Moderation of Teamwork: Basics and Techniques

Short English version of "Moderation“ in: Böhm, B., Janßen, M. & Legewie, H.:Zusammenarbeit professionell gestalten. Praxisleitfaden für Gesundheitsförde-rung, Sozialarbeit und Umweltschutz. Freiburg: Lambertus 1999. 1

Moderation of Teamwork: Basics and Techniques*)

Heiner Legewie / Birgit BöhmTechnische Universität Berlin

1. What is moderation

We know them all too well: endless team- and business meetings, conferences, discussionrounds, learning or working groups, political committees, decision-making boards. In nearlyevery project, in study-, work- or promotion groups, as well as in organisations, group mee-tings consume endless valuable time and work with low efficiency. For their participants theyare rather considered as more or less unavoidable annoyances instead of being sources of in-spiration or motivation.

With the following moderation guidelines we aim to provide you a simple and comprehen-sible tool with the help of which you may get the following results in your team work, co-operation group and business meetings:

- Ongoing meetings and working sessions develop more efficiently.

- Participants achieve a higher degree of co-operation.

- The notorious chatterbox or self-entertainers are disciplined.

- Sufficient time is spared for important problems.

- The problem-solving power of working groups is systematically heightened.

- The participants' motivation, creativity and contentment with their work is increased.

The introduction of moderation techniques is comparable to the transition from handwrit-ing to working with a typewriter or PC; a given time and practice are needed before thenew techniques are assimilated and the benefits can be noticed. By now, typewriting hasbecome self-evident in official correspondence. The same must be achieved for the prac-tice of moderation techniques in all kinds of professional group work in the fields of edu-cation, production, business, administration and politics. There are a lot of publicationsabout moderation methods in german language (e.g. Klebert, K., Schrader, E., Straub,W.G. [1987] KurzModeration – English translation [2000]: Winning Group Results – and[1998] Moderationsmethode. Hamburg: Windmühle Verlag). Unfortunately, moderationmethods, despite their extreme usefulness, until now have found their way at best in voca-tional training workshops and in modern management. In pedagogy, in colleges and uni-versities, in the social and health systems, in the political bodies, as well as in public ad-ministration, the "Stone Age" methods of group work still prevail.

Moderation consists of a particular style in chairing working groups, discussion rounds andbusiness meetings. The moderator keeps a certain distance from the discussions and helpsto give each participant an opportunity to express his/her views, and directs the whole pro-cess of group work to make it run smoothly.

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Moderation methods are the results of a "social invention" - an invention dating back to theearly 'seventies, that aimed to improve group work in education as well as in business andpolitics. In organisational development, the methods are known under the trade markMETAPLAN, which is the name of one of the leading organisation consultants in Ger-many. However, to identify moderation methods with METAPLAN® would be just asfalse as to identify cars with General Motors or Mercedes. There is not one moderationmethod, rather a set of different methods has proven to be useful; a set that varies accord-ing to the goals and preferences of the moderators and the groups, and which may be com-bined in a creative manner for each case.

The following aspects are essential in the moderation of team work:

- Group dynamics and participants' responsibility (2.)

- Role and tasks of the moderator (3.)

- Techniques of visualisation (4.)

- Standard Techniques for routine work in groups (5.)

For intensively processing single issues or problems see

- Auxiliary techniques of problem processing (6.)

2. Responsibility of the participants

Responsibility for the success of team work lies in the hands of all participants. It would befatal if the members were to delegate their own responsibility for the climate of the groupand success of the work onto a single moderator. Both moderator and participants must co-operate. To understand this, it is necessary to highlight certain basic conditions of groupdynamics in regard to productive and satisfactory team work.:

Each participant of a working group must bear responsibility not only for his/herown well-being and his/her own working capacity, but also for the success of thejoint work.

According to the concept of Theme/Topic-Centred Interaction - TCI (German: Themen-zentrierte Interaktion - TZI, Ruth Cohn 19761), the course of the work in all kinds ofworking groups depends on the balance of the following factors which build the triangle ofTCI (see Fig. 1):

1 Ruth Cohn (1976). Von der Psychoanalyse zur themenzentrierten Interaktion. Stuttgart: Klett.

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Fig.1: Finding balance in theme-centered interaction

Globe

Individual person (Me): The interests and needs of every participant should be, insofar as possible, taken into consideration in the group process.Group (We): Once a group develops and works together, a process develops through this unit. It has its own rules, needs and potential for conflict, which must all be taken into consideration.Task (Theme): The topic of the group or rather the task which must be solved, is tied to certain respective demands and practical necessities. It ist important to make productive use of the various participant interests and competencies in solving the task (group work is considered to be more important than individual work).Frame (Globe): The group work is embedded in space, time, institutional and other minor circumstances, all of which promote or hinder the group process and the work results.

We Me

Theme

Depending on the given task, the constitution, the particular phase of the process andworking style of a group, group activity is centered either on the needs of the individualparticipants (What can I achieve here and now?), or the group processes (How do we cometo terms with each other?) or the task (What has to be done?). Professional working groupsnormally concentrate almost exclusively on the task, consequently little room or time is leftfor the needs of the participants or the process of the group. Nevertheless, the neglect ofthe participants' needs and group dynamics will eventually take revenge: Individual par-ticipants will get frustrated and a poor group-climate may develop; open conflicts and theblocking of the team work may be induced. On the other hand, there exists the danger thatworking groups get too deeply involved with the needs of the individual participants,and/or with group dynamics; such groups become self-centred and they lose sight of thetasks.

It is the responsibility of each participant to contribute to a dynamic balance between his orher personal needs, the group processes and the task aimed at: i.e. to contribute to the bal-ance of Me, We and Task. To achieve this balance, the following governing rules of groupwork have proven their worth:

- Be your own chairperson: Assume responsibility for yourself, for everything you sayand do, taking into consideration the balance of me, group, task and frame.

- Troubles have priority: Interrupt the conversation when you find that you are unable tofollow it.

