Model test set up methodology for HDS to improve the understanding of reaction pathways in HDT catalysts David Manuel Paulo Negreiro Thesis to obtain the Master of Science Degree in Chemical Engineering Supervisors Dr. Bertrand Guichard (IFPEN) Prof. Francisco Manuel da Silva Lemos (IST) Examination Committee President: Prof. José Manuel Félix Madeira Lopes (IST) Supervisor: Prof. Francisco Manuel da Silva Lemos (IST) Members of the Committee: Prof. Maria Filipa Gomes Ribeiro (IST) October 2015
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Model test set up methodology for HDS to improve the
understanding of reaction pathways in HDT catalysts
David Manuel Paulo Negreiro
Thesis to obtain the Master of Science Degree in
Chemical Engineering
Supervisors
Dr. Bertrand Guichard (IFPEN)
Prof. Francisco Manuel da Silva Lemos (IST)
Examination Committee
President: Prof. José Manuel Félix Madeira Lopes (IST)
Supervisor: Prof. Francisco Manuel da Silva Lemos (IST)
Members of the Committee: Prof. Maria Filipa Gomes Ribeiro (IST)
October 2015
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iii
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to start by thanking to Prof. Filipa Ribeiro the great opportunity provided for
doing my master thesis at IFPEN. I would also like to thank Joana Fernandes for her support and help
during the beginning of this internship.
To my IFPEN supervisor Dr. Bertrand Guichard, for your availability, patience and helpful advises
for my professional career. I am also very thankful to Véronique Delattre and Nathalie Lett, for all the
formation they gave me and, above all, I am grateful for their kindness, joy, teaching ability and good
humour which made this experience much enriching. To the people from the Catalysis by Sulfides
Department (R066S), for all support they gave me and for the very good working environment.
I want to express my gratitude to Prof. Francisco Lemos, for his support and for believing in my
capabilities.
I would like to specially thank to Fabien, Leonor, Rubén, Sónia, Mafalda, Svetan, Mathieu, Ana
Rita, Max, Leonel, Marisa and Alberto for their support. I also thank to Larissa and Alexis for the
amazing moments we shared together.
A big “thank you!” to my portuguese friends, Ana, Loios, Joana, Casinhas, Catarina, Solange and
Diogo. Thank you for your support, your friendship and, above all, for the great moments we shared
together. You have become undoubtedly my second family. I have also to thank Pedro, for your words
of wisdom about IFPEN and helping me along my internship.
Finally, I would like to thank my family, especially my mother and brother. Your encouragements
and cheering words over these six months made easier the fact of being far away from home. To
Susana, thank you for everything, because even far away you made everything much easier. It would
not be the same without you by my side…
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Abstract
In this present work, the hydrodesulfurization (HDS) of 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene (4,6-DMDBT)
was studied over three CoMo/Al2O3 catalysts (dried, calcined and additive impregnated) in a fixed-bed
reactor under standard conditions close to those usually used in diesel fuel hydrotreating following
particularly the HYD and DDS pathways behaviors.
The main focus was to identify some strong differences in behavior between the various catalysts
and evaluate the effect of H2S, NH3 and H2 partial pressures on their relative catalytic performances.
It was found by experimental and modelling results that, at standard conditions, the additive
impregnated catalyst performs better and was less impacted by H2S adsorption than dried and
calcined. Though, in the presence of high amounts of H2S, the additive impregnated showed to be the
one differing mostly from H2S partial pressure.
In addition, the study on the impact of nitrogen-based compounds (quinoline) revealed that all three
catalysts are similar inhibited.
In the same way, modifying the partial pressure of H2 was found to enhance the activity of all
catalysts, especially the HYD pathway.
A more detailed study and additional experimental tests should be performed in order to improve
the understanding on the relation between quinoline and H2S within the deep HDS of 4,6-DMDBT and
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................... xi
Abbreviation List ............................................................................................................................... xiv
Figure 25 – Molecular modeling results for various sulfur- and nitrogen-containing organic
compounds. The bond order value in bold next to a green symbol indicates the bond with highest bond
order, while the underlined blue number indicates the net electronic charge on the heteroatom in a
given molecule.[36] ................................................................................................................................ 21
xii
Figure 26 – Global activity as function of H2S partial pressure, for 4,6-DMDBT transformation on
CoMo and NiMo catalysts [31] .............................................................................................................. 24
Figure 27 – Overview of the T033 unit ............................................................................................. 30
Figure 28 – Schematic of a VALCO® valve with six ways ................................................................ 31
Figure 29 – Representation of the micro-reactor used in the T033 unit........................................... 32
Figure 30 – Temperature program for the sulfidation process, before each catalytic test ............... 33
Figure 31 – Temperature program for the catalytic test ................................................................... 36
Figure 32 – Schematic of the two reaction pathways for the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT, adapted [32] .... 36
Figure 33 – Kinetic fitting obtained for CoMo-C at standard conditions ........................................... 43
Figure 34 – Selectivity DDS/HYD as function of the total HDS conversion, at 290°C ..................... 46
Figure 35 – Selectivity DDS/HYD as function of the total HDS conversion, at 300°C ..................... 47
Figure 36 – Selectivity DDS/HYD as function of the total HDS conversion, at 310°C ..................... 47
Figure 37 – Ratio DMDCH/MCHT as function of the conversion of DMBPh (HDA), at 310oC ........ 48
Figure 38 – Selectivity DDS/HYD as function of the temperature .................................................... 49
Figure 39 – HYD conversion of 4,6-DMDBT as function of temperature for the three catalysts
prepared. In the graph, full lines represent the 1,2 wt.% DMDS feed and gapped lines represent the 2
Figure 41 – Kinetic fitting obtained for CoMo-B, for Feedstock-2 conditions (2 wt.% DMDS) ......... 52
Figure 42 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppH2S) for HYD ......................................................................... 55
Figure 43 – ln(ko) as function of ln (ppH2S) for HDA ........................................................................ 55
Figure 44 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppH2S) for DDS ......................................................................... 55
Figure 45 – H2S inhibition factor for CoMo-A, CoMo-B and CoMo-C. These results took into
account the results obtained at standard conditions and Feedstock-2 ................................................. 56
Figure 46 – HYD conversion of 4,6-DMDBT as function of temperature for the three catalysts
prepared. In the graph, full lines represent the 0,5 wt.% Quinoline model approximation and gapped
lines represent the 1,0 wt.% Quinoline (standard conditions). .............................................................. 58
Figure 47 – DDS conversion of 4,6-DMDBT as function of temperature for the three catalysts
prepared. In the graph, full lines represent the 0,5% Quinoline model approximation and gapped lines
represent the 1,0% Quinoline (standard conditions). ............................................................................ 59
Figure 48 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT using CoMo-B - 0,5% quinoline .... 60
Figure 49 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT using CoMo-C - 1,5% quinoline .... 60
Figure 50 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppNH3) for HYD ......................................................................... 63
Figure 51 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppNH3) for HDA ......................................................................... 63
Figure 52 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppNH3) for DDS ......................................................................... 63
Figure 53 – Overall NH3 inhibition factor comparing standard conditions (1 wt.% Quinoline) with
both 0,5 wt.% and 1,5 wt.% Quinoline ................................................................................................... 65
xiii
Figure 54 – HYD pathway conversion as a function of the temperature for different catalysts and
total pressures ....................................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 55 – DDS pathway conversion as a function of the temperature for different catalysts and
total pressures ....................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 56 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT using CoMo-C, at 40 bar .............. 68
Figure 57 – Effect of H2 partial pressure on the selectivity of HDS over the prepared catalysts, for
Figure 58 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppH2) for HYD ........................................................................... 70
Figure 59 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppH2) for HDA ........................................................................... 71
Figure 60 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppH2) for DDS ........................................................................... 71
Figure 61 – H2 activation factor on the three catalysts tested (global activity, see Eq. 27) ............. 72
Figure 62 – Relative differences in activity for HYD reaction between the three catalysts .............. 74
Figure 63 – Relative differences in activity for the DDS reaction between the three catalysts ........ 75
Figure 64 – Example of a GC chromatogram .................................................................................. 82
Figure 65 - Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-B at standard conditions ......................... 83
Figure 66 - Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-A at standard conditions ......................... 83
Figure 67 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-C at 2 wt.% DMDS ................................. 84
Figure 68 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-A at 2 wt.% DMDS ................................. 84
Figure 69 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-A at 0,5 wt.% Quinoline ......................... 85
Figure 70 - Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-C at 0,5 wt.% Quinoline .......................... 85
Figure 71 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-A at 1,5 wt.% Quinoline ......................... 85
Figure 72 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-B at 1,5 wt.% Quinoline ......................... 86
Figure 73 - Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-B at 40 bar .............................................. 86
Figure 74 - Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of CoMo-A at 40 bar .............................................. 86
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Abbreviation List
CoMo/Al2O3 – CoMo catalyst supported over alumina
DBT – Dibenzothiophene
DDS – Direct desulfurization
DFT – Density Functional Theory
DMBPh – Dimethylbiphenyl
DMDCH - Dimethyldicyclohexyl
DMDS – Dimethyl disulfide
E2 – Elimination reaction
GC – Gas Chromatography
HDA – Hydrodearomatization
HDN – Hydrodenitrogenation
HDS – Hydrodesulfurization
HYD – Hydrogenation
H2S – Hydrogen sulfide
LHSV – Liquid Hourly Space Velocity
MCHT – Methylcyclohexyltoluene
ppH2S – Hydrogen sulfide partial pressure
ppH2 – Hydrogen partial pressure
ppNH3 – Ammonia partial pressure
ppQuinoline – Quinoline partial pressure
SiC – Silicon carbide
SCR – Selective Catalytic Reduction
STM – Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
4,6-DMDBT – 4,6-Dimethyldibenzothiophene
wt.% – Percentage weight fraction
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1
1 Introduction
In order to decrease pollution caused by automobile vehicles, the sulfur content in diesel fuel has
been drastically reduced over the years as witnesses the restrictive regulations. However, refining
industries are processing heavier feedstocks and facing an increasing demand of diesel/gasoline, so
the need for more efficient hydrodesulfurization (HDS) catalysts is required, i.e. low sulfur product at
even highest LHSV (the HDS process taking place in fixed bed reactors).
