energy mill needs is reduced in 30% for the scenario 100% CE, to cover the energy mill needs is reduced in 30% for the scenario 100% CE, 50% for the scenario 100% DIP and 60% for the combined scenario. 50% for the scenario 100% DIP and 60% for the combined scenario. However, as natural gas consumption increases, the pre-combustion effects However, as natural gas consumption increases, the pre-combustion effects (i.e. fuels production) are more significant; see, for example, the increase of (i.e. fuels production) are more significant; see, for example, the increase of the pointy area for the scenario 100%CE. We can also observe the increase the pointy area for the scenario 100%CE. We can also observe the increase of the contribution from chemicals production when more DIP is produced. of the contribution from chemicals production when more DIP is produced.

Contributions from landfill and transportation remain almost constant. In Contributions from landfill and transportation remain almost constant. In the case of landfill, we have a balance between the increase of process the case of landfill, we have a balance between the increase of process wastes from DIP plus the amount of ashes from steam production and the wastes from DIP plus the amount of ashes from steam production and the credit for recycling more wastepaper which otherwise would be landfilled. In credit for recycling more wastepaper which otherwise would be landfilled. In the case of transportation, the balance is between more wastepaper the case of transportation, the balance is between more wastepaper transportation and the avoidance of transportation related to woodlands and transportation and the avoidance of transportation related to woodlands and sawmills operations.sawmills operations.


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The alternative mill configurations have potential benefits to improve the The alternative mill configurations have potential benefits to improve the environmental performance on the impact categories that have a significant environmental performance on the impact categories that have a significant sensitivity on electricity consumption (see figure *). However, for the sensitivity on electricity consumption (see figure *). However, for the impact categories which are more sensitive to natural gas consumption (i.e. impact categories which are more sensitive to natural gas consumption (i.e. acidification, photochemical smog and human health particles), the acidification, photochemical smog and human health particles), the category indicator results increase as a consequence of the increase on category indicator results increase as a consequence of the increase on natural gas consumption. For instance, in the next figure we observe that natural gas consumption. For instance, in the next figure we observe that despite of the fact that the contribution from electricity production is despite of the fact that the contribution from electricity production is reduced or eliminated, the contributions from biomass and natural gas reduced or eliminated, the contributions from biomass and natural gas combustion and especially from the natural gas production increase combustion and especially from the natural gas production increase importantly, resulting in a net increase of the photochemical smog indicator.importantly, resulting in a net increase of the photochemical smog indicator.


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g NO

2 / a

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Baseline 100%CE 100%DIP 100%CE+100%DIP

Electricity production Natural gas combustion Chemicals productionFuels production Transportation Biomass combustion

Scenario

Photochemical smog potential of alternative mill configurations


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Another point to highlight is that since these scenarios are mainly oriented Another point to highlight is that since these scenarios are mainly oriented towards reducing the purchased electricity consumption, the consequent towards reducing the purchased electricity consumption, the consequent benefits strongly depend on the at-source power mix, and therefore on the benefits strongly depend on the at-source power mix, and therefore on the mill location. In order to understand better the significance of this non-mill location. In order to understand better the significance of this non-process parameter, we took as reference the average power mix of three process parameter, we took as reference the average power mix of three different Canadian provinces: Ontario, Quebec and Alberta. The next table different Canadian provinces: Ontario, Quebec and Alberta. The next table presents the power mix for each province as well as the correspondent presents the power mix for each province as well as the correspondent GWP. Note that this latter indicator was calculated using LCA databases for GWP. Note that this latter indicator was calculated using LCA databases for comparative purposes and it does not represent real emissions (e.g. the comparative purposes and it does not represent real emissions (e.g. the model for hydropower considers zero emissions).model for hydropower considers zero emissions).

1.85e+49541Quebec3.87e+5283933Ontario8.59e+59091Alberta

GWP(gCO2/ MWh)

Hydro (% )

Nuclear(% )

Fossil (% )

Province

Power mixes and GWP for three Canadian provinces


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Then, we substituted the actual electricity production model for these three Then, we substituted the actual electricity production model for these three different models and calculated the GWP of the entire system (i.e. per 1 different models and calculated the GWP of the entire system (i.e. per 1 admt) and the process contributions, the results are shown in the next admt) and the process contributions, the results are shown in the next figure. We observe that the mill location dramatically influences the figure. We observe that the mill location dramatically influences the category indicator results and consequently the sensitivity and scenario category indicator results and consequently the sensitivity and scenario analysis results.analysis results.