- Express yourself in your contributions; start from your own personal experiences.

- Be both authentic and selective, i.e. first get conscious of what you feel and what youthink, then select that what you want to communicate therefrom.

- When asking questions, explain why you ask them.

- Refrain from interpreting others; instead, share your reactions to the statements and ac-tions of others.

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- Talks with neighbours ("side conversations") should be shared with the group.

- One after the other: do not speak simultaneously.

- Speak about one single topic - and not too long.

The most important rules are in direct relationship with the individual responsibility - to beborne by each group member:

"Be your own chairperson" evokes directly the self-responsibility of each participant; thelatter must watch and be responsible lest his/her own interests and wishes be relegated intothe background. Of course, this cannot mean the dominance and/or putting through one'sown interests to the detriment of other team participants, but rather an effort towards theachievement of the aforementioned balance.

"Troubles have priority" means that each participant has to watch, lest his/her own contri-bution to the task is not unnecessarily blocked. That is the best prevention against one's in-trinsic "baling out", as well as against slow build-up of frustration and conflicts in thegroup. This does not refer to minor disturbances in the group that could be a burden to theteam work to speak about; the important issue is the impairment of the creative cooperationwithin the team: that must be eliminated by addressing the disturbance.

The above rules may not always be completely fulfilled. Yet, they can be considered suc-cessful guidelines for a productive communication - also apart from professional groupwork.

3. The role and tasks of the moderator

A group led by a moderator differs from one without a moderator by the division of labour.Whereas the participants concentrate on the job, the moderator's task consists in supportingthe team, in that the latter can achieve its objectives in a stimulating atmosphere and withinthe available time. In order to reach this goal, the moderator will put a structure at the dis-posal of the group. Such structure should enable every participant to voice his/her interestsand to develop his/her capabilities and creativity in an optimum way in relation to thegiven task. Besides putting forward such a structure, the moderator shall give guidelines tothe group, in such a way that the members can assume responsibility for the team-events.That means that the participants, in addition to allowing themselves to be led, also lead inan active manner. Thus, the moderator's role is not that of a leader or chairman who, owingto his advance knowledge or through his authority, strives to achieve a certain pre-set re-sult. His role is rather that of a co-ordinator. He puts his knowledge in the service of thejoint discussion or work process; in that he is similar to a stage director.

In smaller groups and ongoing working teams, the moderator may also substantially par-ticipate in the discussions. In this case he or she will swing between the role of participantand that of the moderator; he/she should, however, make clear when acting in one or theother role.

The moderator's task is reasonable even in small groups, upwards from 4 - 5 participants,but in case of more than 6 - 8 participants it is mandatory:

- The participants' burden will be relieved so that they may address themselves to sub-stantive work.

- Chatterboxes can be bridled and the silent members encouraged

- The moderator will introduce the professional methods of team work- for instance theuse of visual aids - promoting thereby goal-oriented and efficient work of the group.

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What to do?

1. Create a friendly climate

The creation of a friendly working climate which, thanks to the well-being of the partici-pants and the enhancement of mutual respect and trust, is a precondition of successfulwork, although this banal condition is often neglected in professional as well as privatelife. A moderator may contribute to this condition when observing the following points:

- Watch the seating order. At a "round table" or chair circle each member has each of theother members in sight.

- Greet the participants in a warm and welcoming manner.

- Introduce the participants to each other, unless they already are familiar. In smallgroups, every time that a newcomer joins the event, there should be a mutual introduc-tion.

- Address the members by their names. Except in familiar circles, require the use ofname-badges or place cards on the table in front of everybody with names written withfelt-pens.

- Listen to every contribution and take it seriously.

- Emphasise positive contributions.

- Be forthcoming and encourage the members to have similar attitudes,

- Take troubles seriously.

- Insist on a feedback round at the end of the session.

2. Questioning attitude and process-oriented behaviour

During moderation, keep your own interests, opinions and values in the background. Donot get stuck on a definite result. Instead, activate the group through your questions and,possibly, through reporting back the course of working process. Promote the members'mutual co-operation by leaving substantive issues and decisions to the group. In the courseof events, watch closely the emotional signs that will help you to understand the groupprocess. Participants should be able to profit from the transparency of the processes so asto prevent troubles and conflicts.

3. Professional structuring of the team work

Support the speedy and efficient co-operation by presenting a clear structure - commensu-rate with the actual issue. The moderator should relieve the group from the decision on theproper structure, saving thereby time and energy for the substantive work. In small groupsand international conferences alike, the frequently boring discussions on agenda and orderof business are usually a sign of troubles, viz. Conflict. Major techniques for the structur-ing of team work are: the use of visual aids, the planned course of events and the introduc-tion of varying special working methods.

Adoption of these techniques is - apart from intuition in the ongoing group dynamics - thebasis of an up-to-date moderation. While its beginnings are easy to learn, the systematic usenecessitates a great deal of practice on the side of the moderator, and a getting-used-to on theside of the group.

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4. Importance of time management

A good time management is essential to group work. Planning the schedule of an agenda isa difficult task, because time is a persons most valuable resource. Normally you have toolittle time to discuss all points at length, so you have to select and set priorities and to po-litely push the group to be in time. In some instances it is preferable to propose a scheduleto the team, in other instances the team should decide about the time needed for each pointon the agenda. If on a critical point of discussion time is running away, then let the groupdecide whether the agenda should be changed, but also point out the consequences of skip-ping other points in favour to the critical point.

It is the virtue of a good moderator to stimulate punctuality and to finish team meetings intime.

5. Self-assurance

You should realise the importance of your role and take the task seriously. Make efforts toact in this sense: speak in an articulate manner; keep an eye contact with the group; evoketheir attention and respect ("May I have your attention?") Self-assurance also implies thatyou should not expect any perfectionism either from yourself or from the group. If you areexcited or nervous, let it evaporate at the moment of greeting. It is best to develop a mod-eration style which fits your personality.

6. Elimination of burdens

It is advisable to create good working conditions for yourself. Sit comfortably. Eliminateany disturbance, for instance noise. Do not do everything by yourself but ask for the helpof the participants when this can mitigate your burden, e.g. distribution of materials, keep-ing the minutes, help with the visual aids, etc. Beginners should especially request thegroup’s assistance, instead of overdoing their helplessness.

7. Transparency

Try to make the process transparent for the group. The use of visual aids, including theagenda, are a great help. Use direction signals (such as "We shall begin now", "Shortreading interval"). Questions can be also useful: "I have an impression that today's discus-sion is running rather sluggishly. Does anybody have a suggestion as to why we are notprogressing?"

8. How to deal with criticism

Do not take criticism as a personal affront but as a necessary signal in the group process. Itmay, however, carry a different meaning from case to case. Whenever a participant ex-presses criticism against your action, do not try to justify yourself. Instead, ask the opin-ions of other participants and elucidate the problems behind the criticism with the help ofthe group. Request possible suggestions for solution. Accept the criticism if it proves justi-fied.

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9. Difficult situations

When you cannot find the way out of a derailed situation, ask the group for suggestions onhow to proceed. It is important that every participant has the opportunity to speak. That canbe achieved by way of the "Technique of flash light". Each member, in his/her turn shouldstate briefly, how he/she experiences the situation, and how he/she desires to proceed. An-other possibility consists of the breaking-up of the session in order to achieve the solutionof outstanding problems in a smaller circle. This method is particularly recommended inthe case of permanent controversial group decisions.

10. Feedback

Close your moderation with the request of getting feedback on the process. Each partici-pant tells in a few short sentences what he/she was satisfied with, and what he would likein a different manner next time. (In this phase there is no room for discussion!) At the end,state your own feedback as the moderator. Make no attempt to justify yourself in case youhad been criticised. Through the "feedback round" both group and moderator becomeaware of the causes of trouble and can organise future meetings in a more satisfactorymanner.

4. Techniques of visualisation

The use of visual techniques is a pivotal component of the moderation. With the help ofsuch visual illustrations one can achieve that communications within the group-work areconveyed not only through speech but also through a visual and readable written form orthrough pictures that are available to everybody. The latter necessitates the usage of charts,moderation cards and wall newspapers that illustrate in short captions the course of the dis-cussions in an easily readable manner.

When used judiciously, the visual illustrations can have many advantages for group-work:

- The simultaneous addressing of the auditory and the visual senses enhances the moti-vation, attention, concentration and perception powers of the participants.

- When the visual aids concentrate on the pivotal points, that will result in the focusingon the essential subjects. The action helps to oversee complicated facts and intercon-nections.

- Illustrated statements can be followed simultaneously by all participants. This meansthat everyone will be speaking about the same issue and the group can concentrate on ajoint point. The otherwise cursory acoustic communication becomes fixed. That meansthat the process of discussions always stay on an imminent single issue.

- No ones contribution gets lost and each member has his/her contribution in sight; thatresults in an equal participation and a stronger identification of the participants with theresults.

- Writing with the felt-pen and dealing with the moderation cards, with the wall-newspapers and pin-up boards all act on different senses. All this promotes the creativ-ity and creates a lively "workshop climate."

- Outcomes of work, controversies and targets become visible for all and are docu-mented in a "simultaneous protocol".

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- In workshops the use of visual aids, e.g. the card enquiry are amply practised (see 6.Auxiliary techniques of problem processing). Yet, in the everyday routine work theymay disrupt the process if such techniques become an end in themselves. In ongoingwork groups, the visual aids should be used sparingly and commensurately with thegoal. In this way, the visual aids turn into inconspicuous self-evidence. They will losetheir initial surprise effect and become simple tools for efficient teamwork.

What to do?

1. Legibility

Visual rendering requires well-readable print. In groups of less than 20 participants, thetype-size must be 2.5 cm and the thickness of the letters approx. 3-4 cm. For the sake oflegibility use both capitals and lower-case letters. Use of the felt-pen and the printed let-ters requires some practice. The moderator should communicate the rules of writing andwatch for compliance with the rules. Attention: illegible writing corresponds to mumblingand too small types to whispering in speech (see Fig. 2).

2. Resume in keywords

Illustration is performed in key points. Each key point will be expressed in 1 - 3 keywords,or in telegraph statements of max. 2 lines in large groups, respectively. max. 3 lines insmall groups. Persons with little practice often find it hard to compress their complicatedthoughts in to key-points. Tell the group that every member may subsequently explain thekey-points (see Fig 2).

3. Divide the work steps and sum up the results

The results are summed up on posters. Each new topic, each work step of new context ne-cessitates a separate poster showing all the related key points in a clear manner. The post-ers are arranged in different ways depending on their respective functions, either as lists forthe collection of key words, or as graphic charts, or else as collages with glued-on modera-tion cards on pin-up boards, or key word tables with corresponding dividing lines and col-umns. The distribution will follow the reading habits: title top-left, columns from the left tothe right, divisions in blocks, sufficient spacing, no overcharge, further instructions (seeFig. 3 and 4).

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Fig. 2: Visual presentation rules

Pr inted K ey words

B as ics

of vis ual pres entations

Printed letters, capitals

+ lower case letters

Write big and fat

U s e double s pacing,

begin at top left

K ey words instead of

phrases

R es ults

F or each s tep a new

pos ter

B l ocks with titles

Fig. 3: Tips for setting up pin-up boards

T ips for s etting up

pin-up boards

R ight hand corner: collect

ideas + individual points.

Max. three card-colours on

one poster.

Circles for generic terms

"Clouds " for pin-up

board titles

Oval s pace for remarks ,

objections , crit icis m .

Alternate method for fixing

the cards: spray-glue.

In the cas e of too many

cards, use several p in-up

boards .

P acking paper: fix smooth

side outside with pins.

At the head of the board

push in approx. 40 pins.

Dif ferent forms for

s ys temis ation and

orientation.

"L ightn ing" for

contes ted points

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Fig. 4: Tips for setting up flip charts

T ips for s etting

up flip charts

Max. 7 points on a

chart.

Good distribution of text. Write in a legible manner.

U s e colours for t it les.

S how only charts

accompanying oral

lectures .

P lace chart s o that

each participant can

read it.

P os s ibly hang up

charts showing the

course of events.

P r es entation

of charts

Compos ing

charts

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5. Standard Techniques for routine work in groups

In every „moderated” work session - whether in an internal circle or co-operation team - thefollowing standard techniques should be taken into account. There are a few exceptions, e.g. apresentation round is required only if the group meets for the first time or admits new partici-pants. Table 1 sums up all these techniques. They represent the basic equipment for any mod-erator chairing a meeting (Use of visual aids see 4. Techniques of visualisation).

Table 1: Standard techniques for processing a working session

Preparation 1. Taking the group size and target into account

2. Getting the material ready

3. Preparing the posters in advance

Beginning 4. Greeting

5. Name badges

6. Presentation / introduction round

7. Establishing Agenda / Time span

8. Keeping the minutes (record)

Discussion 9. Leading the discussion

Decision 10. Making of decisions

11. Lightning

Conclusion 12. Final feedback

If used sparingly and judiciously, the foregoing techniques contribute to the creativity andpromote the motivation in group work. In addition, work in working groups which have amoderator enhance the competence of the participants for further co-operative projects, - es-pecially when in ongoing co-operation the participants take turns in moderation.

What to do?

1. Taking the group size and target into account

In smaller teams (2 to 6 participants) it is sufficient to use the charts in the routine work, cou-pled with cards and the extension to pin-up boards. In larger working groups of 7-20 persons(maximum 30) it is recommended to arrange a round-table seating order around the chart andthe pin-up board. In groups of this size it is also useful to work with two moderators. At thispoint you should throw in the entire arsenal of standard techniques, including the alternativeuse of small-group work and plenary sessions (see 6. Auxiliary techniques of problem-processing). In very large groups (above 30 persons) special techniques and aids should alsobe resorted to (e.g. visual aids overhead, cordless room-microphone etc.).

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2. Getting the material ready

The visual aids, like a fully equipped moderator's kit: charts, folding pin-up boards can bepurchased in shops specialising in organisation. Besides that, you can get the necessaryequipment for a moderate price in every good stationery shop.

- 1 set of felt-tip pens (minimum 1 pen for each participant) in black and red (possibly re-fillable),

- moderation cards (red and green), size 10x21 cm,

- chart-paper (or chart-paper to be glued to the wall) with tape (can be detached withoutproblem),

- a sheaf of packaging paper for large posters,

- self-adhesive points (9 mm red and green) for estimating alternatives or to be marked withfelt-pen,

- self-adhesive labels (4x7 cm or bigger) for name-badges,

- a roll of crepe paper, adhesive pencil, scissors for collages etc.,

- pin-up board, pins for sorting out moderation cards and preparation of collages

3. Preparing the posters in advance

If you want to practice a thorough moderation, it helps if the individual steps are prepared inadvance on posters (charts, upright boards). The said equipment will accompany your expla-nations at each work-step and support your explications visually. The process begins with theagenda, is however useful also in the introduction round, the rules of employing visual aids,as well as the systemisation of small working groups. The posters, already prepared by you,have the role of serving as models for the participants (see 4. Techniques of Visualisation).

4. Greeting

In the role of moderator, open the meeting by greeting the participants. Greeting is a sign thatthe phase of arrival and small talk is over and the systematic work begins. It also indicates theimminent work-style. Request the attention of the members, keep eye-to-eye contact withthem and "fetch" the participants with the help of your greeting words: in other words, size upthe situation and the mood of the group.

5. Name badges

In case the members of the group do not know each-other by name, you should include anintroduction round and distribute name badges. Ask the participants to each write a name-badge with the felt pens, either right at the entrance or before the beginning of the session andhave them fix it on their clothes in a visible manner (Circulate adhesive labels and felt pens).Names should be written without titles and with sufficiently large types for readability(surely, you are acquainted with the worries generated by name badges written in too smalltype at official functions). In case of a fixed seating order you may ask the members to placehorizontally folded moderation cards in front of them. In your own interest as a moderator,ask the members to keep the name cards visible until you really know each participant byname. The group will be thankful.

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6. Presentation / introduction round

If necessary, start the work-meeting with a short round of introductions: First introduce your-self in your role as moderator, next ask each participant, one after the other, to introduce him-self/herself. (The name badges ought to be available by then). Such introduction rounds maybecome boring if the individual members speak too long. Spare yourself and the others by,particularly in large groups (8-15 members): for instance inscribing three issues on a posterand asking each member to elucidate these briefly: e.g. name, where from, interest in thegroup. In case of a still bigger number of participants or of workshop, other forms of intro-duction may be used. When individual persons appear as guests in a work-group, or wheretwo groups meet for the first time, adapt your method to the given situation in a flexible man-ner. When time is too short, you may undertake the mutual introductions - partly or wholly -by yourself.

7. Establish the agenda / time span

In the role of moderator you have an important task, viz. to put together an agenda, respec-tively a division of time for the work meetings. The latter must be checked with the partici-pants. This can secure the group's willingness to co-operation. In the course of the session it isyour task to make sure that the originally determined time-plan and agenda is adhered to.Nearly always, time-pressure develops, especially in work with small groups. Emit explicittime-signals and see to the time-discipline as well as punctuality; e.g. at the beginning of thework, in case of sub-commissions, following intervals. On the other hand, be flexible whenimportant issues are on the table. Should the envisaged time be essentially overstepped, pointout the consequences for the subsequent phases. Given the necessity, make changes in thetime plan (to be noted on the chart).

Drawing up the agenda can be achieved in two ways:

- In the simple case (work session) you will present a draft agenda of the topics to be proc-essed (chart) which, however, must be open to amendments, additions by the participants.Unimportant trifles should be summed up. For important points reserve sufficient time.The draft agenda should be presented at the beginning of the work (following the greetingand the introductions). Ask the members about possible amendment wishes, and check theagenda with the participants (see Fig. 5).

- One may also compile the agenda at the beginning, with the participants. First collect thetopics to be addressed on a chart by appealing to the members. It is frequently practical tonote, who is responsible for a given topic and may provide, e.g. initial information. Nextfix jointly the time-span needed for each topic. Finally, define the sequence in which thetopics should be addressed. Process short routine points first so as to leave sufficient timefor the important points (see Fig. 5). If any single topic should be processed in a (separate)week-end seminar or in a workshop in every detail, then a structural plan tailored to thetask is necessary. Such a structural plan is already dealt with in the invitation.

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Fig. 5: Model for the draft course of events

M is c e l l a n e o u s

C o f f e e b r e a k

D e b a t i n g t h e d r a f t

S u m m i n g u p t h e r e s u l t s i n

p l e n a r y s e s s i o n / D i s c u s s i o n

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

1 5 m i n .

1 5 m i n . , M r s . M i l l e r

1 5 m i n .

3 0 m i n .

1 0 m i n .

I n tr o d u c i n g t h e D r a f t P l a n

4 5 m i n .

6 .

" S tar t of

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p h a s e "

2 0 m i n .A ct iv i t ie s b e f o r e t h e n e x t

m e e t i n g5 .

F e e d b a c k r o u n d

8. Keeping the minutes (record)

The outcomes of the group-work shall be fixed in the records. Designate who will keep rec-ords (minutes) at the beginning of the session. In case of regular work-sessions, the keepingof minutes shall be regulated in advance, e.g. that the participants take turns in keeping therecord/protocolling. Thus, you can avoid the waste of time caused when inviting "volunteers"to fulfil this task. The minutes must contain a short and clear summary of the results and deci-sions of the work-team. When the work is coupled with visual aids, the resulting posters maybe included in the minutes - with suitable complementing explanations. In order to securecontinuity, it is recommended to put the minutes of the previous meeting at the members' dis-posal for inspection. This gives the participants an opportunity to put forward additions andpoint out unprocessed points.

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9. Leading the discussion

Leading a free debate among more than 5-6 participants is the moderators' most difficult job.Here are a few suggestions as to how this job can be given a system ensuring results (see Fig.6).

- Formulate the topic and the questions in a clear manner. Designate the target, viz. the in-tended purpose of the debate (e.g. formation of opinion, elimination of problems, prepara-tion of a decision).

- Lay down the time-span of the intended debate (e.g. 20 minutes. Request short state-ments).

- Complicated sets of problems should be subdivided (visual aids!) and the sub-pointsshould be discussed point-by-point. Make a corresponding proposal and ask the partici-pants for additional points of view - or else develop these points of view in teamwork (byappealing the members to write on the chart or by means of card-enquiry) (see 6. Auxil-iary Techniques of the processing of problems).

- At the beginning of the session ask each participant his/her standpoint. Before the subse-quent debate, sum up these standpoints, while pointing out the common traits and the dif-ferences.

- Compile a list of speakers - or insist that the speakers should adhere to the item (sub-point) under discussion.

- Divide the debate through interim summaries.

- Illustrate the interim results by indicating the key points on the chart.

Fig. 6: Important aspects in leading a discussion

Clearlyformulate

assignment, problem,

goal Fix time

allotted for discussion and

individual contributions

Make various points out of

complex problems

Start: Ask for every

participants opinion

Foresee digressions, lead

back to topic

Keep list of speakers

Structure discussion

through summarizing

Visualize preliminary

results

Discussion chairperson

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10. Making of decision

Relieve the group from the time-consuming decisions on the most suitable proceedings byoffering them a clear structure of the planned course of the work. On the other hand, leavethem the decision on all substantive points (What is the subject-matter of the debate? Whichtargets should be kept in mind? What planning steps should be included?). In case of simplealternatives, you may take the votes per show of hands. In case of controversies first try toestablish a consensus in the discussion. If that is impossible, open a discussion on the ques-tion: under which conditions is the minority willing to accept the decision, and how can theiracceptance be facilitated. If a group decision involves the choice among several alternatives,illustrate these alternatives on the chart and place them into a sequence by giving each itempoints (see Fig. 7). For this purpose give each participant 2-3 "adhesive" points which he/shecan divide between several alternatives, or one of them. In case of relatively simple decisions(e.g. which set of problems should be processed today?) request the participants to attach theiradhesive points under the corresponding key-word, according to their free choice. In case ofconflict-laden decisions a "secret ballot" is recommended. In the first step each participantsnotes his/her division of points for himself/herself on a slip of paper. Next you, or two mem-bers, should illustrate the distribution of points on the chart. In either case terminate the illus-tration by writing the number of points behind each alternative. Lastly re-number the alterna-tives in the order of sequence (leave space for the highest number of points etc.).

Fig. 7: Visualizing a decision by giving points

Pr imary S chool

S tratford-on-Avon S treet

Pr imary S chool

B altimore S treet

S econdary S chool

L ondon S treet

High S chool

Churchi l l S treet

S econdary S chool

Pr inces s D iana S treet

Model project

"Green s chool yard":

W hich 3 s chools do we choos e?

High S chool

Queen-E l is abeth-I S treet

S econdary S chool

U ls ter S treet

High S chool

Anna-B oleyn S treet

1

2

3

6

8

4

7

5

3

7

3

17

11. Lightning

Before difficult decisions, in case of conflicts and de-railed group situations, it is advisable toresort to a so-called "lightning survey". You will put a direct question (e.g. in de-railed situa-tions: "How do we want to continue?") and ask the participants to briefly take positions, eachin turn. The emphasis is on brevity, therefore is it called "lightning". (NO discussion, just eve-rybody telling his/her opinion). The advantage of this method is – in comparison to the freedebate - that everybody has an opportunity to voice his point of view, and everybody else willbe acquainted with the others' opinions. As a moderator wait to state your opinion. First ex-plain your own opinion, next you may sum up the differing opinions and deduce a proposaltherefrom.

12. Final feedback

It helps you as moderator and the group in general if you request feedback-report at the end ofthe discussions. Request the participants to state briefly what they had been satisfied with andwhat they wanted to change. Make it clear that no discussion will take place - additionalquestions are only possible on unclear items. Using the "lightning" technique, you may ask allparticipants to provide a feedback, or let the individual persons speak according to necessity.In larger groups you may set up a Mood Barometer (see Fig. 8). Have a poster or pin-up boardready with co-ordinate axes for the mood barometer. The work climate and the result of workcan be shown along the axes. Participants will evaluate these factors by gluing or pinningpoints onto the barometer. In this way it will become visible for everyone, how the group issatisfied with the course of the meetings and with the result. The participants may commenton the points, especially on "maverick" points.

Fig. 8: Opinion-Barometer for working sessions (10 participants)

Onion-B arometer for our

today working s es s ion

W ork atmos phere

W ork res ults

very good

very good

poor

18

6. Auxiliary techniques of problem processing

Various techniques for intensively processing single issues or problems exist. Such techniquesare primarily destined to help groups deal with problems, to introduce processing methodsand to systematise, as well as to illustrate them. The said techniques can be used either inworking sessions, or chosen for the workshops (closing meeting, week-end workshop) or forimportant planning steps. The auxiliary techniques (see Table 2) are tailored, in their se-quence, to the course of events employed in the co-operative processing of problems.

Table 2: Auxiliary techniques of problem processing

Beginning of the deeper problem-processing of the illustration

1. Explain the procedure and the rules of the illustration

2. Equire card contents

3. Arranging of cards

4. Introducing small groups

Definition and analysis of theproblem

5. Affinity diagram for problem analysis

6. Chronological analysis of problem

Setting the target 7. Creating a target diagram

Search for solution 8. Brainstorming

Decision making 9. PMI method

Planning and checking measures 10. Plan of activities

The moderation techniques employed in intensive problem-processing enable the participantsof a group to take their share of the process and thus to reconstruct it. That enhances the re-sponsibility of the members towards each other, and their identification with the jointlyadopted goals and solutions. It facilitates the co-operation and makes it lively, thereby im-proving the joint work of the group. The work-steps can be made more efficient, leaving thegroup more time for the discussions on the merits and the implementation of the necessarymeasures.

What to do?

1. Explain the procedure and the rules of illustration

In the course of the said auxiliary techniques, there will be an enhanced use of visual aids. Itis particularly important for the card-collection and the making of posters in the small-groupwork to (once more) rehearse the rules of visual aid-implementation (see 4. Techniques ofvisualisation, Fig. 2). Explain the respective rules with the help of a suitable poster and watchfor the compliance with the rules.

19

2. Equire card contents

In this phase, request each participant to write the key points of a given topic on moderationcards. Such a technique is suitable e.g. in collecting and defining problems. It is also helpfulfor emotion-laden topics, e.g. statements in regards to expectations and fears. (see Fig. 9, alsoin case of criticism anonymity!). The card-enquiry enables the members to reflect on an issue.Also, it ensures the joint work of each participant. It secures a certain degree of anonymityand permits each participant to make up their own mind without feeling too much group pres-sure.

- Distribute a sufficient number of felt-pens and moderation cards (more than the number ofparticipants). Eventually work with cards of different colours, e.g. green for consent andred for opposition / criticism.

- Formulate one question for a given topic- possibly as a title on a prepared poster or pin-upboard, (e.g. "How do you evaluate our joint work in the last two months?"). Subsequently,the cards will be pinned on the said poster. Formulate your question in accordance to theset task (see Fig. 10).

- Appeal to the participants to state their answers in key-points; a separate card is to be usedfor each key point. Indicate the meaning of the different colours ("Please indicate positiveopinions on green, criticism on red cards!").

- In small work-teams there is no need to limit the number of the filled-in cards. In case oftime-pressure and /or a high number of participants request that only 2 or 3 importantpoints should be expressed (it is difficult to deal with more than 20-30 cards).

- Collect the cards and attach them to the pin-up board. Read the cards aloud and give themembers an opportunity for subsequent questions or explanations.

- At the end of the card test, the next step follows. E.g. grouping the cards (see Fig. 11 Ar-ranging of cards), debate or work in small teams.

20

Fig. 9: Moderation of a card inquiry

T his is t how you

moderate a card inquiry

1 2

D i s t r ibute mater ia ls

Determine number o f cards

and colors

G ive t ime for undi s t rubed

wr i t ing

3 4

In t roduce next work s tep(s )

Int roduce procedure

E xpla in v i s ual aids

Int roduce problem /

ques t ion

Col lect cards

R ead (aloud) and pin-up

cards

T ime fo r ques t ions and

explanat ions

E .g.

" W here can one find / imagine

s imilar s olutions ? "

E .g.:

" W hat can we work on together?"

21

Fig. 10: Formulating questions for processing problems

Ques t ions

to caus es

Ques t ions

fol lowing

des criptions

Ques t ions

to s olutions

Ques tions on

proces s ing problems

W hat res pectivly is behind

this ?

W hat exactly leads to ...?W hat factors caus e ... to

happen?

W hat caus es can behind

.. .?

H ow do we proces s the

problem ...?

W hat information do we

have for ...?

W hat characterizes this

problem?

H ow can we s ee this ?

W hat can bring us further?

W hat meas ures lead to...?

W hat could be s ome initial

s teps towards a s olution?

W hat ideas can help us

with this ?

3. Arranging of cards

To arrange ("to cluster") the cards means to collect them in groups (“clusters”) according totheir substantive coincidence (identical contents) as to the opinions, topic, indication of solu-tion, suggestions. Following a card inquiry (see: 2. Equire card contents) the cards are ar-ranged in groups, each of which shall bear a title. This process reveals the key points andsimilarities, but also the differences (see Fig. 11 and 12). There are two variants for theirmoderation:

- In the first variant, read the cards aloud and attach them onto the pin-up board. Ask theparticipants to look at the cards. Request each to explain his/her own card and others toplace possible questions in cases where statements need further explanations. When an-swers still remain unclear, you must place questions, (this is an important step in under-standing visually helpful brief forms!). Next, arrange the cards jointly in groups and for-mulate common generic terms.

22

- In the second variant, group (cluster) the cards and when they are so pre-arranged, attachthem to the pin-up board. Read the cards aloud. Also in this version, leave time for expla-nations and possible questions. Next request the participants' opinions to the suggestedgrouping and formulate common generic terms.

- The generic terms of the individual groups (of cards) make clear to everybody whichcards should go into which group. Write such generic terms on large, round cards. Givethe participants an opportunity to transfer the cards from one cluster to the other; doublethose cards that belong to two clusters or when there is no unanimity /consensus on theirarrangement.

Fig. 11: Grouping cards

T h i s i s h o w y o u m o d e r a t e

the a r rangment o f ca rds

1

D o not judge, i f neces s a ry

d i s cus s

Q u e s t i o n , e x p l a i n , r e - g r o u p

P r e - g r o u p , p i n - u p , r e a d

(a loud) cards

J o i n t l y r e - g r o u p c a r d s

3

W r i te head ings o n l a r g e

c i rc les

I f n e c e s s a ry doub le cards

J o i n t l y c h e c k c l u s te r s

2

J o i n t l y g r o u p c a r d s

R ead (a loud) and p in -up

cards

F i r s t va r iant

S econd va r ian t

23

Fig. 12: Card Enquiry and Card Grouping

E xpextations

P res ent ing the in te rna l p lan

of detai l s

Amend ing the p lan o f

detai l s

P res ent ing the cr i te r ia fo r

qual i ty in the p lan of deta i l s

Coord inat ing

the p lan of

detai l s

T o o m u c h d i s cus s ion

F ears

P lan of detai l s i s not agreed

upon

A m e n d m e n t o f p l a n t a k e s

too long

N o r e s u l t

L is ten ing and let t ing others

f in i s h s peak ing

Good commun icat ion

F u n T oo l i t t le t ime

N o d i s c ip l ine in

t im eComfor tab le

w o r k i n g

atm o s p h e r e

4. Introducing small groups

For the different phases of the problem processing it is advisable (depending on the groupsize) to set up small groups. (Such phases may be: identifying the problem, setting the target,searching for solutions etc.) Discussions can be more intensive in small groups, creativity canbe achieved sooner and consensus is easier. The outcomes of the work in small teams will bereported to the plenary session; differences can be equalised. For small groups, the followingsteps are recommended:

- Formulate the tasks of the small group (each time after jointly discussing the questions percard test).

- Explain the task of the small group by giving a direction to the joint work.

24

- Set up (subject to need) a poster (chart, pin-up board) for the imminent work (also called:script technique, see: Fig. 13). The members of the small team can orient themselves andfix the results on this poster.

- Set up small teams of possibly equal number (not 2 participants in one and 6 in the otherteam). Each group should designate a moderator and a speaker; the latter has the task ofsubsequently reporting on the results to the plenary session.

- Set a time limit for the small team work.

- Equip the small teams with the required materials (pens, cards, sheets of charts or posters)and remind them of the rules concerning visual aids.

- If necessary, place the small teams in different rooms.

- Before reporting to the plenary session, you may hang up the posters or other illustrationsof the results; one next to the other that they may be seen by all. Each team will then makeits results known. At the end of this step, a plenary discussion or the summary of the out-comes of each teamwork takes place.

Fig. 13: Poster with a script of problem analysis for small working group

P roblem-analys i s

Actual s i tuation T argeted s ituation

Meas u r e s R es ources

25

5. Affinity diagram for problem analysis

Understanding a problem, a set of facts, or a question can be enhanced jointly through an af-finity diagram. For this purpose, the different points of view are worked out on the one hand;on the other hand, a kind of group consensus is worked out for the sake of understanding theproblem. When trying to define a problem, the group can choose from among several defini-tions by adding points to each definition. Similarly, by setting up an affinity diagram throughcard enquiries, and through "Clustering", the multitude of ideas, themes, and questions be-come systematised (see Fig. 14, Fig. 11 Arranging cards): The final results is an analysis ofthe problem. The information will be put in order by way of generic terms. The analyticweight of a cluster for the subsequent work can be measured through an evaluation of points.Another method for the problem analysis consists of drawing a Cause-Effect Diagram.

Fig. 14: Section of an affinity diagram

P as s ing of res pons ibility

within the care s ys tem

Caus es of the poor

medical care for

the homeles s ?

Mis s ing 'on-the-s cene'

res pons ibility

No available s pace in the

hos tels

Doctors do not l ike working

in hos tels

Non 'on-the-s cene'

out-patient care Overloaded firs t-aid ward

Mis s ing

offers for

care

Circum-

s tances in

hos tels

Mis s ing

cooperation

26

5. Chronological analysis of problem

This serves to re-construct the origins of a problem. Starting from the present and proceedingbackwards, one attempts to compare the action-relations of the causes. Such step can be im-plemented with the help of a work poster (see Fig. 8).

Fig. 15: Scenario for a chronological problem-analysis

P roblem-analys i s

Main character is tics of

problem?

W hen and how did i t

begin?

W hat happened then?E xpected further

developments ?

6. Creating a target-diagram

A target diagram can be established by collecting the contents of the cards and by jointlygrouping the cards. Ask the participants to write their own targets (goals) on cards. Collect thecards and group (cluster) them with the help of the members. This reveals which individualgoals fit in with the group. There will be differences and similarities. Provide titles for theclusters. Such clusters may represent common goals. This will enable the participant to set uppriorities among the groups, subject to the targets' importance and urgency, by awardingpoints to the subjects. In this way one can reach a consensus on one or more common goals.In any case, discuss with the co-operation groups what is to be done with the goals judged lessimportant ("How can we consider these goals from another aspect?" "Do you agree to notincluding these goals in the project?" "Are parts of your individual goals already included inthe common goals?").

27

7. Searching for solutions through brainstorming

The well-known strategy of brainstorming seems suitable for processing problems and devel-oping suitable strategies towards reaching goals. In the process of brainstorming, possibly allideas are collected and written down on the pin-up boards or on charts. Use of moderationcards is also recommended. Before the brainstorming session it is absolutely necessary to ac-quaint the participants with its rules. Also, in the course of brainstorming you shall monitorthe compliance with these rules:

- Any criticism or evaluation of the ideas is forbidden. Any premature criticism may stiflecreative, but yet vague solution proposals and divert from the process of finding ideas.

- Crazy ideas are desirable. The more unorthodox an idea, the better. Subsequently you mayyet simplify the ways to solution.

- Quantity is also desirable. (The more roads to solutions are found, the higher the prob-ability of finding a good and useful idea.)

Combinations and modifications of ideas are also desirable. (Connections between two ormore ideas may result in a new one; already accepted proposals may be modified and - possi-bly - improved.)

At the beginning of the brainstorming, write the initial question in a manner readable by all.The collection-phase will seldom last more than 20 minutes. You may enhance the partici-pants' concentration and creativity by an interval for relaxation. Subsequently, you may let thesuggestion be awarded points, be grouped and be checked in its chances of implementation(see below).

Brainwriting (NB this is an artificially coined word, not found in general dictionaries) is akinto brainstorming. It has the advantage that the participants can silently develop their ideas. Italso enables one to establish the authorship of an idea. The ideal group size is 5 to 8 partici-pants.

- Participants discuss the formulation of a question and reach an agreement. Write this on achart.

- Each participant gets a brainwriting form (see Table 3) containing three columns for ideasand a list of names. The form should have as many lines as the number of participants.

- Within 5 minutes each participant shall write in the top-line three ideas, his/her name orinitials.

- Next, the forms shall be circulated: each participant forwards the form to his/her right-hand neighbour and gets one from the left.

- Each member sees the three ideas of his predecessor. These can be completed, expandedon or new ideas can be added.

- After a few minutes, the forms are passed on to the right, thus beginning the next phase.The process continues until every participant has seen all forms.

- Everybody is required to write in a legible manner.

28

In case of 6 participants 6x3x6 solution suggestions are produced in 30 minutes. These can beevaluated in the next step (see Table 3):

Tab. 3: Formular Brainwriting (for 6 participants):

Problem:Suggestions for solutions Name/Initials1 2 3

7. The PMI-Method of decision-making

The letters PMI stand for Plus, Minus and Interesting. This process allows a first, crude sort-ing-out of the solution suggestions into three categories. It serves towards the appreciation(evaluation) of ideas following a brainstorming or brainwriting, and contributes to the deci-sion-making. In the group-work you may act as follows:

- Evaluation of the suggestions and division into three categories should not be executed "atrandom", but rather on the basis of criteria agreed upon by the group. First of all discusstogether the criteria of evaluation.

- For the evaluation according to the PMI method, you should suggest positive and negativefactors (see 16). The latter should be brought into relation with one-another and with thehelp of awarding of points, they enable one to calculate a success-quotient. The said fac-tors shall be modified or expanded, subject to the definition of problems.

- For the sake of calculating the success-quotient, each factor shall be allocated 1 to 5points. Insofar as the number of the positive and the negative factors is equal, the successquotient shall be calculated by dividing the total of points of the positive factors with thetotal of points of the negative factors. If the result is 1, that means that the positive andnegative factors are equal. If the result is <1, the negative factors weigh more heavily. Ifthe result is >1, the positive factors weigh more heavily. In the latter case, the solutionsuggestion has a chance for success. After all the promising factors have been evaluatedeach in turn, the most promising solution suggestion will emerge.

29

Fig. 16: Criterions for assesment of proposals for solutions

P os s ible criterions

for the as s esment of

propos als for s olutions

P os itiv

factors

Negativ

factors

U s ability: U s eful for

problemsolut ion

P o tentials of

implementation: R es ources

are abound

Appeal: Originally and

carring along

R is k : R esistance

foreseeable

T ime: L ong convers ion,

effects act very late

Complexity: Many factors to

take into account

- After you have agreed on the criteria of evaluation, draw three columns on a pin-up board(see Fig. 17).

- In the first column, insert all important - i.e. promising - proposals (inscribed cards to beattached).

- In the second column, arrange the obviously useless (minus) ideas.

- All apparently interesting ideas that can be reserved for a latter stage belong in the thirdcolumn. The advantage of this column is that, at another point in time, good ideas can bepicked out which might be important for other problem-situations.

30

Fig. 17: Poster for the PMI method

P M I m e thod

P lu s ideas M i n u s ideas I n teres t ing ideas

8. Scheme of activities for planning measures

The factual planning of activities provides guidelines and reveals the practicality of the cho-sen solution(s). The scheme (plan) of activities is a program which enables one to transformindividual measures into reality. At the end of a meeting, the outcome of the meeting (session)should be known by each participant. Each participant should also know the next work-steps.The planning of activities does not need to directly engage in processing problems, but maye.g. deal with other steps until the next session. A simple scheme looks like this formula:"Who does what and till when?" Collect the forthcoming activities, for instance on a chart,jointly. Make clear who is responsible for a given activity and the time allocated therefore.

State how it will be noticeable that the activity has been implemented. Fix the result in anactivity scheme (plan) on a chart or pin-up board (see Fig. 18).

Fig. 18: Poster of activity planning

Scheme ofactivity planning

ActivityWhat?

ResponsibilityWhose?

PartnerWith whom?

Time-spanWhen? Until when?