The commercial catalysts commonly used for HDS reactions are molybdenum sulfides promoted
by cobalt or nickel and supported over alumina. Those catalysts are well known and the way to
prepare them is well monitored. Nevertheless, if one aims to improve their performances, it is now
necessary to identify precisely the limitations. It can be achieved by characterizing deeply the catalyst,
using powerful tools or by carrying a kinetic study to identify the main limitation/inhibiting/activating
parameters. To do so, it is necessary to evaluate the catalyst in representative conditions witnessing
the way it will have to work in real conditions. The feedstocks being too much complicated, the matrix
needs to be simplified and adapted to the goals.
The main compounds contained into the feedstock are generally aromatics, olefins, nitrogen and
sulfides and the catalysts will simultaneously have to perform hydrogenation, hydrodesulfurization and
hydrodenitrogenation reactions. All those reactions improve the feed quality but could also be
competitive ones. That is why if one aims to study the reactivity, all those compounds would need to
be introduced in the model feed. Indeed studying separately the HDS could lead to a wrong
interpretation.
In the HDS of middle distillates, as sulfur conversion increases the remaining species are mostly
dibenzothiophenes. These compounds, such as 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene (4,6-DMDBT), are the
most refractory compounds, since they are very difficult to decompose. These compounds are
converted through two distinct pathways namely, Hydrogenation (HYD) and Direct Desulfurization
(DDS).Furthermore, the presence of the methyl groups on 4,6-DMDBT highly limits the reactivity and
leads the HDS to selectively process through the hydrogenating route compared to the DDS one.
Moreover, there is a high interest to obtain the best catalysts and operating conditions to achieve
HDS trough the DDS pathway since it consumes less hydrogen than HYD.
The objective of this work is focused on the comprehension of the HDS mechanism on various
representatives CoMo catalyst types in order to study the deep HDS of middle distillates in the range
of operating conditions dedicated to the low pressure HDS (i.e. around 30-50 bar with CoMo
catalysts). The inhibiting and activating effects should be taken into account by modifying some of the
working conditions (temperature, LHSV, pressure). The partial pressure in H2S and NH3 will be
monitored trough DMDS and quinoline incorporation into the prepared feedstocks, respectively.
For every conditions, there was a mixture of model molecules, in the presence of 4,6-DMDBT, with
the purpose to discriminate the catalytic performance of each CoMo-based catalyst and to compare it
to the well-established ranking provided by the real feed evaluation. The aim is to point out some
strong differences in behavior between the various catalysts and to go deeper in the comparison than
2
the direct ranking provided by diesel HDS, i.e. supplying activation energy, inhibition effects and
changes according to the HDS conversion or partial pressure. Thus, this work should lead to propose
the best conditions for each type of catalyst and also to improve their way of working induced by the
preparation methodology.
3
2 Bibliographic Study
2.1 Context
Today, energy is a mix of multiple resources, as we are able to convert them in many ways in order
to power high-consuming societies.
In the past few decades, the world energy market has entered in a period of dynamic changes due
to the economic growth in developed and developing countries. It led to a rapid growth in primary
energy. As it can be seen in Figure 1, the resource that plays a vital role in order to successfully
satisfy this demand is oil, as it was representing 33% of the world’s energy consumption in 2013 [1].
Figure 1 – Yearly evolution of world consumption of primary energy [1]
Therefore, as crude oil exploitation is one of the most pollutant activities worldwide, environmental
protection, cleaner fuels have been required.
Practically, the sulfur released to the atmosphere has to be controlled and lowered as much as
possible because this compound is responsible for many environmental problems such as production
of acid rains which cause the acidification of soils, lakes and streams, and accelerates corrosion of
buildings and monuments.
This environmental phenomenon is produced by the reaction of water molecules, present in the
atmosphere, with SOx produced within the diesel engine. The reaction is described as follows:
(Eq. 1)
(Eq. 2)
4
Furthermore, as one can see in Figure 2, the percentage shares of oil demand is mainly constituted
by the transportation and industrial sectors. In the next decades the percentage share taken by the
industrial sector will suffer a minor decrease of 2%, contrasting with the 4% increase within the
transportation sector.
Figure 2 – World`s percentage shares of oil demand by sector in 2011 and 2040, [2]
Moreover, post-combustion catalyst used to reduce NOx emission and massively introduced in the
automobile engines (SCR systems) are very sensitive to poisoning by sulfur so it strengthened the
need to reduce the sulfur amount in commercial diesels.
Taking into account that crude oil quality decreases over the years, the sulfur content tends to
increase thus regulatory specifications will be harder to satisfy. Furthermore, in Figure 3, it is possible
to see that in developed countries the maximum sulfur limit allowed is from 10 to 15 ppm (m/m%) but
the same level is expected in the coming years or decades in developing countries [2].
Figure 3 – Representation of the maximum sulfur limit for diesel all over the world (2014) [2]
5
2.2 Overview on hydrotreatment process
As crude oil quality decreases the need for new technologies capable of producing cleaner and
better fuels is a continuous challenge for process engineering companies. Indeed, in modern refineries
HDT units are the most common process units. The typical composition of unprocessed crude oil is
shown in Table 1.
Table 1 – Typical composition of crude oil, [3]
Element Percentage (%)
Carbon 84 - 87
Hydrogen 11 - 14
Nitrogen 0,1 – 1,0
Oxygen 0,1 - 0,5
Sulfur 0,5 - 6
Metals < 0,1
As one can see in Table 1, sulfur is the main contaminant within crude oil. On one hand,
sulphurous compounds are “poisonous” but, on the other hand, as reported by Rana et al.[4],
nitrogenous compounds lead to catalyst inhibition even at minute concentrations. Therefore,
hydrotreatment to remove sulfur and nitrogen is usually applied in many sections in the refinery as
shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 – Schematic of a typical oil refinery [5]
6
Usually, the HDS process takes place in a catalytic fixed-bed reactor in presence of hydrogen gas
and the liquid feedstock to be “processed”. The typical operating conditions for the hydrotreatment
process depend on the feedstock reactivity, composition and with the product`s specifications. In
Table 2 are shown the operating conditions used in past as well as the conditions used nowadays.
As one can see, the conditions used in current days are much more “aggressive” (especially for
hydrogen pressure and LHSV) due to the increasing amount of sulfur and other contaminants present
in crude oil, as already mentioned, and to the lower limits that are imposed by legislation.
Table 2 – General hydroprocessing conditions used in industry, [6]
A typical flow diagram of a two reactors HDT process in which the feedstock and hydrogen gas are
supplied from the top of the reactor is shown in Figure 5.
There are two types of hydrotreatment processes, the single and the two or multiple-staged
processes [7].
With the increasingly stringent regulations on diesel oil, a lot of attention has been paid to reduce
sulfur content of distillate fuels. The two-stage process is an upgrade of the conventional
hydrotreatment process, since it removes the hydrogen sulfide and ammonia produced in the first
reactor, enhancing the reactivity within the second reactor. Therefore, with staged processes, high
decomposition of sulfur and nitrogen-based compounds are easier to achieve.
7
Figure 5 – Once-through hydroprocessing unit: two separators and recycle gas scrubber, [7]
As there are many types of compounds to be decomposed or removed, the choice of the catalyst is
therefore crucial to the process. So, to meet the required specifications, HDT catalysts have to be
efficient in order to accomplished hydrodesulfurization (HDS), hydrodenitrogenation (HDN) and
hydrodearomatization (HDA) reactions.
Typically, the reactor (Figure 6) consists in more than one catalytic bed depending on the impurities
found in the feedstock and operating conditions such as the liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV). In
these reactors several reactions are found in order to remove the sulfur and nitrogen-based
compounds. In order to avoid cracking reactions and to maximize the quality of the liquid fuels
produced, quenching hydrogen gas is commonly injected at various points along the reactor to cool
down the reaction temperature because HDT reactions are highly exothermic. Liquid-phased products
are additionally fractionated according to their boiling points into the required products in a column
according to their boiling points.
Figure 6 – Scheme of the top of a hydrotreatment reactor, [7]
8
2.3 Diesel: specifications and characteristics
To better understand why HDT is important to produce a high quality diesel, it is essential to know
the main characteristics and specifications for this fuel.
Diesel is a fuel produced from crude oil and consists mainly of aliphatic and some aromatics
hydrocarbons comprising, normally, 13-25 carbon atoms with boiling points in the range of 230-380°C
[8]. Moreover, diesel is an oil fraction heavier than gasoline, with lower H/C mass ratio.