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2.2. Integrated Newsprint Mill : Integrated Newsprint Mill : Assessment of Opportunities for Assessment of Opportunities for Environmental ImprovementEnvironmental Improvement3000

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0

ton

CO2e

q / a

dmt

Electricity production Natural gas combustion Transportation Industrial landfill

Ontario Quebec Alberta

GWP per 1 admt of newsprint for three different mill locations


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Effluent Oriented ScenariosEffluent Oriented Scenarios

These scenarios are focused on reducing the nutrient emissions from the These scenarios are focused on reducing the nutrient emissions from the newsprint mill. We consider the following strategies:newsprint mill. We consider the following strategies:

Tertiary treatment by coagulation/flocculationTertiary treatment by coagulation/flocculation Zero effluent by membrane filtrationZero effluent by membrane filtration

Based on these strategies, we analyzed 3 alternative scenarios:Based on these strategies, we analyzed 3 alternative scenarios:

Tertiary treatment of the current amount of effluents by Tertiary treatment of the current amount of effluents by coagulation/flocculation.coagulation/flocculation. Implementation of water conservation programs in order to reduce the Implementation of water conservation programs in order to reduce the amount of effluents to treat; and tertiary treatment of the reduced amount amount of effluents to treat; and tertiary treatment of the reduced amount of effluents by coagulation/flocculation.of effluents by coagulation/flocculation. Implementation of a membrane filtration technology after the secondary Implementation of a membrane filtration technology after the secondary treatment in order to reuse the effluent as fresh water in the process. treatment in order to reuse the effluent as fresh water in the process.


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The two first scenarios were developed for the newsprint mill by a The two first scenarios were developed for the newsprint mill by a consultant company as alternatives to achieve their environmental targets consultant company as alternatives to achieve their environmental targets set for the year 2005. They are inspired on a tertiary treatment plant by set for the year 2005. They are inspired on a tertiary treatment plant by dissolved air flotation aided by chemical coagulation and flocculation with dissolved air flotation aided by chemical coagulation and flocculation with alum and polymer, applied in a TMP-DIP newsprint mill in Sweden in order to alum and polymer, applied in a TMP-DIP newsprint mill in Sweden in order to reduce COD and phosphorous discharges (Thoren et al. 1997). However, a reduce COD and phosphorous discharges (Thoren et al. 1997). However, a constraint of this technology is that the precipitation of TSS and nutrients constraint of this technology is that the precipitation of TSS and nutrients with inorganic chemicals produces a considerable quantity of sludge that is with inorganic chemicals produces a considerable quantity of sludge that is difficult to dewater and therefore must be landfilled (European Commission difficult to dewater and therefore must be landfilled (European Commission 2001). We did not quantify the amount of sludge generated for these 2001). We did not quantify the amount of sludge generated for these scenarios, because reliable data was not available.scenarios, because reliable data was not available.


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The next table presents the main characteristics of the two first scenarios in The next table presents the main characteristics of the two first scenarios in terms of quantity and quality of the discharged effluents. terms of quantity and quality of the discharged effluents.

60.00100.00183.00g/admtN-t2.804.0065.30g/admtPO4-P0.160.230.39kg/admtBOD25.0045.4045.40m3/admtFlow

WC+TTTTBaselineUnitsParameterEffluent characteristics for tertiary treatment scenarios


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For the zero effluent scenario, we selected the membrane technology that For the zero effluent scenario, we selected the membrane technology that depending on the applicable membrane cut-off size and the filtering depending on the applicable membrane cut-off size and the filtering pressure, can theoretically remove almost 100% of the organic material, pressure, can theoretically remove almost 100% of the organic material, producing a filtrate with sufficient quality to replace most of the fresh water producing a filtrate with sufficient quality to replace most of the fresh water used in the process. The sludges generated can be sent to biological used in the process. The sludges generated can be sent to biological treatment or may require further concentration into a solid fuel for disposal treatment or may require further concentration into a solid fuel for disposal by incineration (IPPC 2001). The amount of sludges generated for this by incineration (IPPC 2001). The amount of sludges generated for this scenario has neither been quantified. scenario has neither been quantified.

The next figure shows the comparative results for eutrophication impact The next figure shows the comparative results for eutrophication impact category which is the more sensitive to the nutrient emissions from the category which is the more sensitive to the nutrient emissions from the newsprint mill.newsprint mill.