The properties and reactivity of diesel feeds, composed mainly of paraffins and aromatics, are
deeply dependent on their source.
In Europe, the latest specifications imposed in 2009 were mainly pointed to decrease the sulfur
content on diesel fuels. In Table 3 are shown the main specifications for diesel composition. The other
one is directly linked to its use in the diesel engine.
Table 3 – Specifications for diesel fuel [9]
Generally, diesel quality is essentially related to its cetane number. Hence, the higher n-paraffinic
and naphthenic content, the greater will be the quality of the diesel produced.
Moreover, additives are generally added to reach better properties depending on the purpose and
country, such as to lower the freezing point, which is essential in some countries where the
temperatures are very low during winter.
9
2.4 HDS Catalysts
The catalysts used in the hydrotreatment process contain a metal sulfide usually molybdenum
promoted with either nickel or cobalt, supported over a refractory oxide carrier (e.g. alumina). To
minimize diffusion limitations and the process pressure drop, these catalysts must have a certain
shape. The most commonly used are generally trilobe shaped pellets, spheres and rings (Figure 7).
Figure 7 – Typical shapes of catalysts – (A and B) trilobe and cylindrical pellets, (C) spheres, (D) rings, [10]
For industrial purposes, the most commonly used support is γ-alumina since:
- it provides a greater surface area (230-350 m
2/g) than other supports
[11];
- it allows to maximize the dispersion of the active phase, due to its acid-basicity properties;
- and exhibits a high mechanical strength [12].
The preparation of a HDT catalyst (Figure 8) involves several steps, including:
Impregnation – the impregnation solution is added to the support;
Maturation – guarantees that the solution is well dispersed into the support pores;
Drying – remove the excess of solvent from the support.
Figure 8 – Different steps of hydrotreating catalyst synthesis and life [8]
(A) (B) (C) (D)
10
These steps can be complemented by an optional calcination which was frequently performed
before but is less common nowadays. An additivation step is also usual to be realized in order to
promote the catalytic activity of the HDT catalyst. This step can be accomplished, for instance, with a
glycol molecule [8]. Then, the catalysts are sulfided, leading to the active state.
2.4.1 Sulfidation process
HDT catalysts might be subjected to a sulfidation process in order to form the active phase. This
step of transformation from oxide to sulfide (and with molybdenum reduction) plays a crucial role in
what concerns to the catalytic activity and the catalysts stability during hydrotreatment reactions.
As this transformation is exothermic, temperature has to be carefully controlled in order to avoid
“poisonous” side reactions, i.e. metallic oxide reduction by hydrogen and coke formation, which would
reduce the catalytic activity (Figure 9).
Figure 9 – Schematic representation of the sulfidation process of a CoMo/γ-Al2O3 catalyst, [13]
Due to handling and loading problems associated with the active sulfided form, hydrotreating
catalysts are typically produced and shipped in their inactive form. Then, in order to be used these
catalysts must be first activated by a sulfidation agent, promoting the O–S exchange. This process is
performed using either a gas mixture of H2S/H2, an organo-sulfidation agent like dimethyl disulfide
(DMDS) or even directly the diesel feedstock to be desulfurized [14].
When DMDS is used, it decomposes into CH4 and H2S, which the latter acts as the actual
sulfidation agent. As one can see in Figure 10, Texier et al. [14] observed that using organo-sulfide
compounds like DMDS slightly increases the catalytic specific activity.
Hence, it has been stated that a correct activation of hydrotreating catalysts depends greatly on
temperature and H2S proportion.
11
Figure 10 – Evolution of the activity versus time on stream during the HDS of DBT on NiMo/Al2O3 [14]
Moreover, Hallie [15] reported that the use of organo-sulfide agents (such as DMDS) increases the
HDS activity of VGO (Vacuum Gas Oil) by as much as 60% when compared to a gas-phase H2/H2S
sulfidation procedure particularly for CoMo/Al2O3 catalysts.
All these results underline the key role of the sulfidation step in the catalytic performances.
2.4.2 Non-promoted catalysts: MoS2/Al2O3
In HDT processes, most part of the catalysts used are based in molybdenum sulfide. This is why
one first describes the non-promoted catalysts.
These catalysts are constituted by a well dispersed active phase of MoS2 on an alumina surface
whose the primary unit cell consists in a single hexagonal slab. Every single slab exhibits the same
structure, where molybdenum ions are coordinated with six sulfur ions in a trigonal-prismatic
configuration. Also, the slabs interact with each other by Van der Waals forces, creating a layered
structure with interposed molybdenum between two layers of sulfur atoms.
In addition, depending on the crystallographic plan terminating the obtained structure exhibits two
types of edges, either Mo-edges or S-edges as evidenced in Figure 11.
Figure 11 – Top and side views of a MoS2 cluster [16]
12
Both edges can lose a sulfur atom by reaction with hydrogen. The resulting vacancies lead to the
exposure of Mo-cations, and are known as coordinately unsaturated sites (CUS). CUS are “deficient”
in electrons and thus interact with electron donor compounds (Eq. 3).
(Eq. 3)
These sites are capable of adsorbing organosulfur compounds, which will bond to the unsaturated
Mo ions creating a metal-sulfur bond, becoming more active in HDS reactions [8]. Nevertheless, some
thermodynamic calculations show that this is not the only way to react for sulfur compounds.
Raybaud et al. [17] studied the morphology of MoS2 catalysts and observed that it depends on the
sulfidation conditions, such as temperature and partial pressure of H2 and H2S. It is the relative
thermodynamic stability of the two types of edges (under specific conditions) that determines the
morphology of the MoS2 nanoclusters. Under strongly sulfidation conditions (high H2S partial
pressures) triangular-shaped MoS2 particles should be obtained, whereas under more reducing
conditions the MoS2 particles might exhibit a hexagonal shape. Lauritsen et al. [18] observed these
two possible shapes for MoS2 nanoclusters by STM imaging of MoS2/Au (Figure 12).
Figure 12 – STM images of triangular (A) and hexagonal (B) MoS2 nanocluster [18]
2.4.3 Promoted catalysts: CoMo/Al2O3
Since the activity of CoMo catalysts will be the main subject of this work, they will be described in
more detail.
As observed by Bataille et al. [19], for the decomposition of DBT and 4,6-DMDBT (the most difficult
compounds to decompose) the overall catalytic activity increases from 0,4 to 7,2 and 0,65 to 2,3 mol.h-
1.kg
-1, respectively, when Co is added to Mo/Al2O3. Moreover, this increase is not homogenous for
both compounds since their main reaction pathway, as further discussed, is different.
However, cobalt by itself does not present any activity, which is why it is considered a promoter of
MoS2 activity [20]. It is also believed that the substitution of Mo by Co atoms at S-edges enhances the
formation of sulfur vacancies, CUS [21].
Although there are many attempts to describe the structure of these Co promoted catalysts,
Topsøe et al. [6]
have proposed the mixed phase "CoMoS" model, which is currently the most accepted
model.
13
As one can see in Figure 13, cobalt and molybdenum are dispersed into different structures at the
catalyst surface [8]. During the sulfidation process, there are cobalt atoms, which react with sulfur
atoms resulting on Co9S8 crystallites (Co-sulfide phase). Other cobalt atoms, influenced by the
calcination stage of the catalyst preparation, occupy tetrahedral sites inside the catalyst support
(Co/Al2O3). Finally, there is also the molybdate species, which remain from the precursor, will be
dispersed along the catalyst surface.
Figure 13 – Structural illustration of different structures present in a sulfided CoMo/Al2O3 catalyst [8]
The mentioned Co9S8 crystallites do not present any catalytic activity, therefore their formation has
to be minimized in order to produce selectively the active catalytically structure CoMoS. The formation
of all these structures must be controlled all along the catalysts preparation steps, including
impregnation and maturation. In Figure 14, one can observe how the quantity of cobalt impregnated in
the support influences the formation of each individual phase of cobalt.
Figure 14 – Co distribution on the sulfide CoMo/Al2O3 catalyst [20]
As can be seen, adding Co to a given support leads to an increasing amount of the CoMoS phase
up to a certain Co/Mo ratio. As Co increases, the edge positions will be occupied until certain point
when all these positions are completely filled and, then Co atoms will start to form Co9S8 crystallites.
This is a complex set of transformations, which is difficult to monitor, as there are many geometrical
14
and structural constraints, which will limit the CoMoS phase amount that is formed. Therefore, for high
Co/Mo ratios the HDS activity decreases. Raybaud et al. [22] have proposed, based on DFT
simulations, that the final morphology of MoS2 structures is influenced by cobalt atoms since their
presence changes the shape of the MoS2 slabs. Actually, it would be explained by the fact that cobalt
would be incorporated into the S-edges of MoS2 particles, which would enhance the stabilization of the
S-edges relatively to the situation of pure MoS2.
In Figure 15, are shown the structural modifications on the active phase from a MoS2 to a CoMoS
nanocluster.
Figure 15 – Schematic of the (a) MoS2 and (b) CoMoS active phases (adapted). The yellow spheres represent sulfur atoms, purple spheres represent molybdenum, and finally, green spheres represent cobalt [22]
Concerning the added promoter, it is believed that the substitution of Mo by Co atoms at S-edges
increases the formation of sulfur vacancies and creates new and more active sites. Indeed, it is
assumed that Co-S bond is weaker than the Mo-S bond, thus vacancy formation is expected to be
much easier. Also, it is known that Co increases the electronic density on the sulfur atoms, enhancing
the basicity of specific S2-
centers important to HDS reactions.
Indeed, it is possible to relate the S-Metal bonding energy (EM-S) with catalytic activity, using the
volcano curve (Figure 16) proposed by Raybaud et al. [23].
Figure 16 –HDS rate of DBT as function of the computed EM-S [23]
15
In Figure 16, it is possible to verify that CoMoS phase present an optimal EM-S (which corresponds
to the maximum activities), contrary of what happens to Co9S8.
Moreover, Besenbacher et al. [21] reported that the support interacts with the active phase,
influencing the catalyst activity. Further studies suggested a relation between the catalyst structure
and activity [24]. Thus, it was proposed that CoMoS has two distinct types - Type I (with low catalytic
activity) and Type II (with high catalytic activity).
On one hand, Type I structures are known to be incompletely sulfided, presenting bonds with the
support. These bonds correspond to the interaction between Mo and the surface of the alumina
support which produces monolayer-type structures thus influencing the catalytic properties of CoMoS.
On the other hand, Type II structures have the same interactions with the support, as Type I,
however they are much weaker, therefore the sulfidation of Mo and Co is easier. This CoMoS-type
presents a multilayered slab structure.
Furthermore, it has been reported the existence of S-H groups as an active site, created due the
adsorption of hydrogen on the S-edge. It is believed that these sites play an important role in
hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis reactions since the evidence of adsorption of sulfur containing
molecules, as well as the dissociation reaction of H2 seems to occur [25] [26].
2.5 Main compounds in HDT
In the HDT process, all reactions take place in the liquid phase. The compounds to be converted
diffuse through the liquid feed, filing the catalyst pores and adsorb on the catalyst surface where
reactions take place.
Generally, crude oil contains a huge amount of organosulfur compounds as they can be divided
into two main families: the non-heterocyclic and the heterocyclic compounds. On one hand, non-
heterocyclic compounds include mercaptans, sulfides and disulfides. On the other hand, heterocyclic
compounds have sulfur atoms within the cyclic structure (e.g. thiophene) and others with adjacent
aromatic rings and alkyl groups. In Figure 17 are shown examples of non-heterocyclic and
heterocyclic structures, which are converted within HDT reactions.
Figure 17 – Organosulfur compounds converted in HDT reactions [27]
Besides sulfur compounds, organic-nitrogenous compounds are also found in crude oil. Depending
on its origin, crude may contain amounts of these compounds between 0,1% and 1,0% (wt.%) [28].
This nitrogen content appears in crude oil especially in the form of nitrogen-containing polycyclic
aromatic rings, such as quinoline, indole, acridine and carbazole (Figure 18). These nitrogen-based
16
compounds are divided in basic and non-basic which thus influences their reactivity (basic compounds
adsorb easily and will compete severely with the sulfur compound to be desulfurized).
Figure 18 – Main organic-nitrogen compounds found in pre-treated crude oil. Underlined compounds represent the non-
basic nitrogen compounds and the others represent basic-nitrogen compounds
2.5.1 Reactivity of sulfur compounds
As illustrated in Figure 19, the reactivity of the sulfur compounds depends highly on the molecule
structure. Thus, thiols, sulfides and disulfides are easier to be converted compared to heterocyclic
compounds. Moreover, the overall reactivity decreases with the increasing number of aromatic rings.
Figure 19 – Organosulfur reactivity in HDS process as function of aromatic ring sizes and positions of alkyl substitutions
[29]
17
Song et al. [29] reported that when sulfur level in diesel is reduced to 30 ppm, the residual
compounds are essentially alkyl-dibenzothiophenes, such as 4-MDBT and 4,6-DMDBT. These
compounds exhibit a low HDS reactivity.
In fact, the low reactivity of 4,6-DMDBT could be explained by the steric hindrance caused by the
methyl groups and also by the electronic factors around the sulfur atom even if the demonstration has
never been provided.
Ultra-deep HDS of diesel fuel is thus a huge challenge since the lower is the sulfur composition of
the crude oil, the more difficult is the HDS and because the heavier feedstocks that have to be used
nowadays contain the highest alkyl-dibenzothiophenes proportions. Therefore it becomes important to
improve the catalysts activity towards refractory compounds such as 4,6-DMDBT.
2.5.2 4,6-DMDBT HDS pathways
As established by many authors [6]
[19], it is known that the HDS of DBT-type compounds occurs
by two parallel pathways – hydrogenation (HYD) and direct desulfurization (DDS) (Figure 19).
HYD pathway implies that the molecule undergoes numerous hydrogenation reactions before the
intended sulfur removal, while DDS pathway goes through the direct elimination of sulfur, producing
biphenyl-type compounds.
Figure 20 – Scheme of the reaction pathways of the hydrodesulfurization of 4,6-DMDBT – HYD on the left and DDS on the
right, [30]
18
The final products obtained for the hydrogenation pathway are methylcyclohexyltoluene (MCHT)
and dimethyldicyclohexyl (DMDCH). For the DDS pathway the main final product is dimethylbiphenyl
(DMBPh) [30].
There are several intermediate products involved in the 4,6-DMDBT conversion but they are not
always observed due to their high reactivity.
Bataille et al. [19] have suggested that 4,6-DMDBT conversion starts with its partial hydrogenation
to form a dihydrointermediate. This first step is considered to be the most difficult step as it partially
saturates the benzene ring. In general, nine isomers of dihydrointermediates may be formed by 1,2 or
1,4-addition of two hydrogen atoms. However, compounds formed by 1,4-addition are not favored as
the double bonds present in their aromatic ring are not conjugated which means that electrons
cannot be delocalized over the electronic system. In Bataille et al. [19] proposed mechanism, there is
a same first intermediary compound.
For the HYD pathway, the different steps which 4,6-DMDBT undergoes are shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21 – Scheme reaction for HYD pathway adapted from [19]
1. Firstly, dihydroisomers is hydrogenated, producing tetrahydroisomers;
2. Secondly, an elimination reaction leads to the first C-S bond cleavage;
3. The second aromatic ring is partially hydrogenated (1,2-addition of two hydrogen atoms);
4. Then, a second elimination reaction breaks the second C-S bond, thus forming MCHT;
5. Finally, hydrogenation of MCHT can occur, producing DMDCH.
In the DDS route, the vicinity of the sulfur atom must not contain a double bond in order to directly
break the C-S bond by an elimination step. To respect this configuration, only two of the
dihydrointermediates over the nine possible can be converted through this route. The next steps can
be considered for the DDS pathway, as illustrated on Figure 22.
Figure 22 – Scheme reaction for DDS pathway adapted from [19]
1. An elimination reaction leads to the first C-S bond cleavage;
2. The second aromatic ring is partially hydrogenated (1,2 addition of two hydrogen atoms);
3. A final elimination reaction performs the second C-S bond cleavage, consequently forming
DMBPh.
Finally, Bataille et al. [19] suggested that the catalytic sites, responsible for the hydrogenation and
the C-S bond cleavage, are basically the same, namely that they are made of sulfur vacancies
19
associated to neighboring sulfur anions (Figure 23). In this hypothesis, HYD and DDS sites would only
differ in the availability of adsorbed hydrogen and in the basicity of the associated sulfur anions.
Figure 23 – Schematic examples of a hydrogenation (A) and C-S bond cleavage (B) sites [19]
On one hand, the hydrogenation site would be composed by:
- a vacancy (CUS);
- associated with a SH group
- and with a hydrogen atom (adsorbed on a Mo atom).
So, the vacancy should adsorb the substrate and the neighbouring SH- group associated with the H
atom should undergo an immediate hydrogenation reaction.
On the other hand, the C-S bond cleavage site, which may be involved in the elimination step of
the proposed DDS route, would be then composed by:
- two vacancies (CUS)
- associated with a S2-
anion.
Subsequently, one vacancy should adsorb the substrate (e.g. 4,6-DMDBT), as the second retains
the sulfur atom. Subsequently, the sulfur anion should act as a basic site to favour the elimination
reaction and directly breaks the C-S bond.
(A)
Hydrogenation site C-S bond cleavage site
(B)
20
2.6 Inhibition effect
According to Prins et al.[31], HDS reactions are commonly inhibited by compounds such as H2S
and NH3. On one hand, the presence of H2S during diesel hydrotreatment is inevitable, since it is
produced from sulfur compounds decomposition and is necessary to remain in a sulfided form. On the
other hand, NH3 is a product of the hydrodenitrogenation (HDN) of compounds such as quinoline and
carbazole, which occurs within the HDT reactors and so is often inevitable.
2.6.1 Ammonia
As reported by Kwak et al. [32], HDS is markedly suppressed by the presence of nitrogen-type
compounds such as quinoline and carbazole, even at low concentrations.
In Figure 24 is reported the concentration of products formed in the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT in
presence of different concentrations of basic and non-basic nitrogenous compounds, carbazole and
quinoline, respectively.
Figure 24 – HDS of 4,6-DMDBT (green) DDS and HYD concentration product (blue and red, respectively), [32] Adapted
As one can see, the 4,6-DMDBT conversion decreases when small amounts of both nitrogen
compounds are present and drops to near 40% and 38% when using 650 ppm of carbazole or 500
ppm of quinoline in the feedstock, respectively. The inhibiting effect of quinoline is higher than the one
imposed by carbazole, as smaller quantities of the basic-nitrogen compound is added have nearly the
same effect on 4,6-DMDBT conversion when using higher concentrations of the non-basic one.