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Baseline TT WC+TT Zero Effluent

Newsprint production Electricity production Biomass combustion Chemicals & fuels production Industrial landfill

Scenarios

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Eutrophication potential for alternative effluent scenarios


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We observe that the contribution from the newsprint mill effluent represents We observe that the contribution from the newsprint mill effluent represents around 80% of the eutrophication potential for the baseline model. With the around 80% of the eutrophication potential for the baseline model. With the implementation of tertiary treatment, the eutrophication potential can implementation of tertiary treatment, the eutrophication potential can decrease in 50 to 60% and with the zero effluent technology, in 80% by the decrease in 50 to 60% and with the zero effluent technology, in 80% by the elimination of the newsprint mill contribution.elimination of the newsprint mill contribution.

Note that the sludge management does not affect the eutrophication Note that the sludge management does not affect the eutrophication results, but it can affect other impact categories. For instance: if the alum results, but it can affect other impact categories. For instance: if the alum sludge is lanfilled, the Global Warming indicator increases. This factor has sludge is lanfilled, the Global Warming indicator increases. This factor has to be taken into account for future scenario analyses, when more reliable to be taken into account for future scenario analyses, when more reliable data are available.data are available.

Additional Scenario AnalysisAdditional Scenario Analysis

We performed an additional scenario analysis in order to respond to a We performed an additional scenario analysis in order to respond to a question often arose during presentations on this research project: what is question often arose during presentations on this research project: what is more environmental friendly, to recycle wastepaper or to incinerate it in the more environmental friendly, to recycle wastepaper or to incinerate it in the city and recover electricity?. The main concern associated with this city and recover electricity?. The main concern associated with this question was the impact from wastepaper transportation.question was the impact from wastepaper transportation.


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In order to assess these alternatives, we firstly included in the baseline In order to assess these alternatives, we firstly included in the baseline model the wastepaper transportation from curbsides to material recovery model the wastepaper transportation from curbsides to material recovery facilities, initially excluded from the system, and we calculated the facilities, initially excluded from the system, and we calculated the contribution of this activity to the category indicators. The results show that contribution of this activity to the category indicators. The results show that the contribution in all impact categories is negligible (<<1%).the contribution in all impact categories is negligible (<<1%).

Then, we developed and compared the scenarios described in this table.Then, we developed and compared the scenarios described in this table.

5522%Co-generated 459898%Purchased from the grid

Electricity Breakdown2010020%DIP content

55% EW100% DI PBaselineUnitsParameter

Characteristics of Additional Scenarios


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We designed the scenario 100% DIP under the same criteria used in Energy We designed the scenario 100% DIP under the same criteria used in Energy Oriented Scenarios. For the scenario 55% Electricity from Wastepaper (EW), Oriented Scenarios. For the scenario 55% Electricity from Wastepaper (EW), we considered that the additional amount of wastepaper that is recycled in we considered that the additional amount of wastepaper that is recycled in the scenario 100% DIP, is incinerated in the city and electricity is recovered the scenario 100% DIP, is incinerated in the city and electricity is recovered and sent to the grid. The amount of electricity produced in this way and sent to the grid. The amount of electricity produced in this way constitutes 55% the total electricity mill consumption. We used an average constitutes 55% the total electricity mill consumption. We used an average Finnish wastepaper incineration model; and, since these alternatives are Finnish wastepaper incineration model; and, since these alternatives are oriented towards reducing the impacts caused by the energy consumption, oriented towards reducing the impacts caused by the energy consumption, we run the model for the three power mixes see table * ). we run the model for the three power mixes see table * ).

The next 3 figures present the profiles normalized against the baseline The next 3 figures present the profiles normalized against the baseline model results. Note that scores lower than 1 mean a decrease in the model results. Note that scores lower than 1 mean a decrease in the category indicator results, and therefore an improvement in the category indicator results, and therefore an improvement in the environmental performance. Also note that these graphs represent the environmental performance. Also note that these graphs represent the results for this particular newsprint production system as if it is located in results for this particular newsprint production system as if it is located in three different provinces as opposed to average newsprint production three different provinces as opposed to average newsprint production systems in these provinces. systems in these provinces.


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100 % DIP 55 % EW

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0.0Acidification Ecotoxicity Eutrophication Global Human Health Human Health Human Health Ozone Photochemical

Warming Cancer Particles Non Cancer Depletion Smog

Results of additional scenario analysis – Ontario power mix


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A comparison of the results shows that the assessed alternatives have A comparison of the results shows that the assessed alternatives have environmental benefits mainly when fossil sources have a high breakdown environmental benefits mainly when fossil sources have a high breakdown in the electricity mix (e.g. Ontario and Alberta); the higher the fossil source in the electricity mix (e.g. Ontario and Alberta); the higher the fossil source breakdown, the higher the benefit. However, if the power mix has a breakdown, the higher the benefit. However, if the power mix has a negligible breakdown of fossil source, there is no improvement in the negligible breakdown of fossil source, there is no improvement in the environmental performance as a consequence of the 100% DIP scenario; the environmental performance as a consequence of the 100% DIP scenario; the scenario 55% EW has benefits mainly for global impacts as well as for eco-scenario 55% EW has benefits mainly for global impacts as well as for eco-toxicity and human toxicity, presenting a range of improvement from 7% to toxicity and human toxicity, presenting a range of improvement from 7% to 30%. 30%.