Hence, as reported by literature [30] [33]
[34], basic-nitrogen compounds inhibit much more HDS
reactions than basic-nitrogen compounds.
To further explain how nitrogen-based compounds influence each HDS pathway (HYD and DDS),
Ma et al. [34] have correlated by molecular modeling calculations the bond order and net electronic
21
charge on the heteroatoms for nitrogen- and sulfur-containing organic compounds typically found in
diesel and jet fuel feedstocks.
The bond order and net electronic charge on the heteroatom have been associated to the activity
for hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis, respectively. Among a set of molecules, it is expected that:
- the molecule having a bond with the highest order is expected to have the greatest reactivity for
hydrogenation.
- the molecule having the highest electronic charge is expected to have the greatest reactivity for
hydrogenolysis. Figure 25 depicts the bond order for each molecules considered.
Figure 25 – Molecular modeling results for various sulfur- and nitrogen-containing organic compounds. The bond order value in bold next to a green symbol indicates the bond with highest bond order, while the underlined blue number indicates the
net electronic charge on the heteroatom in a given molecule.[35]
The decreasing order of this bond is reflected in the following classification of the molecules in
Figure 25:
Acridine > Quinoline > Carbazole > 4,6-DMDBT
Quinoline, by virtue of having a bond with the highest bond order as compared to those in
carbazole and 4,6-DMDBT, for instance, could be expected to have the highest reactivity for
hydrogenation. In other words, quinoline would be the first to undergo HYD reaction. Furthermore,
quinoline could also be expected to adsorb first and more strongly inhibit a hydrogenation site in a
catalyst.
Moreover, Satterfield et al. [36] also reported that secondary amines (reaction intermediates)
produced by the decomposition of quinoline have a strong adsorption into the catalyst hydrogenation
sites.
22
The net charge on the heteroatom in the molecules listed in Figure 25 decreased in the following
order:
4,6-DMDBT > Carbazole > Acridine > Quinoline
The sulfur atom in 4,6-DMDBT possesses a higher electronic charge than the nitrogen atoms in
carbazole and quinoline. Consequently, 4,6-DMDBT would have a much higher tendency to undergo
hydrogenolysis as compared to carbazole or quinoline. So DDS would be poorly inhibited by quinoline.
Thus, due to the net charge, DDS would be less inhibited by NH3 than HYD.
To summarize the available data, in Table 4 are reported the various observations and conclusions
from the literature on the inhibition effect caused by NH3 on HDT catalysts. It is clear from this Table
that nitrogen compounds are very strong inhibitors for HDS of DBT or 4,6-DMDBT.
There are still some disagreements in the literature concerning the inhibition of HYD or DDS
pathways. It could probably be due to many experimental differences (feedstock composition,
operating conditions and catalysts).
23
Table 4 – List of the results obtained in literature for NH3 inhibition
Publication Reactant studied
Catalysts
Operating Conditions Observations
Type Composition
9
4,6-DMDBT
NiMo/Al2O3
CoMo/Al2O3
3,0%/4,0% NiO/CoO
16,0%/19,0% MoO3
2,6% P2O5
P = 25, 40, 55 bar
Temperature = 340°C
DDS centers are less sensitive to nitrogen-basic compounds than HYD sites.
[37] CoMo/Al2O3
4,0% CoO
16,0% MoO3
2,6% P2O5
P = 30 bar
Temperature = 330ºC
In presence of quinoline, HDS is greatly inhibited. Quinoline undergoes HYD easily thus inhibits
hydrogenation sites faster.
[35] CoMo/Al2O3 5,8% CoO
27,0% MoO3
P = 45 bar
Temperature = 350°C Quinoline inhibits HYD sites primarily than DDS sites.
[38] DBT
4,6-DMDBT
CoMo/Al2O3
NiMo/Al2O3
3,0% CoO/NiO
16,0% MoO3
P = 50 bar
Temperature = 300 to 340°C
Amines strongly decrease the 4,6-DMDBT global HDS rate and especially the HYD pathway.
[32]
DBT
4-MDBT
4,6-DMDBT
CoMo/Al2O3 4,0% CoO
17,0% MoO3
P = 40 bar
Temperature = 320°C
Basic-nitrogen compounds inhibit 4,6-DMDBT global HDS even at low concentrations. Inhibition of
quinoline is higher on DDS than HYD.
24
2.6.2 Hydrogen sulfide
Concerning H2S, Rabarihoela-Rakotovao et al.[30] have clearly established the unavoidable impact
of this molecule as it is a by-product of HDT reactions. Moreover, H2S is essential to maintain the
sulfided state of HDT catalysts.
Generally, H2S is admitted to have an inhibition effect on hydrotreating reactions however,
discrepancies remain on its influence on the two consider routes (HYD and DDS) of HDS of DBT-type
compounds.
Which types of active sites are subjected to H2S poisoning and in which step of the reactions is not
clear either. Some point out electronic changes or active sites variations with H2S partial pressure,
related to nature or/and number, as well as mechanism and kinetics reasons have been proposed in
order to explain the influence of H2S, and, thereby theoretical investigations were also carried out
[19][39][40].
As shown by Rabarihoela-Rakotovao et al. [30] in Figure 26, the activity for NiMo or CoMo catalysts
differ depending on the H2S partial pressure used on the catalytic test.
Figure 26 – Global activity as function of H2S partial pressure, for 4,6-DMDBT transformation on CoMo and NiMo catalysts [31]
However, there may be two ways for H2S to inhibit the HDS reactions. As reported by Besenbacher
et al. [21], H2S is possible adsorbed on the sulfur vacancies, and, as they seem to be the sites for the
C-S bond break, DDS pathway is then more impacted than HYD. The second effect is related to the
available S2-
atoms in the S-edge, which will be protonated by H2S, which has Brönsted acid
properties, lowering their basicity and consequently their reactivity [19].
25
Finally, in relation with the objectives of deep HDS, the effect of H2S on the activity of hydrotreating
catalysts is a very important issue in industrial practice. As already seen, depending on the sulfur
content in the feed and on the operating conditions, the choice of the catalyst may be crucial. And the
choice could also depend on the position into the reactor.
To further describe the understanding on the influence of H2S partial pressure on the 4,6-DMDBT
HDS, other observations are reported Table 5 and Table 6.
From those results, DDS is always more inhibited by H2S compared to HYD and no promoting
effect has ever been observed.
26
Table 5 – List of the results obtained in literature for H2S inhibition
Publication Reactant studied
Catalysts
Operating Conditions Observations
Type Composition
[41]
DBT
4,6-DMDBT
NiMo/Al2O3
2,9% NiO
15,3% MoO3
P = 50 bar
ppH2S = 0 to 0,88 bar
Temperature = 200 to 320°C
H2S may be adsorbed on to the hydrogenolysis sites (DDS)
of 4,6-DMDBT more strongly than into hydrogenation sites
(HYD).
[42] CoMo/Al2O3
NiMo/Al2O3
3,0% CoO/NiO
16,0% MoO3
P = 50 bar
ppH2S = 0 to 1,00 bar
Temperature = 340°C
HDS reactivity, and the selectivity between DDS and HYD
pathways depend on the competitive adsorption between
the reactant (DBT or 4,6-DMDBT) and H2S. Some
adsorption conformation data are provided to explain that
DDS should be more inhibited than HYD.
[30] CoMo/Al2O3
NiMo/Al2O3
3,0%/4,0% NiO/CoO
16,0%/19,0% MoO3
2,6% P2O5
P = 25, 40, 55 bar
ppH2S = 0,058 to 1,00 bar
Temperature = 300 to 340°C
H2S would adsorb preferentially on the DDS centers of
DBT-type compounds. The centers could be identical but
owing to the fact that both reactions have not necessarily
the same rate-limiting steps, the reactions would be altered
differently by H2S partial pressure.
27
Table 6 – List of the results obtained in literature for H2S inhibition (continuation)
Publication Reactant studied
Catalysts
Operating Conditions Observations
Type Composition
[19] DBT
4,6-DMDBT
NiMo/Al2O3
CoMo/Al2O3
3,1% CoO/NiO
14,0% MoO3
P = 30 to 50 bar
ppH2S = 0 to 1,00 bar
Temperature = 340°C
Steric effects upon adsorption on the catalyst active sites
could not be responsible for differences in reactivity of
DBTs.
This page was intentionally left blank.
29
3 Methodology
3.1 Experimental Part
3.1.1 Catalysts preparation
For this work, three types of catalysts were prepared – CoMo-A, CoMo-B and CoMo-C. All the
prepared catalysts were CoMo trilobe extrudates supported on γ-alumina. In order to process to their
catalytic evaluation, their length has been calibrated between 2 and 4 mm for hydrodynamic
considerations.
These catalysts were prepared by three common stages: active phase impregnation (dry
impregnation), maturation (in air atmosphere for 1,5 hours) and drying (at 90°C for 24 hours).
On one hand, CoMo-A was the only catalyst used directly on the catalytic tests after drying phase.
On the other hand, CoMo-B was calcined under air at 450°C, for 120 minutes, and to produce CoMo-
C catalyst, an organic solution was added as an additive, at pore volume, which was then dried under
nitrogen flow at 140°C and two hours to preserve the organic compound but eliminating the solvent.
In every test performed, it was used the exactly same volume of catalyst (Vcat = 4 cm3). Hence, the
mass needed for each test was obtained by the density of the catalytic bed (Densité Rempli Tassé -
DRT). Along with this characteristic, some other features were also analyzed. In Table 7 are shown
these characteristics.
Table 7 – Characteristics obtained for each catalyst
Catalyst DRT (g/cm3)
Oxide Density
(g/cm3)
Support
surface area (m2/g)
MoO3 (wt.%) Co/Mo
CoMo-A 0,89 0,83
182 X Y CoMo-B 0,85 0,84
CoMo-C 1,17 0,84
30
3.1.2 Unit T033
To simulate as real as possible the industrial conditions of HDS, every catalytic test was carried out
in the T033 unit (Figure 27), at IFP Energies nouvelles.
Figure 27 – Overview of the T033 unit
The T033 unit consists in a fixed-bed reactor, under hydrogen pressure. The reactor was fed up
with a liquid (feedstock) and gas supply (hydrogen). On one hand, the liquid stream was constantly fed
to the reactor by a HPLC pump and controlled by a QuantimTM
. For this flow meter, the liquid passes
through a U-shaped tube which vibrates in an angular harmonic oscillation. Oscillating forces will then
deform the tube and a further vibration component gets added to the already oscillating tube. This
added vibration results in a phase shift or twist in few parts of the tubes. This phase shift which is
directly proportional to the liquid mass flow rate is measured with the help of sensors. The measured
information is further transferred to the electronics unit where it gets transformed to a voltage
proportional to mass flow rate. This high performance instrument allows the simultaneous
measurement of mass flow, volumetric flow, density and temperature of the fluid. Nonetheless, this
device only operates in the presence of a differential pressure. This differential pressure is engaged by
a manual valve and at the same time allows pumping the liquid stream at high pressure. On the other
hand, the gas streams, nitrogen and hydrogen, were provided by the local networks at high and low
pressure.
Before introducing both gas and liquid into the reactor, the streams are combined and mixed. Then,
the mixture enters into the reactor in a down-flow mode. Furthermore, to heat up the reactor an oven
is used and a multipoint cane monitors the increasing temperature with four thermocouples attached,
two in the middle and one at each end. The operative pressure is measured by a KellerTM
indicator
and regulated by a KammerTM
valve. To avoid the effluent condensation the reactor outline is
thermally insulated since if effluent temperature reaches values below the dew point and, as the
solvent is not liquid, it could lead to precipitation and could have to face top plugging of pipes.
31
To fully control the unit during the reaction process, every line has flow indicators, manual control
valves and even particles filters.
Finally, in order to analyse the reactor effluent, a nitrogen stream is added at the outlet line and
then fed to the gas chromatographer. All effluent samples are automatically injected in the
chromatographer by a VALCO® valve with six ways. Moreover, as one can see in Figure 28, this valve
alternately rotates acquiring two distinct positions.
Figure 28 – Schematic of a VALCO® valve with six ways
First, the valve assumes the “balayage” position when the effluent analysis is not required. Then,
the “injection” position is taken when an effluent sample is injected within the GC. The initial
temperature of the GC column is 50°C, which then rises to 67°C throw a 15°C/min heating rate,
followed by another increase until 290°C (30°C/min heating rate).
3.1.3 Unit loading
As mentioned before, all catalytic tests were made in the same reactor which has 10 mm of
diameter and 18,2 cm of height. To load the reactor three main steps have to be taken:
1. Fill-in 4 cm3 of inert silicon carbide (SiC);
2. Load 4 cm3 of SiC mixed with 4 cm
3 of the chosen catalyst;
3. Load again with SiC until the top of the reactor.
Nevertheless, between each loading step the reactor has to be shaken to minimize the void spaces
along the reactor (intra-particular void). Indeed, the feed flow must be homogeneously distributed
along the reactor to minimize the risk of preferred path and ensure the wetting of all the grain of
catalysts. To prevent any leak, the reactor is topped with a porous joint and sealed with a torque tool
(80 N.m-1
). In Figure 29 is shown a schematic of the micro-reactor used to perform the catalytic tests.
32
Figure 29 – Representation of the micro-reactor used in the T033 unit
3.1.4 Sulfidation
For industrial purposes, the sulfidation of HDT catalysts is accomplished by using organo-sulfide
compounds as an activating agent [14]. For practical reasons, organo-sulfide compounds (e.g. DMDS)
are much easier to handle than H2S and might deliver sulfur gradually to the catalyst through a control
of their kinetics of decomposition.
In this work, it was used DMDS. Its decomposition is carried out in accordance with the following
reaction:
To begin the test, the catalyst was activated in order to produce the CoMoS phase. Hence, the
sulfidation was made in situ with a liquid feedstock composed by DMDS, xylene and cyclohexane. The
composition of this feedstock is presented in Table 8. Then, in Table 9 are presented the operating
conditions which the catalysts went through in the sulfidation step. These operating conditions were
used for almost every test. In fact, the sulfidation pressure used to study the impact of H2 was the
pressure at which the actual catalytic test was performed (40 bar).
Table 8 – Mass composition of the liquid feed used for the sulfidation process
Compound wt.%
DMDS 5,88
Xylene 20,00
Cyclohexane 74,12
(Eq. 4)
33
Table 9 – Operating conditions for the sulfidation stage
Parameter Value
Pressure (bar) 30,0
LHSV (h-1
) 4,0
As can be seen in Figure 30, the sulfidation process is formed by 4 steps:
- It began with a temperature ramp from 40°C to 350°C (1).
- Then this temperature was maintained in order to produce the sulfide form of the catalyst (2).
- Then the temperature was decreased until testing value and all the sulfidation operative
conditions are changed for the conditions of the catalytic test, respectively (3 and 4).
Figure 30 – Temperature program for the sulfidation process, before each catalytic test
Thus, one used always the same activating conditions in order to be sure that the catalysts
performances were only depending on the test conditions and not the activation procedure.
1,7°C/min
1,5
°C/min
1
2
3
4
(1)
(2)
(3) (4)
34
3.1.5 Model feedstock
In the first part of the study, the aim was to simulate, as real as possible, the last part of a HDT
reactor diesel feed with high sulfur content to study the HDS activity of each CoMo catalyst prepared.
As already mentioned, the most refractory sulfur compound to decompose is 4,6-DMDBT. Hence, this
was the model molecule chosen to study in this work. The composition of the “standard” model
feedstock (Feedstock-1) prepared is shown below (Table 10):
Table 10 – Model liquid feed characteristics, Feedstock-1
Compound Weight Fraction (wt.%) ppm S or N
Cyclohexane 57,14 -
DMDS 1,20 8170
Quinoline 1,00 1085
4,6-DMDBT 0,66 996
Xylene 40,00 -
On one hand, quinoline was chosen as a model basic-nitrogen compound to evaluate how these
nitrogen-based species influence the HDS. In this study, it was found that quinoline is not fully
converted into NH3, whatever the temperature.
On the other hand, xylene was added to the liquid feedstock to increase the dissolution of 4,6-
DMDBT, while cyclohexane was added to decrease the boiling point of the mixture. The mixture of
both an aromatic solvent and a non-aromatic one is also more representative of a diesel.
Two other feedstocks were prepared in order to determine the conversion of 4,6-DMDBT with
higher H2S and NH3 partial pressures, changing the mass composition of DMDS from 1,2 wt.% to 2
wt.% (Feedstock-2) and quinoline from 1,0 wt.% to 1,5 wt.% (Feedstock-3), respectively. However, to
go even further in the study of the influence of NH3, experimental results from previous works were
taken into account. These previous tests were performed with a feedstock with a lower concentration
of quinoline than the one considered in this present study (i.e. 0,5 wt.%).
All feedstocks were prepared in a vessel by adding 4,6-DMDBT to xylene as it is commercialized in
a powder form. Then, cyclohexane, quinoline and DMDS (all liquids) were added to these
components.
35
3.1.6 Operating conditions
Regarding the operating conditions of the catalytic test, the goal was to use similar conditions as
industrial HDS. The applied conditions are summarized in Table 11.
Table 11 – Operating standard conditions used in the catalytic tests
Parameter Value
Pressure (bar) 30,0
Temperature (°C) 290 to 310
Catalyst volume (cm3) 4
H2/feed ratio (NL/L) 240
The LHSV conditions were changed in order to to evaluate the model feedstock in the same range
of HDS conversion, i.e. not too high (to avoid some saturation and reduce the crossing between the
HDS pathways). In this way, it was possible to evaluate the DDS/HYD selectivity without being
influenced by supposed thermodynamic effects. In Table 12 is shown the value of LHSV input for each
catalyst. The values were chosen taking into account the activity obtained in some previous tests
(before this present work).
Table 12 – LHSV used for each catalyst
Catalyst LHSV (h-1
)
CoMo-A 4,0
CoMo-B 3,0
CoMo-C 6,5
During the catalytic test, for each tested temperature, 11 samples of the reactor effluent were
analysed within a regular time interval of 45 minutes (1). The temperature program of the catalytic test
is shown in Figure 31:
36
Figure 31 – Temperature program for the catalytic test
Along the process, a nitrogen stream (15 NL/h) is injected at the reactor outlet in order to dilute the
effluent before enter the GC. Afterwards, the reactor is washed with xylene and then dried (at the final
test temperature) (2) and cooled (3) with a nitrogen and hydrogen stream at descending temperature
until 40°C, thus avoiding the catalyst being stuck to the walls of the reactor and to improve the
downloading.