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Results of additional scenario analysis – Quebec power mix

100 % DIP 55 % EW

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For the power mixes where both alternatives have environmental benefits, For the power mixes where both alternatives have environmental benefits, the difference in environmental performance improvement is less than 10% the difference in environmental performance improvement is less than 10% for most of the impact categories, except for regional impacts for which for most of the impact categories, except for regional impacts for which 100% DIP represents a better alternative (since the scenario 55%EW 100% DIP represents a better alternative (since the scenario 55%EW produces higher amount of combustion gases that contributes to regional produces higher amount of combustion gases that contributes to regional impacts); and for Ozone Depletion, for which 55%EW is a better alternative impacts); and for Ozone Depletion, for which 55%EW is a better alternative (since the chemicals consumption is higher for 100%DIP scenario). (since the chemicals consumption is higher for 100%DIP scenario).


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Results of additional scenario analysis – Alberta power mix

100 % DIP 55 % EW

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ConclusionsConclusions

A cradle-to-gate LCA study for the production of 1 admt of newsprint was A cradle-to-gate LCA study for the production of 1 admt of newsprint was completed, following rigorously ISO 14040 standards. Sensitivity analyses completed, following rigorously ISO 14040 standards. Sensitivity analyses of the baseline model results show that energy consumption, mainly in the of the baseline model results show that energy consumption, mainly in the form of electricity and natural gas to produce steam, as well as effluent form of electricity and natural gas to produce steam, as well as effluent emissions are process parameters that have a significant sensitivity (>10%) emissions are process parameters that have a significant sensitivity (>10%) on the category indicator results. We also identified that electricity mix that on the category indicator results. We also identified that electricity mix that varies with mill location is a non-process parameter that affect dramatically varies with mill location is a non-process parameter that affect dramatically the LCA results. Therefore, the drawn conclusions are valid only to the the LCA results. Therefore, the drawn conclusions are valid only to the system studied and no generalization can be done based on the results system studied and no generalization can be done based on the results obtained.obtained.The developed alternative mill configurations with increased production of The developed alternative mill configurations with increased production of DIP and/or co-generation systems have important environmental benefits for DIP and/or co-generation systems have important environmental benefits for the LCA performance of the system studied (e.g. 20-40% reduction in Global the LCA performance of the system studied (e.g. 20-40% reduction in Global Warming Potential), except for the impact categories more sensitive to Warming Potential), except for the impact categories more sensitive to natural gas consumption (i.e. acidification, photochemical smog and human natural gas consumption (i.e. acidification, photochemical smog and human health particles). The effluent oriented scenarios show significant health particles). The effluent oriented scenarios show significant improvement for eutrophication potential (i.e. 50-80% reduction), with improvement for eutrophication potential (i.e. 50-80% reduction), with higher benefits from the membrane technology which completely eliminates higher benefits from the membrane technology which completely eliminates the contribution from newsprint mill effluents to eutrophication, optimizes the contribution from newsprint mill effluents to eutrophication, optimizes water resource use and has available alternatives to sludge landfilling.water resource use and has available alternatives to sludge landfilling.


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3.3. Insight into how this model might be used for “life cycle thinking”:Insight into how this model might be used for “life cycle thinking”:

•• In EMS to demonstrate continuous environmental improvementIn EMS to demonstrate continuous environmental improvement•• In EIS to quantify and communicate environmental impactsIn EIS to quantify and communicate environmental impacts



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3.3. EMS: Environmental management systemsEMS: Environmental management systems

Background informationBackground informationEnvironmental management systems (EMS) provide businesses with a Environmental management systems (EMS) provide businesses with a structured means of managing all their environmental impacts. An EMS can structured means of managing all their environmental impacts. An EMS can be the first step for a business to take towards environmental improvement, be the first step for a business to take towards environmental improvement, as it enables organisations to benchmark their environmental performance, as it enables organisations to benchmark their environmental performance, and then regularly evaluate their performance and improvement. and then regularly evaluate their performance and improvement. To develop an EMS, an organisation should assess its environmental To develop an EMS, an organisation should assess its environmental impacts, set targets to reduce these impacts, and plan how to achieve the impacts, set targets to reduce these impacts, and plan how to achieve the targets. A business should provide detailed information on operational targets. A business should provide detailed information on operational procedures as well as make provisions for auditing, communication, procedures as well as make provisions for auditing, communication, training, review and emergency planning, and clear designation of training, review and emergency planning, and clear designation of responsibilities for actions. responsibilities for actions. EMS certificationEMS certificationBusinesses can apply for certification to international standards such as ISO Businesses can apply for certification to international standards such as ISO 14001. Visit the 14001. Visit the ISO web site for more information about EMS ISO 14001. web site for more information about EMS ISO 14001.

http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/iso9000-14000/index.html


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EMS & ISOEMS & ISOThe international standardisation of Environmental Management (EM) is The international standardisation of Environmental Management (EM) is documented by the ISO 14000 series. Within this series a number of documented by the ISO 14000 series. Within this series a number of Environmental Management tools are treated. Therefore, it can be seen as a Environmental Management tools are treated. Therefore, it can be seen as a 'toolbox' which offers several options for sound Environmental Management 'toolbox' which offers several options for sound Environmental Management practices in organisations. However, a number of questions remain because practices in organisations. However, a number of questions remain because they are not treated by the standards themselves. Some examples are they are not treated by the standards themselves. Some examples are which of the tools should be applied to what kind of Environmental which of the tools should be applied to what kind of Environmental Management problem or what are the synergisms and antagonisms Management problem or what are the synergisms and antagonisms between these tools. To illustrate the importance of a comprehensive choice between these tools. To illustrate the importance of a comprehensive choice and a compatible approach towards EM-tools, Life Cycle Assessment (ISO and a compatible approach towards EM-tools, Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040 series) is discussed in the context of Environmental Management 14040 series) is discussed in the context of Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001). The focus of ISO 14001 are organisations, while LCA Systems (ISO 14001). The focus of ISO 14001 are organisations, while LCA deals with products or processes. In principle, they are not compatible, since deals with products or processes. In principle, they are not compatible, since the life-cycle approach analyses one production chain from 'cradle to grave' the life-cycle approach analyses one production chain from 'cradle to grave' or even back to the cradle, while a management system according to ISO or even back to the cradle, while a management system according to ISO 14001 analyses organisations, i.e. a number of product chains, from 'gate to 14001 analyses organisations, i.e. a number of product chains, from 'gate to gate'. LCAs, however, could be compiled by aggregating several 'gate to gate'. LCAs, however, could be compiled by aggregating several 'gate to gate' energy and material balances of companies. LCA can assist in gate' energy and material balances of companies. LCA can assist in prioritising and achieving the objectives of an EM-System. LCA can also help prioritising and achieving the objectives of an EM-System. LCA can also help to understand the environmental impact of organisations and what share of to understand the environmental impact of organisations and what share of their overall environmental burden is produced 'inside the gates' or 'outside their overall environmental burden is produced 'inside the gates' or 'outside the gates', respectively.the gates', respectively.


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DefinitionDefinition

An EMS is a continual cycle of planning, implementing, reviewing and An EMS is a continual cycle of planning, implementing, reviewing and improving the processes and actions that an organization undertakes to improving the processes and actions that an organization undertakes to meet its business and environmental goals. Most EMSs are built on the meet its business and environmental goals. Most EMSs are built on the "Plan, Do, Check, Act" model. This model leads to continual improvement "Plan, Do, Check, Act" model. This model leads to continual improvement based upon:based upon:

-Planning, including identifying environmental aspects and establishing -Planning, including identifying environmental aspects and establishing goals [plan]; goals [plan]; -Implementing, including training and operational controls [do]; -Implementing, including training and operational controls [do]; -Checking, including monitoring and corrective action [check]; and -Checking, including monitoring and corrective action [check]; and -Reviewing, including progress reviews and acting to make needed changes -Reviewing, including progress reviews and acting to make needed changes to the EMS [act]. to the EMS [act].


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An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a method of incorporating An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a method of incorporating environmental care throughout the corporate structure. EMS includes environmental care throughout the corporate structure. EMS includes strategic planning activities, the organisational structure and strategic planning activities, the organisational structure and implementation of the environmental policy as an integral part of the implementation of the environmental policy as an integral part of the manufacturing process. It is a useful tool to implement to comply with manufacturing process. It is a useful tool to implement to comply with legislation, address stakeholder pressure and improve corporate image and legislation, address stakeholder pressure and improve corporate image and raise awareness of environmental issues. raise awareness of environmental issues.

EMS is a problem-identification and problem-solving tool, based on the EMS is a problem-identification and problem-solving tool, based on the concept of continual improvement, that can be implemented in an concept of continual improvement, that can be implemented in an organisation in many different ways, depending on the sector of activity and organisation in many different ways, depending on the sector of activity and the needs perceived by management. In particular, standards for EMS have the needs perceived by management. In particular, standards for EMS have been developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) been developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and by the European Commission – Eco-Management and Audit Scheme and by the European Commission – Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS).(EMAS).


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Key ElementsKey Elements

- Undertake an initial environmental review;- Undertake an initial environmental review;- Define an environmental policy;- Define an environmental policy;- Develop an environmental action plan and define environmental - Develop an environmental action plan and define environmental responsibilities;responsibilities;- Develop internal information and training courses;- Develop internal information and training courses;- Audit the environmental management system and conduct an - Audit the environmental management system and conduct an environmental management reviewenvironmental management review


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Resume of the EMS thinking Resume of the EMS thinking wayway


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3.3. EIS: Environmental Impact StatementEIS: Environmental Impact Statement

Whenever projects or programs are planned, there are potential impacts Whenever projects or programs are planned, there are potential impacts upon the environment. When these proposed projects are federally funded, upon the environment. When these proposed projects are federally funded, such impacts become important to the public. What these impacts may be such impacts become important to the public. What these impacts may be and the magnitude of their effectare reported in Environmental Impact and the magnitude of their effectare reported in Environmental Impact Statements. Statements.

DefinitionDefinitionEnvironmental impact statements are reports that outline the predicted Environmental impact statements are reports that outline the predicted environmental effects of a particular action or project in which the federal environmental effects of a particular action or project in which the federal government is involved. These statements are often important in government is involved. These statements are often important in environmental regulation and litigation. Environmental impact statements of environmental regulation and litigation. Environmental impact statements of a necessary or projected activity highlight the significant environmental a necessary or projected activity highlight the significant environmental ramifications of a project, describing alternative actions which also must ramifications of a project, describing alternative actions which also must include no action being taken.include no action being taken.


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Environmental impact statements are required by Section 102(2) (C) of the Environmental impact statements are required by Section 102(2) (C) of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (PL91-190) which requires federal National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (PL91-190) which requires federal agencies to consider the probable environmental effects of projects and agencies to consider the probable environmental effects of projects and programs under their control. The Act also established the Council on programs under their control. The Act also established the Council on Environmental Quality. This three-member board advises the President on Environmental Quality. This three-member board advises the President on environmental matters and reviews federal programs in terms of the environmental matters and reviews federal programs in terms of the country's environmental policies. In 1971, the Council established country's environmental policies. In 1971, the Council established procedural and content guidelines for environmental impact statements. procedural and content guidelines for environmental impact statements. The most significant revisions comprise the 1978 guidelines, which are The most significant revisions comprise the 1978 guidelines, which are essentially what is in use today.essentially what is in use today.

Contents of an Environmental Impact StatementContents of an Environmental Impact StatementAn environmental impact statement for a proposed project outlines in detail An environmental impact statement for a proposed project outlines in detail the proposed actions, alternative actions (including no action), and their the proposed actions, alternative actions (including no action), and their probable environmental ramifications. The environmental impact statement probable environmental ramifications. The environmental impact statement must coverall plausible bases, which are generally determined by the rule of must coverall plausible bases, which are generally determined by the rule of reason. If a "reasonable person" would consider an activity sufficiently reason. If a "reasonable person" would consider an activity sufficiently significant to warrant further discussion, it should be included in the significant to warrant further discussion, it should be included in the environmental impact statement. The environmental impact statement environmental impact statement. The environmental impact statement must also give information on the probable impact of alternative actions must also give information on the probable impact of alternative actions outside the jurisdiction of the responsible agency.outside the jurisdiction of the responsible agency.


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National Environmental Policy Act, PL 91-190 National Environmental Policy Act, PL 91-190 Section 102 (2) (C)Section 102 (2) (C)The Congress authorizes and directs that, to the fullest extent possible, all agencies of the federal government shall The Congress authorizes and directs that, to the fullest extent possible, all agencies of the federal government shall include in every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation and other major Federal actions significantly include in every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation and other major Federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment, a detailed statement by responsible officials on: affecting the quality of the human environment, a detailed statement by responsible officials on:

-the environmental impact of the proposed action, -the environmental impact of the proposed action, -any adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided should the proposal be implemented, -any adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided should the proposal be implemented, -alternatives to the proposed action, -alternatives to the proposed action, -the relationship between local short-term uses of man's environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long--the relationship between local short-term uses of man's environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity, and term productivity, and -any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources which would be involved in the proposed action should it be -any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources which would be involved in the proposed action should it be implemented.implemented.

Although requirements differ between situations, the environmental impact Although requirements differ between situations, the environmental impact statement must discuss the total impact on the environment. According to the statement must discuss the total impact on the environment. According to the Council on Environmental Quality guidelines, it should consider:Council on Environmental Quality guidelines, it should consider:

- Direct and indirect effects of the project- Direct and indirect effects of the project- Interference with other activities- Interference with other activities- Energy and resource requirements- Energy and resource requirements- Conservation and reparation potential- Conservation and reparation potential- Preservation of urban, historic and cultural quality- Preservation of urban, historic and cultural quality- Ways to minimize damage- Ways to minimize damage


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Necessity of Environmental Impact StatementsNecessity of Environmental Impact StatementsThe National Environmental Policy Act requires an environmental impact The National Environmental Policy Act requires an environmental impact statement when a project is federally controlled and is potentially statement when a project is federally controlled and is potentially environmentally significant. A project is federally controlled when it environmentally significant. A project is federally controlled when it requires:requires:

- Federal licensing,- Federal licensing,- Federal funding, or- Federal funding, or- is undertaken by the federal government.- is undertaken by the federal government.The environmental impact is determined to be significant by examining The environmental impact is determined to be significant by examining similar prior activities and applying the rule of reason.similar prior activities and applying the rule of reason.

Preparation of Environmental Impact StatementsPreparation of Environmental Impact StatementsThe assurance of completion of an environmental impact statement is the The assurance of completion of an environmental impact statement is the responsibility of the federal agency controlling the project. That agency is responsibility of the federal agency controlling the project. That agency is also responsible for any legal consequences of the environmental impact also responsible for any legal consequences of the environmental impact statement. Agencies with sufficient staff and technical expertise may statement. Agencies with sufficient staff and technical expertise may prepare their own Environmental Impact Statements. This is the typical prepare their own Environmental Impact Statements. This is the typical practice when the agency directly designs and implements the project itself. practice when the agency directly designs and implements the project itself.


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3.3. EIS : Environmental Impact EIS : Environmental Impact StatementStatement

Federal agencies whose primary role is to provide funding to state or local Federal agencies whose primary role is to provide funding to state or local agencies directing a project may require them to prepare environmental agencies directing a project may require them to prepare environmental impact statements as part of their funding applications. State or local impact statements as part of their funding applications. State or local agencies may use outside consultants to prepare environmental impact agencies may use outside consultants to prepare environmental impact statements, as well as to design and implement the project. Federal statements, as well as to design and implement the project. Federal agencies with licensing power, such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission agencies with licensing power, such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and EPA, often require private sector applicants to prepare environmental and EPA, often require private sector applicants to prepare environmental impact statements, which is often submitted with the license application. In impact statements, which is often submitted with the license application. In all cases, the environmental impact statement becomes the responsibility of all cases, the environmental impact statement becomes the responsibility of the federal agency providing the license.the federal agency providing the license.

Participation in the Environmental Impact Statement ProcessParticipation in the Environmental Impact Statement ProcessAccording to the National Environmental Policy Act, Environmental Impact According to the National Environmental Policy Act, Environmental Impact Statements must be made available to the public, federal, state and local Statements must be made available to the public, federal, state and local authorities, the President and the Council on Environmental Quality; authorities, the President and the Council on Environmental Quality; subsequent legislation requires that they also be filed with United States subsequent legislation requires that they also be filed with United States EPA. The Council on Environmental Quality guidelines require that agencies EPA. The Council on Environmental Quality guidelines require that agencies responsible for Environmental Impact Statements hold public meetings responsible for Environmental Impact Statements hold public meetings when proposed projects foster strong debate or interest. Each agency must when proposed projects foster strong debate or interest. Each agency must also provide the public with information on how to participate in the also provide the public with information on how to participate in the environmental impact statement review process. environmental impact statement review process.


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What Is Included?What Is Included?An environmental impact statement for a proposed project outlines in detail An environmental impact statement for a proposed project outlines in detail the proposed actions, alternative actions (including no action), and their the proposed actions, alternative actions (including no action), and their environmental ramifications. The environmental impact statement must environmental ramifications. The environmental impact statement must cover all plausible activities associated with the proposed project. The type cover all plausible activities associated with the proposed project. The type of activities to be included is generally determined by the rule of reason. of activities to be included is generally determined by the rule of reason. That is, if a "reasonable person" would consider an activity sufficiently That is, if a "reasonable person" would consider an activity sufficiently significant to warrant further discussion, it should be included in the significant to warrant further discussion, it should be included in the environmental impact statement. environmental impact statement.

The environmental impact statement must discuss the total impact on the The environmental impact statement must discuss the total impact on the environment (see next figure). According to guidelines from the Council on environment (see next figure). According to guidelines from the Council on Environmental Quality, it should include: Environmental Quality, it should include:

- Direct and indirect effects of the project, - Direct and indirect effects of the project, - Interference with other activities, - Interference with other activities, - Energy and resource requirements, - Energy and resource requirements, - Conservation and restoration potential, - Conservation and restoration potential, - Preservation of urban, historic and cultural quality, and - Preservation of urban, historic and cultural quality, and - Ways to minimize damage. - Ways to minimize damage.


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Total Impact to the Environment


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When is an Environmental Impact Statement Necessary?When is an Environmental Impact Statement Necessary?The National Environmental Policy Act requires an environmental impact The National Environmental Policy Act requires an environmental impact statement when a project is federally controlled and is environmentally statement when a project is federally controlled and is environmentally significant. An activity is federally controlled when it requires federal significant. An activity is federally controlled when it requires federal licensing or federal funding, or when it is undertaken by the federal licensing or federal funding, or when it is undertaken by the federal government. government.

Who Prepares the Environmental Impact Statement?Who Prepares the Environmental Impact Statement?The preparation of an environmental impact statement is the responsibility The preparation of an environmental impact statement is the responsibility of the federal agency controlling the project. Agencies with sufficient staff of the federal agency controlling the project. Agencies with sufficient staff and technical expertise may prepare their own environmental impact and technical expertise may prepare their own environmental impact statements. This is the typical practice when the agency directly designs statements. This is the typical practice when the agency directly designs and implements the project itself. and implements the project itself.

Federal agencies with licensing power (such as the Nuclear Regulatory Federal agencies with licensing power (such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission) require the private sector applicant to prepare an Commission) require the private sector applicant to prepare an environmental report, which is usually submitted with the license environmental report, which is usually submitted with the license application. Preparing the draft and final environmental impact statements application. Preparing the draft and final environmental impact statements then becomes the responsibility of the federal agency providing the license. then becomes the responsibility of the federal agency providing the license. The environmental report for the Midwest Compact's low-level radioactive The environmental report for the Midwest Compact's low-level radioactive waste disposal facility will probably be prepared by the company selected waste disposal facility will probably be prepared by the company selected by Ohio to build and operate the facility. by Ohio to build and operate the facility.


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3.3. Insight into how this model might be used for “life cycle thinking”:Insight into how this model might be used for “life cycle thinking”:•• In EMS to demonstrate continuous environmental improvementIn EMS to demonstrate continuous environmental improvement•• In EIS to quantify and communicate environmental impactsIn EIS to quantify and communicate environmental impacts

4.4. QUIZQUIZ



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4.4. QuizQuizAnswer the following questions:Answer the following questions:

1 – 1 – What could be the advantages of using the EMS (Environmental What could be the advantages of using the EMS (Environmental Management Systems) for a small and medium-sized organizations over Management Systems) for a small and medium-sized organizations over a large one a large one ? ?

2 – 2 – How big does an organization need to be to successfully implement an How big does an organization need to be to successfully implement an EMS EMS ??

3 – 3 – Do we need to be in 100% compliance in order to have an EMSDo we need to be in 100% compliance in order to have an EMS ? ?

4 – 4 – The following list contains some aspects of EMS . Which aspects are not The following list contains some aspects of EMS . Which aspects are not related to the Environmental Management Systems ?related to the Environmental Management Systems ?

1.1. Quality Policy Quality Policy 2.2. Adequate Resources Adequate Resources 3.3. Responsibilities and Authorities Responsibilities and Authorities 4.4. Training Training 5.5. System Documentation System Documentation 6.6. Process Controls Process Controls 7.7. Document Control Document Control 8.8. System Audits System Audits 9.9. Management Review Management Review


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4.4. QuizQuiz

5 – 5 – What’s the purpose of an EISWhat’s the purpose of an EIS ? ?6 – 6 – 7 – 7 – 8 – 8 –


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End of Tier IIIEnd of Tier III

• This is the end of Module 14. Please submit your report to your professor This is the end of Module 14. Please submit your report to your professor for grading. for grading.

• We are always interested in suggestions on how to improve the course. We are always interested in suggestions on how to improve the course. You may contact us atYou may contact us at www.namppimodule.org

http://www.namppimodule.org/

MODULE 14. “Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)”

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