3.1.7 Data analysis
As mentioned in the bibliographic study, the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT produces many intermediary
compounds and products. However, in this study, to simplify the analysis, one considers that 4,6-
DMDBT is converted into two main HYD products (MCHT and DMDCH) and one DDS product
(DMBPh).
Figure 32 – Schematic of the two reaction pathways for the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT, adapted [32]
1 2
3
0,8°C/min
DMBPh
DMDCH
MCHT
(1) (2)
(3)
37
The analytic results obtained from the GC Galaxie® software allowed to determine the conversion
of the liquid feed.
Hence, the catalytic performance of each catalyst was evaluated according to the HDS conversion
of 4,6-DMDBT ( ):
(Eq. 5)
In addition, the conversion of 4,6-DMDBT through both HYD and DDS pathways were calculated
by the following equations:
(Eq. 6)
(Eq. 7)
Where,
(Eq. 8)
(Eq. 9)
In Eq. 8 and Eq. 9, and
represent the number of moles of HYD products and DDS
product produced during the catalytic test, respectively.
38
3.2 Kinetic Study
In order to obtain the kinetic model and the parameters from the studied reactions in this work it
was used the software ReactOp® Cascade. Hence, the software allows the user to create its own set
of reactions to better evaluate and estimate the kinetic parameters of a complex mechanism, based on
available sets of experimental data.
Although it was considered, for the first data analysis, just two main reactions (HYD and DDS), for
the kinetic modeling it was added an equilibrium reaction concerning the hydrogenation of DDS
products leading to enhance the apparent proportion of HYD products. This reaction was taken into
consideration because, at the mentioned operating conditions, DMBPh may be hydrogenated into
DMDCH or MCHT and vice-versa (see experimental results chapter 4.1, Figure 37).
Additionally, this kinetic study was made in order to better understand the different catalytic
performances and how they are influenced by the operating conditions, i.e. H2S, NH3 and H2 partial
pressures.
For the decomposition of 4,6-DMDBT, the global kinetic model is:
As already mentioned, for this part of the study, three reactions were taken into account – HYD,
DDS, HDA/HDAe. Thus, the kinetic equation for both main pathways (HYD and DDS) is the following:
Where,
(Eq. 10)
(Eq. 11)
(Eq. 12)
(Eq. 13)
39
In addition, the reaction constant rates for both HYD and DDS are influenced by H2, H2S and NH3
partial pressures. So, the reaction constant rates can also be written as:
With – reaction constant rate (h-1
), – pre-exponential constant rate (h-1-m-s-p
), – activation
energy (J/mol), – gas constant (J/mol.K), – temperature (K), – kinetic partial order for H2,
H2S and NH3, respectively, and – pressure (bar). For all the reactions the order relatively to reactant
is supposed to be 1.
Considering this, the new kinetic model has been created by selecting the ReactOp® Cascade tool
Model Wizard and then, the following reactions were introduced into the software:
With A – 4,6-DMDBT, B – HYD products and C – DDS product.
Then, in order to input the experimental results, other software tool had to be selected, namely
Experiment Wizard. The experimental data was introduced in the software (Table 13), for a given
temperature, as follow:
Table 13 – Example on how the experimental results, fixing a given temperature, were introduced in Experimental Wizard
(ReactOp software)
Time (hour) A (mol/100g feed) B (mol/100g feed) C (mol/100g feed) Temperature (K)
0,00 0,300 0,000 0,000 563
0,25 0,250 0,042 0,002 563
0,33 0,200 0,080 0,005 563
(Eq. 14)
(Eq. 15)
(Eq. 16)
(Eq. 17)
(Eq. 18)
(Eq. 19)
40
Additionally, the value input for time is directly linked with the LHSV at what the test was
performed, as established on Eq. 20 (Plug-Flow Reactor).
Thus, the result obtained will be equal to the reaction contact time during the catalytic test.
Finally, loading the experimental results already introduced in the software for all test temperatures
on the Estimation Wizard, it was possible to determine the kinetic parameters selected for the created
model ( and ) for each reaction giving a total of eight parameters.
Moreover, the activation energy does not change for any reaction when increasing or lowering the
partial pressure of H2S and NH3. For the equilibrium reaction (HDAe) the and were fixed since
they represent a thermodynamic characteristic equal for all the catalysts. In the following table (Table
14) is shown the assumptions made to fit the eight parameters.
Table 14 – Assumptions made to establish each kinetic parameter’s model
CoMo-A
(Dried)
CoMo-B
(Calcined)
CoMo-C
(Additive impregnated)
HYD
ln(ko) (hour-1
) May change with H2S, NH3 and H2 partial pressure
Ea (kJ/mol) For each catalyst, the value should be constant independently the
operating conditions
DDS
ln(ko) (hour-1
) May change with H2S, NH3 and H2 partial pressure
Ea (kJ/mol) For each catalyst, the value should be constant independently the
operating conditions
HDA
(equilibrated)
ln(ko) (hour-1
) May change with H2S, NH3 and H2 partial pressure
Ea (kJ/mol) For each catalyst, the value should be constant independently the
operating conditions
ln(ko,eq) (hour-1
)
For all catalysts, these values were considered to be the same and would only change if the H2 partial pressure is modified
Eaeq (kJ/mol)
(Eq. 20)
41
Then, for each reaction considered, the rate constant was determined by the following equation:
Moreover, in order to determine the selectivity between the two main reaction pathways (DDS and
HYD) and the global activity of each catalyst the following equations were used, respectively:
Furthermore, to evaluate the HYD and DDS relative activity between the additive impregnated
catalyst and the other two catalysts (dried and calcined) the next equation were used, respectively:
In this way, it was possible to determine in what conditions the catalytic performance of the additive
impregnated catalyst would be enhanced or inhibited.
Finally, an inhibition factor has been also calculated in order to understand the influence of H2S,
NH3 on the HDS pathways. Nevertheless, to evaluate the influence of H2, an activation factor has been
determined since in literature it is stated that H2 does not have a negative impact in the 4,6-DMDBT
HDS. Thus, the inhibition and activation factors were calculated by a direct ratio between global
activities, as following:
With, (h-1
) – global activity determined for a given study condition (Eq. 23) and
(h-1
) – global activity determined for standard conditions.
Finally, it has to be mentioned that it was not possible to add adsorption constants or inhibiting
effects directly into the software model. So, for instance, the nitrogen compounds and/or NH3 inhibition
were not included in the kinetic model.
(Eq. 21)
(Eq. 22)
(Eq. 23)
(Eq. 24)
(Eq. 25)
(Eq. 26)
(Eq. 27)
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43
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Comparison of Catalysts in Standard Conditions
To evaluate the base kinetic parameters for each catalyst, one used the experimental results
obtained from previous works and the experimental data accomplished during the internship. These
experimental results were performed at standard conditions thus using Feedstock-1.
In Table 15 are shown the experimental tests performed with CoMo-A, CoMo-B and CoMo-C and
the respective LHSV used at standard conditions.
Table 15 – Operating conditions used in previous and present works to evaluate standard conditions
Catalyst
LHSV (h-1
)
Previous work Present work
CoMo-A 3 and 4 5
CoMo-B 3 and 4 2,5
CoMo-C 3 5 and 6,5
The kinetic parameters were then optimized with ReactOp® Cascade software. For example, the fit
obtained for CoMo-C, the additive impregnated catalyst, is reported on Figure 33. The other fits are
present in Appendix 2.
Figure 33 – Kinetic fitting obtained for CoMo-C at standard conditions
44
However, the fit did not simulate perfectly the experimental results. Indeed, one can see that, for
high temperatures, the experimental curve obtained did not follow exactly the same tendency as for
other temperatures. It can be due to various reasons:
- First, the variability of the test and GC analysis;
- Secondly, the average kinetic parameters could change with the conversion rate of 4,6-
DMDBT owed to many changes in the mechanism such as inhibitions and kinetically limiting
steps;
- Also, the adsorption of 4,6-DMDBT might be stronger than expected thus changing the
reaction kinetic order (lower than 1), hence denying the assumption made.
Nevertheless, it was not possible to improve the model due to the absence of adsorption constants
in the kinetic model. This point could be studied modifying the programmed model.
To decide between the various hypotheses, it would be interesting to evaluate the kinetic and
simulate it without any quinoline. Indeed, if the inhibition is responsible for the fitting error, it should be
drastically improved suppressing the nitrogen inhibitor.
The work aiming to study the catalysts in closed conditions compared to real HDT units (LHSV and
NH3 partial pressure). The choice was done to continue with quinoline even if the fit did not represent
exactly the experimental values. In the following discussion, the parameters shown will be the average
parameters obtained, keeping in mind that these are probably not the good ones nevertheless, the
tendency will be discussed.
The various kinetic parameters determined by the experimental results and depending on the
catalyst are summarized in Table 16.
Table 16 – Kinetic parameters obtained for each catalyst used, at standard conditions
CoMo-A
(Dried)
CoMo-B
(Calcined)
CoMo-C
(Additive impregnated)
HYD
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 34,6 32,2 30,0
Ea (kJ/mol) 164,0 152,0 140,4
DDS
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 33,7 31,7 29,4
Ea (kJ/mol) 166,5 156,5 143,1
HDA (equilibrated)
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 19,5 19,8 20,2
Ea (kJ/mol) 102,4 101,3 96,1
ln(ko,eq) (hour-1
) 6,8
Eaeq (kJ/mol) 134,3
45
First, looking at the three catalysts, the rate constants obtained corresponding to HYD pathway
were slightly different and present the following hierarchy:
From Table 20, one can see that the most active catalyst for the hydrogenation reaction is always
the additive impregnated. But, it can also be pointed out that the rate constant values determined for
CoMo-A and CoMo-B have increased with temperature. This could actually be due to the fact that the
desorption rate of inhibitory compounds increases faster with temperature for these two catalysts than
for the additive impregnated.
Concerning the direct desulfurization, the rate constants obtained for CoMo-B were similar with the
ones found for CoMo-A. However, increasing temperature shows a quicker growing tendency for
CoMo-A DDS constant rate than to CoMo-B. In addition, CoMo-A (dried) and CoMo-B (calcined)
hydrogenolysis sites may have a higher inhibition effect comparing with CoMo-C (additive
impregnated) caused by the competitive adsorption of H2S and other inhibitory compounds, which
could be then reduced by increasing temperature.
Then, to determine the kinetic partial orders for each reaction, and, to study the influence of H2S
the logarithm of the pre-exponential rate constants obtained were then represented as function of the
logarithm of the partial pressure of H2S.
In Figure 42, Figure 43 and Figure 44 are represented, for the three catalysts, the ln(ko) for HYD,
HDA and DDS, respectively, as function of ln(ppH2S). Nonetheless, as the parameters for the
equilibrium reaction (HDAe) depend only on thermodynamic, H2S does not have any activation or
inhibition effect.
55
Figure 42 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppH2S) for HYD
Figure 43 – ln(ko) as function of ln (ppH2S) for HDA
Figure 44 – ln(ko) as function of ln(ppH2S) for DDS
56
The obtained slopes are the kinetic partial orders concerning HYD, DDS and HDA pathways. The
results are presented in Table 21.
Table 21 - Kinetic partial orders with respect to H2S
As previewed from the majority of the previous works in literature, H2S has a negative impact on
HYD pathway for all three catalysts [30] [44].
Moreover, looking particularly to the results obtained for the hydrogenation routes (HYD and HDA),
one can see that the additive impregnated catalyst was the most inhibited, comparing with the other
two catalysts. Surprisingly, this conflicts with the fact that the additive impregnated was the one with
the lowest activation energy attributed to a lower H2S partial pressure effect. Additionally, this may be
linked to the fact that, at low H2S partial pressure, the catalytic surface coverage of the dried and
calcined catalysts by H2S was already high. Thus, for a higher H2S partial pressure, they would be
much less affected than the additive impregnated catalyst.
In Figure 45 is presented the inhibition factor imposed by higher H2S partial pressure compared to
standard conditions.
Figure 45 – H2S inhibition factor for CoMo-A, CoMo-B and CoMo-C. These results took into account the results obtained at standard conditions and Feedstock-2
From Figure 45 one can see that additive impregnated catalyst has the highest inhibition effect
confirming the results obtained in Table 20.
.
Catalyst HYD DDS HDA
CoMo-A -0,9 1,1 -1,1
CoMo-B -0,9 0,8 -1,1
CoMo-C -1,1 0,7 -1,6
57
4.3 Impact of NH3 partial pressure
In order to study the influence of NH3 partial pressure, some changing in the feed composition
(quinoline) were done.
First, a lower quantity was used (0,5 wt.%). The corresponding results are taken from a previous
work. Then some complementary experimental tests were carried out with 1,5 wt.% of quinoline. In
addition, the NH3 partial pressure introduced in the model was just an equivalent approximation since,
in real operating conditions, quinoline is not completely decomposed. Using pro-II software one could
calculate the partial pressures of NH3 and quinoline, assuming an average HDN conversion of 85%
(corresponding to the experimental HDN conversion). In Table 22 are shown the various partial
pressures obtained.
Table 22 – Composition of quinoline used in order to study the effect of NH3 partial pressure
Quinoline (wt.%)
Nitrogen composition (ppm)
ppNH3 (bar)
ppQuinoline (bar)
Theoretical Real
0,50 543 0,05 0,048 0,002
1,00 1085 0,10 0,084 0,016
1,50 1628 0,15 0,126 0,024
In Table 23 are presented which results were obtained from experimental tests and which were
actually simulated from the other ones with the purpose of direct comparison at same LHSV hereafter.
Table 23 – Tests performed on previous (*) and present experimental works to study the influence of NH3 partial pressure
Catalyst LHSV (h-1
) Quinoline
(wt.%) ppNH3 (bar) Kinetic Model Experimental Test
CoMo-A
4
0,5 0,05 X*
1,0 0,1 X*
3 1,5 0,15 X
CoMo-B 3
0,5 0,05 X*
1,0 0,1 X*
1,5 0,15 X
CoMo-C
6,5
0,5 0,05 X
1,0 0,1 X
3 1,5 0,15 X
58
4.3.1 Apparent comparison
The following results (Figure 46) show the difference between the chosen standard conditions and
the condition with less concentration of quinoline. It was chosen to discuss firstly these results in order
to understand how basic nitrogen-based compounds influence the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT within the
concentration range commonly found in real feedstocks. Again, the tests with CoMo-A, CoMo-B and
CoMo-C were performed at different LHSV (4 h-1
, 3 h-1
, 6,5 h-1
, respectively).
Figure 46 – HYD conversion of 4,6-DMDBT as function of temperature for the three catalysts prepared. In the graph, full lines represent the 0,5 wt.% Quinoline model approximation and gapped lines represent the 1,0 wt.% Quinoline (standard
conditions).
As one can see in Figure 46, the HYD conversion increased for all three catalysts with a lower NH3
partial pressure. In other words, with a higher amount of quinoline, the inhibition effect within the
hydrogenation reaction increased among all catalysts which is in agreement with literature [32].
In addition, it is also clear that the most impacted catalyst was the additive impregnated.
59
In Figure 47 are presented the results concerning the DDS conversion. For CoMo-A and CoMo-B,
the DDS conversion slightly decreased, for high temperatures, when using a feedstock containing a
low quinoline concentration. So, it seems that there was a slight inhibition of the DDS pathway.
Therefore, this fact is in agreement to what was found in literature [32]. It is also noticeable that, for
both dried and calcined catalysts there was a similar impact of NH3 partial pressure. This may again
point out the similar adsorption of inhibitory compounds by these two catalysts.
Figure 47 – DDS conversion of 4,6-DMDBT as function of temperature for the three catalysts prepared. In the graph, full lines represent the 0,5% Quinoline model approximation and gapped lines represent the 1,0% Quinoline (standard conditions).
Additionally, literature reports that DDS is more inhibited by quinoline than HYD [32]. However, at
this level, this fact was not seen in the results as there was a higher apparent inhibition on the
hydrogenation reaction, for all three catalysts (Figure 46). The only experimental work showing a
stronger effect of nitrogen compounds on HYD was actually obtained with piperidine [38]. Ma et al.
[34] and Turaga et al. [35] have also found from molecular modeling experiments, that the inhibition
effect caused by nitrogen-based compounds could be stronger for HYD route.
60
4.3.2 Kinetic comparison
Once again, the kinetic parameters were determined and optimized with ReactOp® Cascade
software. The fits obtained for CoMo-B and CoMo-C catalysts for 0,5 wt.% and 1,5 wt.% quinoline
concentrations are reported in Figure 48 and Figure 49, respectively. The remaining fits are present in
Appendix 2.
Figure 48 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT using CoMo-B - 0,5% quinoline
Figure 49 – Kinetic fitting obtained for the HDS of 4,6-DMDBT using CoMo-C - 1,5% quinoline
Nonetheless, taking into account that for each catalyst, again, only one experimental test was
performed with feedstock-3, the parameters determined by the kinetic model may not show a perfect
approximation to what happens in the decomposition of 4,6-DMDBT at this NH3 partial pressure.
The kinetic parameters determined for 0,5 wt.% and 1,5 wt.% quinoline concentration are
summarized in Table 24 and Table 25, respectively.
61
Table 24 - Kinetic parameters obtained for each catalyst for 0,5 wt.% quinoline
CoMo-A CoMo-B CoMo-C
HYD
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 35,5 33,0 31,3
Ea (kJ/mol)* 164,1 152,0 140,4
DDS
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 34,6 32,5 29,8
Ea (kJ/mol)* 166,5 156,5 143,1
HDA (equilibrated)
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 20,6 20,9 21,1
Ea (kJ/mol)* 102,4 101,3 96,1
ln(ko,eq) (hour-1
) 6,8
Eaeq (kJ/mol) 134,3
*same value as in standard conditions
Table 25 – Kinetic parameters obtained for each catalyst for 1,5 wt.% quinoline, Feedstock-3
CoMo-A CoMo-B CoMo-C
HYD
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 33,7 31,2 29,6
Ea (kJ/mol)* 164,0 152,0 140,4
DDS
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 33,9 31,7 29,4
Ea (kJ/mol)* 166,5 156,5 143,1
HDA (equilibrated)
ln(ko) (hour-1
) 18,3 18,7 18,9
Ea (kJ/mol)* 102,4 101,3 96,1
ln(ko,eq) (hour-1
) 6,8
Eaeq (kJ/mol) 134,3
*same value as in standard conditions
Again, the three catalysts present the same HYD and DDS rate constants hierarchy: