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title:
ModelLivingStandardsMeasurementStudySurveyQuestionnairefortheCountriesoftheFormerSovietUnionLSMSWorkingPaper,0253-4517;No.130
author: Oliver,Raylynn.publisher: WorldBank
isbn10|asin: 0821339346printisbn13: 9780821339343ebookisbn13: 9780585222868
language: English
subject
Socialsurveys--FormerSovietrepublics,Costandstandardofliving--FormerSovietrepublics,FormerSovietrepublics--Socialconditions.
publicationdate: 1997lcc: HN29.O491997ebddc: 300/.7/23
Socialsurveys--FormerSovietrepublics,
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subject: Costandstandardofliving--FormerSovietrepublics,FormerSovietrepublics--Socialconditions.
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ModelLivingStandardsMeasurementStudySurveyQuestionnairefortheCountriesofthe
FormerSovietUnion
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TheLivingStandardsMeasurementStudy
TheLivingStandardsMeasurementStudy(LSMS)wasestablishedbytheWorldBankin1980toexplorewaysofimprovingthetypeandqualityofhouseholddatacollectedbystatisticalofficesindevelopingcountries.Itsgoalistofosterincreaseduseofhouseholddataasabasisforpolicydecisionmaking.Specifically,theLSMSisworkingtodevelopnewmethodstomonitorprogressinraisinglevelsofliving,toidentifytheconsequencesforhouseholdsofpastandproposedgovernmentpolicies,andtoimprovecommunicationsbetweensurveystatisticians,analysts,andpolicymakers.
TheLSMSWorkingPaperserieswasstartedtodisseminateintermediateproductsfromtheLSMS.PublicationsintheseriesincludecriticalsurveyscoveringdifferentaspectsoftheLSMSdatacollectionprogramandreportsonimprovedmethodologiesforusingLivingStandardsSurvey(LSS)data.Morerecentpublicationsrecommendspecificsurvey,questionnaire,anddataprocessingdesignsanddemonstratethebreadthofpolicyanalysisthatcanbecarriedoutusingLSSdata.
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ModelLivingStandardsMeasurementStudySurveyQuestionnairefortheCountriesofthe
FormerSovietUnion
RaylynnOliver
LSMSWorkingPaperNumber130
TheWorldBankWashington,D.C.
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Copyright©1997TheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/THEWORLDBANK
1818HStreet,N.W.Washington,D.C.20433,U.S.A.
AllrightsreservedManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaFirstprintingJune1997
TopresenttheresultsoftheLivingStandardsMeasurementStudywiththeleastpossibledelay,thetypescriptofthispaperhasnotbeenpreparedinaccordancewiththeproceduresappropriatetoformalprintedtexts,andtheWorldBankacceptsnoresponsibilityforerrors.Somesourcescitedinthispapermaybeinformaldocumentsthatarenotreadilyavailable.
Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthor(s)andshouldnotbeattributedinanymannertotheWorldBank,toitsaffiliatedorganizations,ortomembersofitsBoardofExecutiveDirectorsorthecountriestheyrepresent.TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthispublicationandacceptsnoresponsibilitywhatsoeverforanyconsequenceoftheiruse.
Theboundaries,colors,denominations,andotherinformationshownonanymapinthisvolumedonotimplyonthepartoftheWorldBankGroupanyjudgmentonthelegalstatusofanyterritoryortheendorsementoracceptanceofsuchboundaries.
Thematerialinthispublicationiscopyrighted.RequestsforpermissiontoreproduceportionsofitshouldbesenttotheOfficeofthePublisherattheaddressshowninthecopyrightnoticeabove.The
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WorldBankencouragesdisseminationofitsworkandwillnormallygivepermissionpromptlyand,whenthereproductionisfornoncommercialpurposes,withoutaskingafee.PermissiontocopyportionsforclassroomuseisgrantedthroughtheCopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc.,Suite910,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,Massachusetts01923,U.S.A.
ISBN:0-8213-3934-6ISSN:0253-4517
RaylynnOliverisaconsultantinthePovertyandHumanResourcesDivisionofthePolicyResearchDepartmentoftheWorldBank.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataOliver,Raylynn,1960-ModellivingstandardsmeasurementstudysurveyquestionnaireforthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion/RaylynnOliver.p.cm.(LSMSworkingpaper,ISSN0253-4517;no.130)ISBN0-8213-3934-61.SocialsurveysFormerSovietrepublics.2.CostandstandardoflivingFormerSovietrepublics.3.FormerSovietrepublicsSocialconditions.I.Title.II.Series.HN29.0491997300'.7'23dc2197-19577CIP
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ContentsForeword vii
Abstract ix
Acknowledgments xi
1.Introduction 1
2.ObjectivesoftheLSMSSurveys 2
3.AdaptingtheQuestionnairesforaSpecificCountry 4
3.1MakingtheQuestionnairesRelevanttoPolicy 4
3.2FieldTestingtheQuestionnaires 5
4.GuidelinesforAdaptingtheHouseholdQuestionnaire 7
4.1TranslationoftheQuestionnaire 7
4.2FormatoftheHouseholdQuestionnaire 8
4.3AdaptingSpecificQuestions 9
4.4RevisingEntireSections 9
4.5TopicSpecificGuidelines 10
Section0.InformationontheSurveyandInterviewerInstructions
10
Section1.HouseholdRoster 11
Section2.Dwelling 13
Section3.Education 14
Section4.Health 15
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Section5.EconomicActivities 17
Section6.Migration 19
Section7.RespondentsforRoundTwo 19
Section8.DisplacedPersonsandRefugees 20
Section9.Agro-PastoralActivities 20
Section10.Non-farmSelf-employment 21
Section11.ExpendituresandDurableGoods 21
Section12.FoodExpenditureandConsumption 21
Section13.Childbearing 22
Section14.OtherSourcesofIncome 23
Section15.LoansandSavings 23
5.AdaptingthePopulationPointandPriceQuestionnaire 24
6.Conclusion 26
Appendix1.LSMSHouseholdQuestionnairefortheCountriesoftheFormerSovietUnion
27
Appendix2.LSMSPopulationPointQuestionnairefortheCountriesoftheFormerSovietUnion
107
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ForewordThePovertyandHumanResourcesDivisionofthePolicyResearchDepartment(PRDPH)oftheWorldBankismakingaconcertedefforttodisseminatethelessonsofthefirsttenyearsofLivingStandardMeasurementStudy(LSMS)surveyfieldexperience,sothatthegrowingnumberofsurveyswithsimilarpurposescanlearnfromthem.TheneedtomeasurepovertyandguidepolicyduringtheeconomictransitionhascreateddemandforLSMSsurveysinthenewlyindependentstatesoftheformerSovietUnion.However,workingfromexistingmaterialshasbeendifficultbecausequestionnaireswerenotavailableinRussianandbecausequestionnairesfromotherregionsreflectedsituationsthatwerenotapplicableintheformerSovietUnion.TofacilitatetheuseofLSMSsurveysinthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,PRDPHdevelopedhousehold,communityandpricequestionnairesthatreflectthebasicinstitutionsandpolicyconcernsofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.ThesequestionnaireshavebeentranslatedintoRussian.ThisrepresentsanimportantstartingpointforconductinganLSMSsurvey.However,thebasicquestionnaireswillhavetobetailoredforanyspecificcountry.Thisdocumentpresentsthequestionnairesanddescribestheprocessrequiredtoadaptthequestionnairestolocalconditions.
LYNSQUIRE,DIRECTORPOLICYRESEARCHDEPARTMENT
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AbstractThisdocumentpresentsasetofLivingStandardMeasurementStudyquestionnairesthathavebeendevelopedforuseintheRussian-speakingcountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.ThesequestionnairesareavailableinEnglishandinRussian.Theyarealsoavailableinelectronicform.
Thisdocumentalsodescribesindetailtheprocedurethatshouldbefollowedtomodifythequestionnairesforuseinanyspecificcountry.Withoutcarefultailoring,thequestionnaireswillbefrustratingforinterviewersandrespondents.Moreimportantly,ifexistingpolicies,policyconcerns,andinstitutionsarenottakenintoconsideration,thesurveydatawillnotbesufficienttoaddressthequestionsforwhichthesurveyisundertakeninthefirstplace.Toguidethequestionnairewriterthroughthemodificationprocess,thisdocumentdescribestheimportantaspectsofLSMSsurveys,generalmodificationsthatwillberequired,translationandfieldtestingprocedures,andfinallyasectionbysectiondescriptionofthetypeofmodificationsthatarelikelytoberequiredtosuitgoalsandcircumstances.
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AcknowledgmentsThisdocumentdrawsheavilyonGuidelinesforAdaptingtheLSMSLivingStandardsQuestionnairestoLocalConditions,Ainsworth,MarthaandJacquesvanderGaag.LivingStandardsMeasurementStudyWorkingPaperNo.34,1988.Inaddition,thisdocumentandthequestionnaireshavebenefittedfromtheexperienceofthestaffofPRDPH,especiallyKinnonScott,MargaretGroshandCarlodelNinno.Indeveloping,translatingandfieldtestingthequestionnairesandunderstandingtheinstitutionsoftheformerSovietUnionIwasaidedbyBorisGitman,DjamilaKerimkulova,LubaLogenitsina,FatimaMamedova,VugarMatadov,JuliaMaronuk,andElenaPasportnikova.
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1IntroductionLivingStandardsMeasurementStudy(LSMS)surveysweredevelopedbytheWorldBanktoprovidethedatanecessarytoevaluatepoliciesthataffectthelivingstandardsofthepopulation.Forthispurposethequestionnairesaimtocollectthedatanecessarytomeasureallmajoraspectsofeconomicwell-beingatthelevelofthehouseholdandthepopulationpoint.1
LSMSsurveyshavebeenconductedinnearlythirtycountriesinthecourseofthelast10years.DatafromLSMSsurveyshavebeenusedtomeasuretheextentofpoverty,analyzelabormarketconditionsandwagedeterminants,estimatetheimpactofschoolingonbirthrateandchildhealth,evaluatethedemandforhealthcareandmanyothertopicsofrelevancetogovernmentMinistries.
Sincethebreak-upoftheSovietUnion,therehasbeenincreasinginterestinconductingLSMSsurveysinthenewlyindependentRepublicsinordertomeasuretheimpactoftransitionofthevariousgroupsofthepopulation.TheresultsofanLSMSsurveycanalsoprovideusefulassistanceinthedevelopmentofthepoliciestohelpprotectthemostvulnerablepeople.
RussianLanguageLivingStandardMeasurementStudyQuestionnaireshavebeendevelopedtoassistintheimplementationofthesesurveysintheRussian-speakingcountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.ThesequestionnairesfollowthebasicpatternofotherLSMSquestionnairesbuthavebeensubstantiallyalteredinordertoreflectthelivingconditionsandgovernmentpolicyconcernsfacedbymostofthecountriesintheregion.TheEnglishlanguagetranslationoftheLSMSquestionnairesforhouseholdandpopulationpointsinthe
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Russian-speakingcountriesareincludedinAppendices1and2.TheelectronicversionsofthequestionnairesareavailableinWordperfect5.1forDOSforthoseseekingtodevelopnewquestionnaires.2
TheSovietUnioncoveredanimmenseexpanseoflandandcontainedawidediversityofcultures.Becauseofthisdiversity,itisnotlikelythatthequestionnaireasitiswillbeidealforeachofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.Therefore,furtherrefinementsandadaptationwillbenecessaryinmostcasestomakethequestionnairesappropriateforuseinthefield.Thesequestionnairesarethereforedesignedasastartingpointandthisdocumentdescribesthemethodforfurthercountry-specificrefinementofthequestionnaires.
Inthisdocument,Section2describesinmoredetailtheobjectivesofLSMSsurveys.Aclearunderstandingoftheseobjectiveswillguidetheadaptationofthequestionnairestolocalconditions.Section3describesbroadlytheprocessofadaptingthequestionnaires.Section4providesgeneralandspecificguidelinesforadaptingthehouseholdquestionnaire.Section5presentsguidelinesforadaptingthepopulationpointandpricequestionnaires.Section6concludes.
1PopulationpointisthetermusedinthecountriesoftheSovietUnionthatmeansvillage,villageofthetowntype,ortown.2ForelectronicfilescontactLSMS,PRDPH,WorldBank,Washington,DC20433,USA;[email protected] ;orfax2025221153.
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2ObjectivesoftheLSMSSurveysTheprimaryobjectiveoftheLSMSsurveysistoobtainadatebaseforpolicyanalysis.Becauseofthis,LSMSsurveysdifferfrommostsinglepurposesurveys.LSMSsurveysgatherdataonallofthecomponentsofthestandardofliving.Forexample,ahealthsurveymayincludealargenumberofquestionsontypeofillness,symptoms,carereceived,timeandmoneyspentforeachillness,butonlyafewquestionsregardinghouseholdcharacteristics.Inordertoconductpolicy-relevantresearch,measuresareneededofhouseholdincome,labormarketstatus,educationalattainment,householdexpenditureonthingsotherthanhealth.
Fromtheobjectiveofgatheringtheinformationnecessarytoconductpolicyanalysiswederivemostoftheguidelinesandconstraintsthatmustbeconsideredwhenadaptingthequestionnairesforuseinaspecificcountry.Whenadaptingthesurvey,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatalthoughtheLSMSquestionnairecollectsinformationonhealthandmedicalcare,itisnotahealthsurvey.Similarly,itcollectsinformationonagriculturebutitisnotanagriculturesurvey.AhealthsurveyoranagriculturalsurveywouldcollectmuchmoredetailedinformationonhealthoragriculturethantheLSMSdoes.Itisnotpossibletocollectinformationonallmajoraspectsoflivinginthesamedetailthatwouldbeusedinasinglepurposesurvey.
AnothercharacteristicoftheLSMSsurveysistheemphasisthatisplacedonreducingnon-samplingerror.Thisisreflectedinthesampledesignandintheorganizationofthefieldwork.Manyfeaturesofthedesignofthequestionnairesarealsointendedtominimizenon-samplingerror.Forinstance,thequestionnairesarealmostentirely
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pre-coded.Interviewersenterthecodesontothequestionnaireanddataentryoperatorsentertheresponsesdirectlyfromthequestionnaire.Anotherfeatureisthegridsusedforcollectingindividualdatathatincreasethelikelihoodthatalloftheinformationstaystogether.3
Thereare16sectionsinthehouseholdquestionnaire:4
0.SurveyInformationandInterviewerInstructions
1.Rosterofthemembersofthehousehold
2.Housingconditions
3.Education
4.Health
5.EconomicActivities
3AllaspectsoftheLSMSsurveysandquestionnairesareexplainedinGrosh,MargaretE.andJuanMunoz,1996,AManualforPlanningandImplementingLSMSSurveys,LivingStandardMeasurementStudyWorkingPaperNo.126,WorldBank,WashingtonD.C.4Thereisnotasingledefinitionofhousehold.Inthisquestionnaire,theinterviewerisinstructedtolistallindividualswhonormallylive,eattheirmealstogetherandshareexpensesinthedwellingregardlessofwhetherornottheindividualwaspresentinthehouseholdthedaybefore.Householdmembersincludethehouseholdhead,childrenborninthelastthreemonths,individualsmarriedintothehouseholdinthelastthreemonths,andotherindividualswhowereabsentforfewerthanninemonthsofthelasttwelve.Servantsandpayinglodgersandtheirfamiliesformaseparatehouseholdandshouldbeinterviewedseparately.
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6.Migration
7.SelectionofrespondentsforRound2
8.Refugeesanddisplacedpersons
9.AgriculturalActivities
10.Self-employment
11.ExpendituresandDurableGoods
12.FoodExpenditureandConsumption
13.Childbearing
14.OtherIncome
15.CreditandSavings
Forsections1,3,4,5,and6,informationiscollectedforeachindividualinthehousehold,orforalltheindividualsofacertainage.Forexample,thesectiononschoolingisonlytobecompletedforhouseholdmembersovertheageof7.Wheninformationiscollectedforindividuals,agridisusedsothatalloftheinformationforonehouseholdiscontainedinthesamequestionnairepage.Thiseliminatesthepossibilityofthelossofthequestionnairesforoneormoreindividualsinthehousehold.Thegridformatalsofacilitatesthedataentryprocess.Inothersections,wheretheresponsetoaquestionwillbethesameforeachmemberofthehousehold,thequestionsareaskedonlyonce,forexamplesection2onhousing.Thegridformatisalsousedinsections8through15.Though,inthesesectionstheunitofobservationisnotanindividualmemberofthehouseholdbutatypeofcropinsection9oratypeoffoodinsection11.Insomesections,thegridisusedforindividuals,butnotforhouseholdmembers;theseincludesection1C(childrenlivingelsewhere),section11E(remittances),section13(fertility)andsection14A
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(incomefromrelativesandprivatepersons).
Informationonthetownorvillageinwhichthehouseholdislocatedisalsocollectedbecausethelevelofservicesandotherconditionsinthevicinitycanhaveanimportantimpactonthequalityoflifefortheresidents.Thereare8sectionsinthepopulationpointquestionnaire:
1.DemographicInformation
2.Infrastructure
3.Economy
4.RefugeesandDisplacedPersons
5.Education
6.Health
7.Agriculture
8.Institutions
9.Prices
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3AdaptingtheQuestionnairesforaSpecificCountryTheadaptationofaquestionnaireinvolvesmuchmorethanthetranslationofthequestionnaireintothelocallanguageandtheadditionofcountry-specificresponsecategories.Inorderforthequestionnairetoprovideinformationthatcanbeusedtoaddresstheimportantpolicyconcernsinaparticularcountryataparticulartime,thequestionnairemustbeadaptedforuseinconsultationwithabroadrangeofpolicymakers.Theseconsultationscanservetwopurposes.Thefirstistoensurethatthecorrectdataarecollectedinthesurvey.Thesecondistofamiliarizepotentialusersofthedataandtheanalysisofthetypeofinformationthatwillbecollectedandofitspotentialuses.
Thesecondstageoftheadaptationofthesurveyinstrumentsforuseinaspecificcountryinvolvesathoroughfieldtestofallquestionnaires.Questionnairesmustbetestedinenoughhouseholdsandcommunitiestobesurethatthedesiredinformationcanbecollectedinavarietyofcircumstances.
InmostofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,adaptationoftheLivingStandardMeasurementSurveywillalsorequirethatallquestionnairesbetranslatedintooneormorenationallanguagesspokenbythepopulationofthatcountry.Preparingthequestionnaireinasecondlanguagewilloftenrequiremodificationsintheoriginalquestionnaire.5
3.1MakingtheQuestionnairesRelevanttoPolicy
TosuccessfullyadapttheLSMSquestionnairesandensurethatthedatawillbeabletosupportpolicy-relevantanalysis,itisnecessaryto
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consultwithgovernmentofficials,policyadvisorsandotherswhoareinvolvedindesigningandevaluatingpolicies.Eachsectionofthequestionnairemustaccuratelyreflectthestructureoflocalinstitutions,programsandpolicies.Eachsectionmustalsocontainthequestionsnecessarytogatherthedatarequiredtoanalyzetheusefulnessandeffectivenessofthoseinstitutions,programsandpolicies.
Forexample,ifincreasingemploymentisanimportantobjectiveofthegovernmentandoneofthepoliciesthathasbeenimplementedtoachievethatgoalistheprovisionofjobtrainingcoursesthenthequestionnairewriterwillneedtoknow:whattypesofcourseswereoffered,whowaseligibletoparticipate,wherewerethesecoursesoffered,whatsubjectswereofferedandiftheparticipantswererequiredtopayforthecoursesoracceptcertainjobs,orfulfillotherobligationstoparticipateinthetraining.Iftherewasafeeforthecoursesthenthepolicymakersarelikelytowanttoknowifthatfeewasanobstaclethatpreventedeligibleindividualswhowouldhavebenefittedfromthecoursefromtakingit.Ontheotherhand,policymakersmaybemostinterestedtoknowifeligibleindividualswereawarethatthecoursewasavailable.Knowledgeofallaspectsoftheprogramwillallowthequestionnairewriterstodefineproperlythequestionsthatneedtobeincludedandwillguidethelistofcodedresponsestobeprovided.
5Forexample,intheRussianthereisnoonesinglewordforMother-in-law.Thereareseparatewordsforaman'smother-in-lawandawoman'smother-in-law.Ifanimportantsocialdistinctioncorrespondstothelanguagedistinction,thenquestionnairesinbothlanguagesshouldincludethetworelationsasseparatecategories.Similarproblemsaroseinthecategorizationoffoodsintheconsumptionmodule.
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TheformationofabaseofdataforpolicyformulationandevaluationisthemaingoaloftheLSMSandsothequestionnairesshouldfirstofallfocusontheeffectsofexistingpoliciesthathaveanimpactonlivingstandards.Questionsmeasuringtheuseofgovernmentservicesorthebenefitsreceivedbythehouseholdsfromsuchprogramsshouldappearthroughoutthequestionnaires.Answerstothesequestionsallowthepolicyanalysttodeterminetheextentofbenefitprovidedbytheseprogramsandalsotodeterminewhichhouseholdswouldbemostaffectedbyachangeintheprogram.
Thequestionnairesshouldalsogatherdataonhouseholdexpendituresonalltypesofgovernment,publicandprivateservices.Answerstothesequestionscanbeusedtoanalyzegovernmentpricingpolicies,consumers'willingnesstopay,andpossiblealternativefinancingmechanisms.
Eventhecontentofsectionsthatdonotseemtobedirectlyrelatedtoanyspecificpolicymustbedevelopedtoaddresspolicyconcerns.Forexample,inordertomeasurehouseholdconsumption,allitemsmustbeaggregatedintoarelativelysmallsetofcommoditygroups.Tosomeextent,logicandcurrentconsumptionindicatehowcommoditiesshouldbegrouped.However,fromapolicypointofviewitisimportanttodistinguishbetweentaxedandnon-taxeditems,betweenimportedanddomesticitems,andbetweenitemssoldatgovernment-controlledpricesandthosesoldatmarket-determinedprices.Thedivisionofitemsamonggroupswillvaryfromcountrytocountry.ForexamplebreadpricesarestillsubjecttogovernmentsupportinseveralofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.
Finally,thedatagatheredbyanLSMSsurveycanhelppolicymakerstoidentifygeographicalregionsofthecountryortypesofhouseholdsthatwillbethetargetofnewpolicies.Thiswillonlyoccur,however,ifthereareextensivetalksregardingboththecurrentpoliciesand
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policiesunderconsiderationbetweenthequestionnairewritersandthepolicymakers.
3.2FieldTestingtheQuestionnaires
Afterthequestionnaireshavebeenadaptedtoreflectlocalpolicyconsiderations,theymustbetestedinthefieldonactualhouseholdsandpopulationpoints.Ateamofexperiencedinterviewersandthewritersofthequestionnairesgointothefieldtoaskallorpartofthequestionnairestoasmanyasahundredhouseholdsofdifferenttypesandindifferentpartsofthecountry.
Thegoalofthefieldtestistoensurethatthequestionnairesarecapableofcollectingtheinformationthattheyweredesignedtocollect.Thefollowingquestionsmustbeansweredinthefieldtest:
Isthefull-scopeofthedesiredinformationbeingcollected?
Doesthequestionnairecollectinformationthatisinternallyconsistent?
Doeseachsectioncontainalltherelevanttypesofactivities,sourcesofincome,categoriesofexpenditure,etc.?
Iseachquestionclearandeasilyunderstoodunderallcircumstances?
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Aretherealternativeinterpretationsofaquestion?
Haveallresponsesbeenanticipatedinthecodedresponsesprinted?
BecausetheLSMSsurveysaimtomeasurelivingstandards,itiscriticalthatthehouseholdquestionnairebetestedinalargevarietyofhouseholds.Thefieldtestmustincludehouseholdsfromeachmajoreconomic,geographic,ethnicandoccupationalgroupthatisrepresentedinthecountry.Failuretoanticipatethesourcesofincome,thetypesofexpenditureorothercharacteristicsofspecificgroupsonthehouseholdquestionnairecanleadtofalseconclusionsregardingthelivingstandardsandeconomicprospectsofthesegroups.
Inadditiontoensuringthatalltypesofhouseholdsareincludedinthefieldtest,itisnecessarytoensurethatallsectionsofthehouseholdquestionnairearetested.Itisthereforenecessarytoadministereachpartofthequestionnairetoavarietyofindividualsforwhomthatsectionisrelevant.Forexample,thehousingsectionshouldbeconductedforalltypesofhouseholds:homeowners,renters,squatters;urbanandruralresidents;peoplelivinginsingle-familyhousesandthoselivinginapartments.Theemploymentsectionmustbefield-testedonindividualswhoarecollectivefarmers,privatefarmers,governmentworkers,workersintheprivatesector,entrepreneurs,self-employedpeople,unemployedpersons,homemakersandchildren.Thisistrueforeachsectionofthequestionnaire.
Thefieldtestalsoprovidesimportantinformationthatwillbeusedintherestofthesurveywork.Thequestionsaskedbyinterviewersduringthefieldtestandthemistakesmadeincompletingthequestionnaireswillindicatewhichsectionsofthequestionnairerequirespecialemphasisinthetrainingofinterviewers.Otherdifficultiesthatarisewillindicatethesituationsandproblemsthatneedtobediscussedintheinstructionmanualsthatwillbepreparedfortheinterviewersandsupervisors.
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Giventheimportanceofthefieldtesttotheoutcomeofthesurvey,itisessentialthatseniorsurveystaffbepresentinthefieldatalltimestoassessthequalityoftheresults,makechangesinthequestionnairewhennecessary,andwitnesstheproblemsanddifficultiesthatariseinthecourseofthesurveyoperation.
Insomecasesitwillbenecessarytoredesigncompletelypartofthequestionnaire.Thiscanonlybedonebythosewhoarefamiliarwiththeobjectivesandpolicyneedsaddressedbythesurvey.Allmodificationstothequestionnairemustthenalsobetestedinthefield.
Questionnairescompletedinthecourseofthefieldtestcanthenbeusedtocheckforinternalconsistencyinthequestionnaire.Largediscrepanciesbetweenthesumofexpendituresandthesumofincomesourcesmayindicateanimportantomissioninoneortheothercategory.Inconsistencybetweenanswersintheemploymentsectionandanswersintheagricultureorself-employmentsectionmayindicatethatthefilterquestionsarenotwordedcorrectlyinsection7.
Populationpointandpricequestionnairesmustalsobefieldtestedinallregionsofthecountryandinavarietyoftypesofpopulationpoints.Ifthesurveywillusequestionnairesinmorethanonelanguage,versionsofthequestionnaireineachlanguagemustbethoroughlytestedinthefield.
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4GuidelinesforAdaptingtheHouseholdQuestionnaire
4.1TranslationoftheQuestionnaire
Atanearlystageanimportantdecisionhastobemaderegardingthelanguagesinwhichthequestionnaireswillbeproducedandadministered.Severalfactorsmustbeconsidered:
1.Itisalwaysbetterforarespondenttobeinterviewedinhisorhernativetongue,becauseinterpretationcanleadtomisrepresentationofthequestionandtheanswer.
2.Producingthequestionnaireinseverallanguagesisexpensiveandtime-consuming.
3.Aquestionnairecanonlybeadministeredinanygivenlanguagebysomeonewhospeaksthatlanguagesotheinterviewteamswillhavetocontainatleastoneinterviewerwhocanspeakeachofthelanguagescontainedinthequestionnaires.
4.Hiringinterpreterstotravelwiththeinterviewteamsisexpensive.
5.Usinganinterpretertoconductaninterviewnearlydoublesthetimerequiredtoconductthatinterview.
6.Usinglocalpeopletointerpretmakesitdifficulttocontrolthequalityoftheinterpretationanditcompromisestheconfidentialityoftherespondent.
Itisdifficulttoofferspecificguidelines.Thequestionnaireshouldbetranslatedintoanylanguagethatisspokenbyhalformoreofthehouseholdsinthecountry.Itisfurtherrecommendedthatthequestionnairebetranslatedandadministeredinasmanylocal
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languagesasfeasiblegivenpersonnelandfinancialconstraints.
Alltranslationsshouldbemadeafterthedevelopmentofthequestionnaire,beforethefieldtesting.Thequestionnairemustbecompletelytestedinalllanguages.Anymodificationsthataremademustbemadeconsistentlyineachlanguageversionofthequestionnaire.Itisoftenuseful,attheendofthefieldtestingtohavenativespeakersofthevariouslanguageswhowerenotinvolvedinthefieldtestorquestionnairedevelopmenttranslateeachquestionnairebackintothelanguageoftheoriginalquestionnaireandcomparethem.Discrepanciesmustthenberesolvedineachofthetranslatedquestionnaires.
Translationofquestionnairesrequiresspecialattention.Itisextremelyimportantthateachquestionbeunderstoodinexactlythesamewaybyrespondentsregardlessofwhichlanguagequestionnaireisbeingused.Itisnotsufficienttotranslateonlythebasicideaofthequestion,thenuanceandexactmeaningmustalsobecaptured.Questionbyquestionexaminationofthetranslationistime-consumingandsufficientallowancemustbemadeinschedulingbothinquestionnairedevelopmentandinthepost-fieldtestmodificationofthequestionnaires.
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4.2FormatoftheHouseholdQuestionnaire
Theformatofthequestionnaireminimizesthedecisionsthatneedtobemadeinthefieldbyinterviewers.Thisencouragesconsistencyacrossinterviewersandreducesnon-samplingerror.TherearetwokeyfeaturesoftheformatoftheLSMSquestionnaires:
1.Everyquestioniswrittenexactlyasitissupposedtobeaskedbytheinterviewer.Lowercaselettersindicatesomethingthatistobereadtotherespondentduringtheinterview.UppercaselettersindicatesomethingthatisNOTtobereadaloud,butisonlyfortheinterviewer'sinformation.
2.Theskippatternismarkedclearlyonthequestionnaire.Thereisnoambiguityaboutwhoismeanttorespondtoasectionorabouttowheretheinterviewershouldproceedafteraspecificquestionorsectioniscompleted.SkipinstructionsareindicatedbyoneortwoarrowsfollowedbyQandanumber,apartorsectionofthequestionnaire,oranindicationtoaskthequestionsconcerningthepersonoriteminthenextrowofthequestionnairegrid.Twoarrowsindicateaninstructionthatappliesregardlessoftheresponsegiventothatquestion.Asinglearrowindicatesaninstructionthatonlyappliesifthatspecificanswerisgiven.
Thesedesignfeatures,togetherwiththeproceduresfollowedinthefieldworkandthedataentry,haveproducedhighqualitydatainmanyofthecountrieswhereLSMSsurveyshavebeenconducted.
Theorderofthesectionsinthehouseholdquestionnairereflectsthefollowingconsiderations:
1.Thehouseholdrostermustcomefirstinordertoidentifythepersonsthatmustbeinterviewed.Allindividualinformationiscollectedinthefirstroundofthesurveyinordertosubmitthedatato
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consistencycheckssothatinconsistenciescanbecorrectedinthesecondround.
2.Thehousingquestionsarealsoaskedinthefirstroundbecausetheinterviewermustestablishwhatconstitutesthedwellingforthepurposesofdefiningthehousehold.
3.Expenditureandconsumptionsectionsarecontainedinthesecondroundsothattheperiodbetweenthetwointerviews,twoweeks,canbeusedasareferenceperiod.
4.Themostsensitivesectionsofthesurvey,fertility,savingsandcreditareplacedattheendofthesurvey.
5.ThesectionsrequiringresponsesfromallormosthouseholdmembersareaskedinRoundOne.ArrangementscanthenbemadesothatthosemembersidentifiedinSection7asrespondentsforRoundTwowillbeavailabletobeinterviewedduringthesecondvisit.
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4.3AdaptingSpecificQuestions
Fourtypesofmodificationsmustbemadetoindividualquestions:responsecodes,addingquestions,droppingquestions,andmodifyingwording.
Inappropriateresponsesshouldbeexcludedfromthelistprovidedonthequestionnaire.Unnecessarycodesaddtothecomplexityofthequestionnaireandincreasethelikelihoodofincorrectcoding.Thosecodesarefrustratingtotheinterviewerandtotherespondent.Ontheotherhand,largenumbersofresponsesof''Other"wouldlimitsignificantlythevalueoftheanalysisthatthedatawillsupport.Allanalyticallyinterestinganddistinctpossibleresponsesshouldbeincluded.
Somequestionsincludedinthequestionnairewillnotpertaintoagivencountryandmustbedropped,forinstanceiftherewerenominimumwagelegislationinacountry,thenthequestiononwhetherornottherespondent'ssalaryissubjecttotheminimumwagewouldbeunnecessary.Aswithirrelevantresponsecodes,irrelevantquestionsirritaterespondents.Theyalsowastevaluabledataentrytime.
Ontheotherhand,inmanycases,questionswillneedtobeaddedinordertocaptureenoughinformationtoprovideusefulinsightstopolicymakers.Forinstance,becausethepracticeofpayingworkersalarieswithoutputoftheenterpriseratherthancashiswidespreadinmanycountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,thequestionnaireincludesacompletesetofquestionsaskingwhatpercentofdifferenttypesofpaymentswasmadeinkind.Receiptof$200worthofcarpeteachmonthissubstantiallydifferentfromthereceipt$200incash.ManyofthetypesofquestionsthatmustbeincludedwillbeclearfromdiscussionswithvariousMinistriesoncurrentpublicpolicy.Clever
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useofthefieldtestcanalsorevealpointswhereclarificationquestionsshouldbeincluded.
Anyadditionsordeletionsofquestionswillchangethenumberingofotherquestions.Itisveryimportantthatthesenumberchangesarethenaccuratelyreflectedinanyskipinstructionsonthequestionnaire.Itisextremelyimportantthatthelogicoftheskippatternsbemaintained.
Itwillalsobenecessarytomodifywordingofsomequestionstoeliminateanyambiguitythatthequestionmayposeinaspecificcountrysetting.Itmayalsobenecessarytochangewordinginordertoeliminateambiguitythatariseswhenthequestionnaireistranslatedintooneoftheotherlocallanguages.
4.4RevisingEntireSections
Insomecountriesentiresectionswillneedtobeexcludedoradded.Section8onRefugeesandDisplacedPersonswillnotberelevantincountrieswherethereisnosignificantrefugeepopulation.LSMSsurveysfromaroundtheworldhaveincludedawidevarietyofadditionalmodulesthathavenotbeenincludedinthequestionnairepresentedhere.Someexamplesinclude:anthropometricsformeasuringtheextentofmalnutritionamongchildren,aptitudeteststomeasurereadingandmathematicalskillsindependentlyofyearsofschooling,contraceptiveusemodulesthatcontainquestionsonknowledge,useandcurrentuseofeachtypeofcontraception.Privatizationandtheparticipationintheeconomicreformsmaybeimportantincapturingeconomicwell-beinginsomeofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.Environmentalandpollutionconcernscouldalsoformthebasisofanentiremoduleratherthanthesinglequestionincludedinsection2ofthisquestionnaire.
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4.5TopicSpecificGuidelines
Section0.InformationontheSurveyandInterviewerInstructions
Thepurposeofthesepagesisadministrative.Theformatreflectsthestructureofsamplingandthefieldworkprocedure.Thefirstlinewouldneedtobechangedifsamplingwerenotbasedonpopulationpoints.Ifthesurveywerenotconductedintworoundsthenthiswouldrequirechangesinthestructureofpages2,3,and4.Page3willneedtoreflecttheprocedureadoptedforcompletingthequestionnaireandcontrollingthequality.
Appropriatelanguageswillneedtobeaddedinthefirstboxofpage2forlanguageofhouseholdheadandlanguageofinterview.Ifinformationontheethnicityorlanguageoftherespondentsisnotsensitiveorifitislikelytovaryacrossmembersofthehousehold,thenquestionsonlanguageandethnicitycouldbeincludedinthehouseholdroster.Thepagenumbersinthetableonpage3willbechangedifchangesintherestofthequestionnaireincreasesorreducesthenumberofpages,orchangestheorder.
Box1.SpecifictermsinSection0.
Populationpoint(íàñåëåííûèïóíêò)isaplacewherepeoplelive.Itcanbeavillage,avillageofthetowntype,oratown.Nationalcensuseslistpopulationbypopulationpoint.Householdlistsaremaintainedforeachpopulationpointattheadministrativecenterofthatpopulationpoint.Thepopulationpointscanserveasthebasisforthefirststagesamplingintwostagesamplingdesigns.Thisishowevernottrueincities.Theentirecityisapopulationpointbuthouseholdlistsaremaintainedintheseparateraionsofthecity.
TheEnglishword"community"doesn'ttranslatewellintoRussiansothisphrase,populationpoint,alsotakestheplaceoftheword
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"community"intheappropriatequestions.IfsamplingdidnotusepopulationpointsthenthereferencestoPopulationPointandPPcodeontheinformationsheetwouldhavetobechangedtoreflectthesamplingclusterunitused.Referencestopopulationpointinquestionscouldbeleftunchangedbecauseitstillseemstobeavalidandusefulwaytoconveythesenseof"community".
RaionisaRussianwordthatcanbetranslatedregion,areaorzone.Itisalsohoweveraspecificlevelofgovernmentadministration,similartocountiesintheUnitedStatesorEngland.WhenraionisusedintheRussiantomeanregion,itistranslatedthatwayintheEnglishversionofthequestionnaire.Whenitreferstotheadministrativeregion,thenraionhasbeenpreservedintheEnglish.
Theinterviewerinstructionsexplainsomefeaturesofthequestionnaire.Theseincludetheuseofupperandlowercaseletterstodistinguishbetweenwhattheinterviewerseesandwhattheinterviewersaystotherespondentandtheuseofdouble, ,andsingle, ,arrowstoindicatewhetheraskipappliestoallrespondentsofthatquestionortoonlythoserespondentswhogiveaparticularresponse.
Implicitintheinterviewerinstructionsarealsothegroupsofpeopletobelistedonthehouseholdrosterandthedefinitionofhouseholdmember.Interviewersareaskedtolistallindividualswhonormallylive,eattheirmealstogetherandshareexpensesinthedwellingregardlessofwhetherornottheindividualwaspresentinthehouseholdthedaybefore.Householdmembersincludethehouseholdhead,childrenborninthelastthreemonths,individualsmarriedintothehouseholdinthelastthree
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months,andotherindividualswhowereabsentforfewerthanninemonthsofthelasttwelve.Servantsandpayinglodgersandtheirfamiliesformaseparatehouseholdandshouldbeinterviewedseparately.
Anydeviationsfromtheformatusedorthedefinitionofhouseholdmemberthatistobeappliedwillneedtobereflectedinmodificationstotheinterviewerinstructions.
Section1.HouseholdRoster
Thehouseholdrosterhasthreepurposes:1)toidentifyhouseholdmembers;2)toobtainbasicdemographicinformationonhouseholdmembersandotherpersonsresidingwiththehouseholdatthetimeoftheinterview;and3)tolinkhouseholdmemberswiththeirspouses,parentsandchildren.
Part1Aasksthename,age,sexandrelationshiptohouseholdheadofindividuals.Maritalstatusinaskedandmarriedorcohabitingindividualsareaskedtoidentifytheirspouseifs/heisamemberofthehousehold.Questionsonlengthofandreasonforabsenceallowforanalysistobedoneusingamorenarrowdefinitionofhouseholdmember.However,onceapersonisidentifiedinquestion11asnotbeingahouseholdmember,noadditionalinformationiscollectedonthatindividual.AfterthequestionsinPart1Aareanswered,therespondentsareshownthelistofindividualswhomeetthecriteriaforhouseholdmember.Respondentsaretheninstructedtoconsideronlythoseindividualswhenrespondingtoquestionsregardingthehousehold.
IntheRussianlanguagedifferentwordsareusedtoindicatespouse'sparentsdependingonwhetherthepersonisamanorawomanandthishasbeenreflectedinthetwoanswers6and7forquestion3.Differentiationsthatexistinotherlanguagesinthesurveycountry
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mayrequiretheadditionofothercategories.
Part1Bgathersinformationontheschoolingandprincipaloccupationofthemotherandfatherofeachhouseholdmember.Iftheindividual'smotherorfatherisalsoahouseholdmemberthenthatinformationiscollectedinSection3ofthequestionnaireandthereisaskipsothatschoolinginformationinnotcollectedinthissection.Parentalschoolingandoccupationareimportantexplanatoryvariablesinmanyanalyses;itisthusimportanttohavethisdatafortheparentsofallhouseholdmembers.TheeducationsystemoftheformerSovietUnionisdescribedbrieflyinBox2.
Part1Cgathersschoolingandresidenceinformationforthechildrenofhouseholdmemberswhodonotliveinthehousehold.Thelistisrestrictedtonon-residentchildrenunder20yearsofage.Thisinformationcanbeusedtomeasurethetotalinvestmentineducationofthehousehold.
Question15identifiesthetypeofplacewherethenon-residentchildrenareliving.IntheSovietUnion,administrativedivisionsincludedrepublics,oblasts,andraions.Everyvillageortownwasclassifiedasarepublicantown,anoblasttown,araiontown,atown,avillageofthetowntypeoravillage.Thedistinctionwasnotmadestrictlyonsizebutonadministrativeimportanceandlevelofinfrastructure.Avillageofthetowntypewouldbepredominantlyruralbuthavesomeindustrialactivity.Thepointis,thatthepopulationincludessomeworkersandnotjustpeasants.Thesedefinitionsmaybegintolosetheirrelevance,buttheyremainapplicableinmanyregions.
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Box2.Educationsystem
DuringtheSovietUnion,allfemaleworkersweregrantedthreeyearsofmaternityleaveafterthebirthofeachchild.Childrenfromage36attendedakindergarten.Atage6childrenenteredsecondaryschoolsrednyshkola.Secondaryschoolconsistsofupto10years,after8yearsstudentsreceivea8thclasscompletioncertificate.Thefirstthreeyearsofsecondaryschoolaresometimescalledprimaryschool,buttheyareallpartofsecondaryschool.After8class,somestudentsleavetheeducationalsystemaltogether.Theanswertoquestion4willthereforebeanumberbetween0and10indicatingthenumberofyearsclassescompletedinsecondaryschool.(Forabriefperiod,secondaryschoolscontained11classes.)
Studentswhodon'tleaveschoolat8thclass,takeanexaminRussianandMathematics.Thosewhoscoresatisfactorymarkscanbegintwoyearprofessionaltechnicalschoolsthatteachtechnicalvocationalskillssuchascarpentry,plumbing,welding.Atthesuccessfulcompletionofa2yearprogram,thestudentreceivesaprofessional-technicalschooldiploma.
Thosewhoscoreslightlybetteronthe8thclassexamandwishtopursueaprofessionbegina4yearprogramatasecondarytechnicalorspecializedsecondaryschools.Theseschoolsoffercoursesinparticularfields.Inthecaseofsecondarytechnicalschools,agriculture,constructionandcommercearecovered.Inthespecializedsecondaryschools,dentistry,nursing,art,music,architecturearetaught.Successfulcompletionofthefouryearprogramearnsthestudentasecondarytechnicalschooldiploma.Thestudentcanthenbeginwork,qualifyforentranceintoaprofessionalsecondaryinstitutebytakingtheentranceexam.Somestudentsenteruniversityaftersecondarytechnicalorspecialized
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secondaryschool.
Themostacademicstudentsandthosethatdon'tknowexactlywhichprofessiontheywanttofollowcontinueinsecondaryschoolto9thand10thclass.Thentheyreceiveasecondaryschoolcompletioncertificate.Aftersecondaryschoolstudentscanbeginwork,followtwoyearsatasecondarytechnicalorspecializedsecondaryschool,taketheexamtoenteraninstituteortaketheexamtoenterauniversity.
Highereducationalinstitutionsincludeuniversitiesandinstitutes.Universitiesoffermanyartsandscienceprograms.Institutesofferallothertechnicalandprofessionalprogramsincludingmedicine,engineeringandforeignlanguages.Aftersuccessfulcompletionofa5yearprogramataninstituteorauniversitythestudentreceivesahighereducationdiploma.Throughadditionalpostgraduateworkininstitutesoruniversities,astudentcanearnthecandidateofscienceordoctorofscience,inthatorder.Theanswertoquestion5willbeanumberbetween0and10indicatingthenumberofyearsspentintotalinthefollowingeducationalinstitutions:professionaltechnicalschool,secondarytechnicalschool,specializedsecondaryschool,institutesanduniversities.
Theanswertoquestion6willprovideinformationonwhethertherespondentfinished8thor10thclassofsecondaryschool,finishedoneofthethreesecondaryinstitutes,orcompletedaprograminauniversityorinstitute(answer6).
Atthepresenttime,maternityleavesarefarlesswidespreadbutthereisalsoagreatdealofunemploymentamongwomen.Manykindergartenshaveclosed.Childrenstartsecondaryschoolatage7.Inmanycountriesschoolingthroughthe8thclassisnolongermandatory.Atalllevelsthereareanincreasingnumberofprivateestablishments.Sometimestheseprivateestablishmentreplicateexistinginstitutions,forexamplekindergartens.Inothercases,the
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overlapisnotcomplete.Forexample,thereareprivateschoolsthatteachonlythefirst6yearsofsecondaryschool,religiousschoolsthatfollowacompletelydifferentcurriculum,anduniversitiesthatattempttoreplicatethewestern4yearBAand5yearMAprograms.Someofthenewuniversitiesofferprogramspreviouslyavailableonlyininstitutes.
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Section2.Dwelling
Part2Agathersinformationontype,size,andconstructionmaterialsofthedwelling.Thesecharacteristicsoftenreflectsocio-economicstatusandlivingstandards.InthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,yearofconstructionisalsoageneralindicatorofqualityofhousing,especiallyforapartments.Responsecategoriesfortypeofdwellingandconstructionmaterialsmayrequiremodification.6Thequestiononfloorofbuildingisincludedbecauseitcanimpactconvenience,security,waterpressureandotheraspectsofdailylife.
Part2Bgathersinformationonownership/rentalofhousing,monthlypaymentsforthedwellingincashandinkind,estimatedsaleandrentalvaluesarecollectedforhouseholdsthatowntheirdwelling.InthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,housingmarketsandrentalmarketsarenotwell-developed.Inruralareastheyarevirtuallynon-existent.Estimatesofthevalueofthedwellingareimportantforestimatingtheexpendituresandsocio-economiclevelofthehouseholdbutitmaybeverydifficultorimpossibleforhouseholdstoanswerthesequestions.Fieldtestsshoulddeterminewhetherthesequestionscanbeaskedtoallhouseholdsorifadditionalquestionsandskippatternsmustbeintroduced,sothat,forinstance,onlyurbanhouseholdsareaskedtoestimatearentalvalue.
IntheSovietUnion,dwellingshousesandapartmentscouldbeowned.Adistinctionwasmadebetweenproductiveandnot-productivecapital.Privateownershipwasonlyforbiddeninthecaseofproductivecapitallandandfactories.Eachfamilycouldownonlyonedwelling.Eachmemberofthatfamilywouldberegisteredtoliveinthatresidence.Itwasrareanddifficult,thoughnotunheardof,forpeopletoliveinplacesdifferentfromwheretheywereregistered.Peoplecaughtlivingwithoutregistrationcouldbesenttoprison.Privatizationprogramssinceindependencehavevariedfromcountry
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tocountry.Often,eachfamilywasprovidedwithcouponsthatcouldbeusedtopurchasethedwellingtheywerelivingin.
"Cooperativearrangements"describethesituationinwhichagroupofpeoplehaveformedacooperativecounciltocollectmoneyfromseveralpeoplewhoareinterestedinpurchasinganapartment.WiththemoneycollectedandaloanfromtheState,thecooperativecouncilconstructedanapartmentbuilding.Overthecourseofseveralyears,residentsmakepaymentstothecooperativecouncilandthecooperativecouncilpaysofftheloantotheState."Swapped"describesthefairlycommonoccurrenceoftwofamiliesgoingtothelocalauthoritiesandreportingthat,forexample,sincethechildrenoffamilyAhavegrownandlefttheapartmentandfamilyBisgrowingandmoreinneedofalargerapartment,thetwofamilieswouldliketoswapapartments.Thechangeofresidencewouldthenbenotedofficiallyinthepassportsofbothfamilies.
Ifrentisoftenpaidordenominatedinwesterncurrency,thenthisshouldbenoted.Theresponsecategoriesmayvaryfromcountrytocountry.Ifwesterncurrenciesareneverusedthenthispartofquestion13couldbedropped.Ontheotherhand,ifthepracticeexists,butisillegal,thenthequestionmaybeextremelysensitiveandrequiresomemodification.
Forallhouseholds,questionsareaskedcoveringthewater,bathing,toilet,lighting,cooking,heatingandtelephone.Availability,typeoffacility,andqualityofserviceofutilitiescanhavean
6Answercode1toquestion8isASBESTOSSHEETS.ThisanswerontheRussianversioncouldbetranslated,slate,butthesamewordreferstocorrugatedasbestossheets.Slate-roofedhousesareextremelyrare.
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importantimpactonthehealth,timerequirementsandgenerallivingstandardsoftheindividualsinthehousehold.Questionsshouldbedroppedoraddedtoreflecttheconcernswithinthesurveycountryregardingquality,availabilityandregularityofservice.Ifavailabilityofelectricityorwaterisrestricted,thenitmattersintermsofinconvenience,costandhealthriskifitisrestrictedtoafixedperiodeachdayoriftheperiodsofnon-availabilityareunpredictable.Italsomatterswhetherthequantityandqualityaregood,consistent,predictablyvariableorunpredictablyvariable.Itisnotsufficienttoknowwhetherserviceisperfectorimperfectbecausedifferenttypesofimperfectionsrepresentdifferentlevelsofinconvenienceandrequiredifferentexpendituresandposedifferenthealthrisks.
InmostsizablecitiesinthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,hotwaterisproducedinafactoryoutsidethecenteroftownandpipedthroughthecitytoprovideheatthroughradiatorsandhotwatertotheindividualdwellingsandbusinesses.Abanyaisaroomdedicatedtobathing.Normally,thebanyacontainsastoveforheatingtheroomandhotandcoldwateravailableeitherthroughpipesorincisterns.Theroomcontainsacoupleofbenchesandthereisadraininthemiddleofthefloor.Thewordbanyacouldalsorefertoasimpleroomintowhichpeoplegowithabuckettoshower.Aholeinthewallnearthefloorallowswatertodrainoutofthebuilding.Asaunaislikeabanyawiththestovebutthereisnorunningwaterinasauna.Publicbanyascanbeverylargeestablishmentsthatincludesaunas,hotpools,coolpools,showers.Notallresidencesandbusinesseshavephones.Itiscommoneveninthecitiesforpeopletorelyonneighborstopassonphonemessages.Othertimespeoplerelyonphonesinnearbybusinesses.Intownstherearepublicphonesinthepostofficeandtelephoneserviceoffice.
Part2Balsocollectsinformationontheamountofmoneyspentforthelastmonthforeachofthehouseholdutilities.Ifthecostsofthese
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serviceshasvarieddramaticallyoverthe12monthsbeforethesurveyandifthesevariationshavedifferedfordifferentpartsofthecountry,thenitmaybenecessarytoasknotonlyforthelastmonthbutamonthlyaverageforthelastyear.
Section3.Education
Schoolingisoftenanimportantobjectiveofpublicpolicy.Schoolingisalsooftenfoundtobeanimportantdeterminantofindividualandhouseholdbehavior.Theeducationsectioncontainsthreeparts:attainmentandexpenditures,careofchildrenandtraining.InPartAself-reportedliteracyandnumeracy,yearsofschoolingcompleted,highestdegreeattained,attendanceandexpenditureoneducationarecollectedforeachindividual7yearsandolder.Thecutoffof7yearsmaybeloweredifsixorfiveyearoldchildrenoftenattendschool.Responsecategoriesforquestions1and10shouldbespecifiedtoreflecttheimportanceofvariouslanguagesinthesurveycountry.Questions1-3mayberedundantorpoliticallysensitivedependingonthesituationinthesurveycountry.Forquestion3,literacyinanylanguagemaybesufficient.Ontheotherhand,languageofliteracyandinstructionmaybeanindicatorofthequalityofinstruction.Itwillbenecessarytofindanacceptablewordingsothattheinformationmaybegatheredwithoutgivingoffense.
SincethedissolutionoftheSovietUnion,thenumberofchildrenwhodonotattendschoolorwholeaveschoolearlyisbelievedtobeincreasing.Question13and25askthereasonsfornonattendance.Alsosinceindependence,thestructureofeducationalinstitutionsisdiversifying.Questionsmayneedtobeaddedormodifiedinordertocapturenewaswellasoldstructures.
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ThesecondpageofPart3Aasksfortheamountspentbyitemforeachindividualinthelast12months.Detailedschoolingexpendituresarecollectedtoensurecompleterecallofallexpenditures.Italsopermitsanalysisofthecomponentsofeducationexpenditureanddistributionofhouseholdexpenditureonschoolingamongchildreninthehousehold.Informationonthedistancetoschooliscollectedbecausethecostintimeandmoneyoftravellingtoschoolcanaffectenrollmentandattendance.
Anotherpost-independencechangecommoninthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,isthelossofemployer-providedchildcare.Part3Bcollectsinformationonuseofchildcarefacilitiesandontheamountspentonchildcareinthelastmonthforeachchildundertheageof7inthehousehold.
Part3Cgathersinformationforallhouseholdmembersage16andolderonthetypeofandamountspentfortrainingotherthanformalschooling.ThequestionsinthissectionshouldreflectthetypeoftrainingprogramsofferedbytheMinistryofLaborandotherinstitutionsandelicittheinformationnecessaryforevaluatingcoverage,usage,applicabilityoftheexistingprogram.
Onallquestionsconcerninglabor,labortrainingandjobclassification,itisverydifficulttomakeWesterndistinctionsmakesense.IntheSovietUnion,allpeopleareeitherclerks,workersorpeasants."Clerk"isextremelybroadandincludesbankers,functionaries,hairdressers,electricaltechniciansandsalesclerks.ItisextremelydifficulttophraseaquestionsothattheDeputyPresidentoftheBankcanbedistinguishedfromthesecurityguard,telephoneoperatororcleaner.Thatistosaythatdegreeofresponsibility,autonomyandphysicallaborcannotbeinferredfromtheanswertoasinglequestion.
IntheSovietUnion,workersofalllevelsandprofessionstook
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trainingcoursesinordertoobtainahigherqualification.Thegovernmentchauffeurandthefactoryaccountantwouldbothrespond"togetahigherqualification"whenaskedwhatwasthepurposeofthelasttrainingcoursetaken.Itseemsthatinmanycasesthetrainingdidn'tfocusonparticularskills.Itisnotclearthatrespondentswillunderstandthedistinctionbetweenprofessionalskillsandtechnicalskills.(Workerswhoweldalltheirlivesareprofessionalweldersandiftheyfollowacoursetolearntoweldbetterthentheyhaveimprovedtheirprofessionalskills.)
Section4.Health
Likeeducation,healthisaprimaryconcernofpublicpolicyandaveryimportantindicatorofthestandardoflivingofindividuals.Thepurposeofsection4isascertaingenerallevelofhealthofhouseholdmembers,theutilizationofhealthfacilities,andthelevelofexpenditureonconsultations,medicines,treatmentandhospitalization.Section4containsfourparts:chronicillnessanddisability,recentillnessorinjury,generalhealth,andactivitiesofdailyliving.Chronicillnessanddisabilityareincludedinaseparatesectionbecausechronicillnessaffectsdemandforhealthservices,expenditureonhealthservicesandstandardoflivingdifferentlyfromacuteorshort-termillnessorinjury.
Theinformationrequestedhereisnotintendedtomeasureallhealthcareutilizationortomeasuretheincidenceofillnesses.7Theinformationisintendedtoanalyzetheuseofhealthcare
7Thelatterpointisespeciallyimportant.Ingeneral,LSMSsurveyscover20005000households.Therelativelysmallsamplesizehasmanyadvantagesandonlyafewdrawbacks.However,oneofthosedrawbacksis
(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
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facilities.Onlyoneillnessorinjuryisrecorded,althoughanindividualmayhavehadmorethanoneinthelastfourweeks.Thequestionnairecontainsquestionsonthefirstapplicationforcare,onasecondapplicationforcareandafewquestionsonadditionaltreatmentandhospitalization.Ifshorteningthequestionnairewereahighprioritythenquestionscouldbelimitedonlytothefirstconsultation.Whilethismaynotbeanimportantlimitationincountrieswherehealthfacilitiesarenotnumerous,itmaybeaseriouslimitationincountriesoftheformerSovietUnionwherethereisalargenumberandvarietyofhealthfacilities.
InthetransitionalhealthsystemoftheformerSovietUnionmanystatehealthfacilitiesareindisarrayandprivatehealthenterprisesarenotwidespread.Forinstance,patientsrequiringanoperationaregivenalistofmedicinesandsuppliesneeded.Whenthepatientobtainseverythingonthelistthenthesurgerycanbeperformed.Theremaybenochargefortheoperation,butinfactagreatdealmayhavebeenspenttogetputonthescheduleandobtainallthesupplies.Thishasbeenreflectedinthewordingoftheexpenditurequestionsinthissection.
Itisverycommonforhealthprofessionalsandhealthfacilitiestodemandinformalpaymentorcashorinkindevenforservicesthatare,inprinciple,tobeprovidedfreeofcharge.Themostcommonsituationobservednowistohavehealthcareworkersinstatefacilitiesmakinginformalchargestothepatientsinordertoprovidethemselveswithasalary.Sometimesthesepaymentsarequitesmallandoptional;evenbeforeindependence,peoplewouldoftentakesmallgiftssuchasaboxofteawiththemwhentheygotothedoctor.Inothercases,thepaymentisquitehighandactuallyabribethatmustbepaidinordertoreceivesomeserviceanythingfromanappointment,toaprescription,tocleanbedsheets.Facilitiesarenotsufficientlysupportedandoperatewithlittleornoequipment.
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Responsecodesinquestion6and7(and16and17)shouldbeadjustedtoreflecttheexistingoptionsforhealthcareinthesurveycountry.Notethatquestionsregardingemployerprovidedhealthanddentalbenefitsareaskedintheeconomicactivitiessectionofthequestionnaire.Ifprivatehealthinsurancethatisnotemployer-relatedexists,questionsofmedical/dentalinsuranceexpendituresshouldbeaddedtotheexpendituresectionandquestionsofcoverageofexpensesbyinsuranceshouldbeaddedtothehealthsection.
(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
thatwhileeventsthataffectarelativelyhighproportionofthepopulation,forexampleschoolenrollment,canbeestimatedwithprecision;eventsthataffectaverysmallproportionofthepopulation,forexampleincidenceofacertainillness,cannotbeestimatedwithacceptableprecision.ForafullerdiscussionofsamplesizeinLSMSsurveys,seeGroshandMuñoz,1996.
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Box3.TermsintheHealthsection.
Doctorsmuststudyatleast5yearsattheInstituteandobtainadiplomaofsuperioreducation.
Nursesstudyatasecondaryspecializedschoolfor4yearsafter8yearsofsecondaryschool.
Feldshersstudy4yearsatasecondaryspecializedschoolafter10yearsofsecondaryschool.Theyareabletodomostofthethingsdoctorsdo,treatillness,prescribemedication,dominorsurgery.Theydonothavetherighttodospecializedsurgery.
Ahealermeansatraditionalhealer.
Apolyclinicprovidesgeneralhealthserviceandisthefirstpointofaddressformosthealthproblems.Thedoctorsthenreferpatientstohealthcenters,hospitalsandclinics.Alltypesofdoctorsandtherapistscanbefoundatpolyclinics.Polyclinicshavefacilitiesforminorsurgerybutthereisnoin-patientcare.
Afeldsherpostservesthepurposeofapolyclinicinavillagetoosmallorremotetosupportapolyclinic.Afeldsherpostisgenerallyverysmall,perhapsoneroom,andstaffedbyafeldsherwhomayormaynotbeassistedbyanurse.Firstaidandgeneralmedicalcareareprovided.Forspecialsurgeryandothertreatmentinvolvingspecialequipmentorspecially-trainedhealthcareprofessionals,areferralismadetoanotherhealthfacility.
Awoman'sconsultationislikeapolyclinicbutconcernsonlywomenwhoarepregnantorsufferingfromillnessesofthefemaleorgans.Thereisnoin-patienttreatment.Abortionsatlessthan5weeksareperformedinthewoman'sconsultation.
Amaternityhomehasin-patientfacilitiesforwomentogivebirth.Surgeryonfemaleorgansisalsoperformedatthematernityhome.
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Abortionsafterthe5thweekaredoneinmaternityhomes.
Ahealthcenter(dispenserinRussianbutnotdispensaryinEnglish)providescareforaspecifictypeofseriousillnesssuchascancer,sexualdiseases,orlungproblems.Careisgivenbydoctorsandnursesandtherearefacilitiesforin-patientcare.
Ahospitalisbiggerthanahealthcenterandprovidescareandsurgeryforallmaladies.
Aclinicprovidesexperimentaltreatmentandconductsscientificexperiments.Forinstance,cancerpatientsmaygotoaclinictoparticipateinatrialofthelatesttreatmenttechniques.
Asanatoriumisacombinationhospital/nursinghome/healthspa.Eachsanatoriumisdevotedtothecareofaspecifictypeofhealthproblem.Holisticcareisprescribedincludingmedication,diet,exercise,useofnaturalspringsandothernaturalphenomenabelievedtohavecurativepowersinthetreatmentofthespecificdisease.Onlylong-term(usually24days)in-patientcareisavailable.
Section5.EconomicActivities
TheeconomicactivitiessectionoftheLSMSquestionnaire,whichcontainstenparts,isoneofthelongestandmostcomplicated.Thecomplexityarisesfromtheneedtocaptureaccuratelytheoccupation,benefitsandearningsofallhouseholdmembersincludingthosewhoareself-employedorinvolvedininformallaboractivities.
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Allrespondents7yearsorolderaretoanswerpartA.8Respondentswhohaveworkedinaprofitablebusiness,arelative'senterprise,orathuntingoragriculturalactivitiesinthelast7daysproceedfrompartAtopartC.Respondentsnotinvolvedinthoseactivitiesinthelast7daysbutwhowereinvolvedinthelast12monthsproceedtopartE.Respondentswhodidnotworkinthelast12monthsbutwholookedforajobinthelast7daysproceedtopartBforquestionsonjobsearchandthentopartIforquestionsonothertimeuse.RespondentswhodidnotworkanddidnotlookforworkansweraquestiononthereasonfornotlookingforworkandthenproceedtopartI.
Part5Cisthelongestandcontainsquestionsonhoursofwork,earningsfromwork,salaries,benefitsandotherrenumerationincashandinkind,andworkconditionsforthemainworkinthepast7days.TwocharacteristicsofemploymentinthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnionarereflectedinthequestionsinthissection.Thefirstisthat,intheSovietUnion,aperson'splaceofemploymentservedasthepointofcontactbetweenthegovernmentandtheindividual.Benefits,includingchildandbreadallowances,weredistributedthroughenterprisesaspartoftheindividual'spaycheck.Theenterprisewasthesourceofawiderangeofmaterialbenefitsincludingchildcare,maternityleave,healthcare,sanatoriumandvacationvouchers,reducedpricefoodstuffs,eventicketstotheoperawouldoftenbedistributedthroughtheenterprise.Benefitsandresourceswouldbeallocatedamongenterprisesbythegovernmentandthenitwaslefttotheenterprisestoallocatethosebenefitsamongitsemployees.Enterprisesreceivedacertainallotmentofdaysinresthomesandsanatoriafortheiremployees,theseweregiventotheemployeesandconstitutedareduced-price(sometimesfree)stayataresort.Itwasalsotheenterprisethatwouldberesponsiblefortheallocationofsicklists.9Sincethebreak-upoftheplannedeconomy,manyenterprisesarenolongerabletoprovideallofthesebenefits
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becausethegovernmentisnolongerprovidingthem.
Inadditiontothedeteriorationofthesebenefits,manyenterprisesrunwagearrearsanditiscommonforemployeestobepaidinoutputfromtheenterprise.Thequestionsinthissectionhavebeendesignedtocaptureboththemagnitudeofnon-wagebenefitsreceivedandtheextenttowhichemployeeshavelostbenefits.
Part5Dcollectsinformationonhoursworkedandtypeofactivityofadditionalworkundertakeninthelast7days,ifrespondentansweredyestoquestion61inpart5C.Respondentswhoworkedinthelast7daysandthosewhoworkedinthelast12monthsthenanswerthequestionsinpart5Eonsearchforadditionalemployment.
Part5Freplicatesthequestionsinpart5Conworkhours,conditionsandrenumerationforrespondentswhoworkedinthelast12monthsbutnotinthelast7daysandforrespondentswhosemainjobinthelast12monthsdifferedfromtheirmainjobinthelast7days.Part5Gasksquestions
8Again,thechoiceofcutoffagewillreflectatrade-off.Itisunnecessarilytime-consumingtoaskquestionsofhouseholdmemberswhoarenotinvolvedinthelaborforce.Ontheotherhand,itisimportantthatallcontributionstohouseholdlaborincomearecaptured.Thefieldtestshouldusethelowestreasonableage,thecut-offagecouldthenbeadjustedupwardiftheresultsofthefieldtestshowthatnochildrenbelowagivenageareworking.9Asicklistisabluepieceofpaperprovidedbythedoctortothepatientindicatingtheillnessandtheprescribedperiodoftreatment.Presentationofasicklistentitledtheworkertodaysoffwith100%payforthespecifiedtime,usually3daysatfirst,withthepossibilityofextensionsto30daysandlongerinexceptionalcases.
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onemploymenthistory,5Honadditionalworkinthelast12months,5Ionotheractivitiesand5Jonotherincome.ThetypesofincomelistedinPart5Jreflectthemonetarybenefitsthatareearnedbyindividualsbutarenotrelatedtoemployment.Thislistshouldbelengthenedtoincludeallbenefitsthatmaybeavailabletoindividualsinthesurveycountry.Anybenefitsthatarenolongerpaidshouldbeexcluded.InformationonhouseholdincomethatdoesnotaccruetoanysingleindividualisgatheredinSection14.
OtherthanthelistofitemsinPart5J,Section5shouldnotrequiresubstantialrevision.However,questionsinPart5C,andthoseinPart5G,shouldincludeallrelevantjobbenefitsandrenumerationandcurrentlegislation.Forexample,iftherewerenominimumwagelawthenquestion52wouldnotberelevant.
Section6.Migration
Questionsinthemigrationsectionareaskedofallhouseholdmembersage15andolder.Migrationofyoungerhouseholdmembersispresumedtobelinkedtothemigrationoftheirparents.However,itispossiblethattheiraremanychildrenmovingawayfromtheirparents'householdintoarelative'shousehold.Ifsuchapracticewerecommoninthesurveycountrythenloweringtheagecutoffforthemigrationsectionshouldbeconsidered.
Governmentpolicycanhavedirectandindirecteffectsoninternalandinternationalmigrationandmigrationisoneofthewaysahouseholdcanimproveitsstandardofliving.Ontheotherhand,migrationmayhavebeenforcedandactuallyresultinasignificantdropinstandardofliving.Theinformationgatheredinthissectioncanaidtheanalysisoftheimpactofvariouspoliciesandconditionsonmigrationofthepopulationandofthelaborforce.
Thissectionincludesquestionsonthesizeoftheplaceofbirth,
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registrationatcurrentplaceofresidence,reasonforleavingplaceofbirth,reasonforcomingtocurrentplaceofresidenceandnumberofplaceslivedduringrespondent'slife.ResidentsoftheSovietUnionwererequiredtoberegisteredintheirplaceofresidence,movementamonghousesandamongtownswasrestricted.Accesstoemployment,healthandotherpublicserviceswouldbelimitedforpeoplewhowerenotproperlyregistered.TheimportanceofregistrationandtherangeofservicestiedtoregistrationisnowlikelytovaryamongthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.
Conditionsinthesurveycountrywilldeterminethenationalitiesspecifiedinquestion1andthereasonslistedinquestions8and12.
Section7.RespondentsforRoundTwo
TheLSMSquestionnaireisdesignedtobeadministeredintworoundstwoweeksapart.Thisstructureservesseveralpurposes:itallowsforomissionsandinconsistenciesintheanswersprovidedinthefirstroundtobeclarifiedanditestablishesaclearreferenceperiodthatwillbeusedintheconsumptionmodule.Thepurposeofsection7istoidentifytherespondentswhowillbeinterviewedinthesecondround.Themostknowledgeablehouseholdmemberisaskedtoidentifyanyrefugeesordisplacedpersonsinthehousehold,thememberofthehouseholdwhoismostknowledgeableregardingagriculturalactivities,otherhouseholdenterprises,businesses,shoppingforfood,andhousehold
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expensesandincome.Finally,inquestion12theinterviewerselectsonewomanfromamongthewomenofthehouseholdbetweentheagesof15and50torespondtoSection13onfertility.
Section8.DisplacedPersonsandRefugees
ThedissolutionoftheformerSovietUnionhasresultedinlargescalemovementofpopulationinmanyplaces.DuringtheSovietUniontherewasagreatdealofforcedmigrationofvariousethnicitiesfromoneregionoftheUSSRtoanother.Peoplehavetakenadvantageofthebreakuptoreturntotheiroriginalplaceofresidence.FightingandwarsinAzerbaijan,Tadjikistanandelsewherehavecreatedrefugeepopulations.AspecialquestionnairesectiononDisplacedpersonsandrefugeeswillnotbenecessaryinmostofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,butinsomecountriesrefugeesmakeupalargeproportionofthepopulationandareofsignificantpublicpolicyimportance.
ThequestionsinPart8Acovertheamountofcontactbetweentherefugeesandtheircommunityfromtheplaceoforigintodetermineifthatcommunitystructurecanbeusedintheorganizationofsocialservices.Therearealsoquestionsontheamountandtypeofassistancethatthesehouseholdmembersarecurrentlyreceiving.Thisisimportantintheevaluationofhouseholdeconomicsituation.Questionsonsourceandtypeofassistancemustbetailoredaccordingtothereliefprograminthecountry.
Part8Baskswhichhouseholdassetswererefugeesabletobringwiththemandwhichtheyexpecttobeabletorecoveriftheyreturn.Thesequestionscanprovideimportantinsightsintothecurrentlivingsituationandneedsoftherefugeepopulationsandintotheirneedsiftheyweretoreturn.Therelevanceofthesequestionsandthewaytheyshouldbephrasedwilldependonthecauseofmigrationandvaryfromonecountrytothenext.
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Section9.Agro-PastoralActivities
Theagriculturalsectionisverylongandcomplicatedreflectingthefactthatagriculturalassetsareanimportantstoreofwealthaswellasbeingasourceofincome.ThesectionisfurthercomplicatedbythevarietyofagriculturalentitiesinthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.LandownershipisaverycontentiousissuethroughouttheSovietUnion.Manyplaceshavebegunprivatizationoflandbutitisthelongtermrightstousetheland,notthelanditself,thatcanbebought,soldandowned.Thelawsthatapplytoownershipofhousesandapartmentsdifferfromthosethatapplytolandbecauseofthedistinctionbetweenproductiveandnon-productivecapital.
IntheSovietUnion,allfarmingwasdonebySovhozes(statefarms)andkolhozes(collectivefarms).Sovhozesaregenerallymuchlargerthankolhozesandtheyarerundifferently.SovhozesareanalogoustoStateenterprises.Inadditiontothecropsandanimalstherewouldbesomeindustrialproductionfacilities,forexample,acheesefactorywithadairyfarm.SovhozesweremanagedbyadirectorappointedbytheState.Kolhozeswerefarmercollectives.Thefarmerselectedapresidenttorunthefarmbutmanydecisionsregardingproductionandthedivisionofworkweremadebyacounselofthefarmers.Kolhozesexercisedsomedegreeofautonomy.Landwasfarmedtogether,vehicles,buildings,fuelwerepurchasedandownedjointly.Inadditiontothelandthatwasjointlyfarmedbythecollective,eachmemberwasallottedlandforagardenplotandaccesstograzingland.Theworkofthefarmerswasveryspecialized.Somefarmersoperatedthetractors,otherswereresponsiblefor
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irrigation,othersforweeding.AllbusinessandmarketingdecisionsweredelegatedtotheRegionalCommitteeoftheCommunistPartyandtheMinistryofAgriculture.
Theentireagriculturalsectionwillneedtobeadaptedtoreflectthestateofprivatizationandagriculturalreforminthecountry.Forexample,ifthereisnoprivateownershipofland,thenquestions2through6fromPart9Ashouldbeexcluded.
Section10.Non-farmSelf-Employment
Section10includesquestionsthatcoverworkingconditions,assets,expendituresandrevenuesforuptothreetrades,businesses,productionandprofessionalservicesthatmembersofthehouseholdownorrun.Thepurposeistomeasurenetincomeofthehouseholdfromnon-farmbusinessesrunorownedbymembersofthehouseholdandtoprovideanestimateofthevalueoftheassetsofthosebusinesses.
Thereferenceperiodforexpendituresandrevenuesisleftopenfortherespondenttospecifyanamountandatimeframe.Forexample,therespondentcouldreportspending$10aweekor$520ayear.Theflexibilityisadvantageousbecauseifatimeframeisspecified,thentherespondentisrequiredtodosomementaldivisionormultiplication.Thespecificationofashorttimeframealsoopensthepossibilitythatsometypesofexpenditureswillbemissed.Ontheotherhand,inconditionsofinflationitmaybenecessarytoknowwhenthelastexpenditurewasmade.
Section11.ExpendituresandDurableGoods
Oftenhouseholdconsumptionexpenditureisusedineconomicanalysisratherthanhouseholdincomeasanindicatorofhouseholdeconomicwell-beingbecauseconsumptionexpenditureislessvolatile.Expenditureamountsarecollectedinseveralpartsofthe
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questionnaire:housingandutilityexpendituresarecollectedinSection2,educationexpendituresinSection3,healthexpendituresinSection4,andfoodexpendituresinSection12.Section11collectsamountofexpenditureondailyitems(Part11A)andotherannualexpenses(Part11B).
Part11Aasksforamountspenton14categoriesofdailyuseitems.Thereferenceperiodis''sincemylastvisit"whichisintendedtobetwoweeks.Ifadifferentfieldworkscheduleisusedthenthereferenceperiodmustbeamendedsothatitrepresentsthesamelengthoftimeforeachhousehold.
AnnualexpensesaregatheredinPart11B.Asinglerecallperiodof12monthsisused.Inconditionsofhighinflation,itmaybenecessarytouseashorterrecallperiod.Ashorterrecallperiodwouldhavetheadditionaladvantageofincreasingtheaccuracyoftheresponses,asitisadmittedlydifficulttoestimatetheamountspentinthelastyear.Useofashorterrecallperiodmeansthatinfrequentlypurchaseditemsareoftenmissed.Inestimatingaverageexpenditureacrosshouseholdsthiswouldnotposeaproblembutitdoesposeaproblemintryingtocalculateexpenditurefiguresthatarecomparableacrosshouseholds;ahouseholdthatpurchasedacarwithinthetwoweeksbeforethesurveywouldlookmuch"richer"thanotherhouseholdswhentheexactoppositemaybethecase.
Part11Cgathersinformationonthetype,valueandyearofpurchaseof19typesofdurablegoods.Withthisinformation,analysisusingthedatacanincludeownershipofcertaindurablegoodstocontrolforwealthofthehousehold.Itisalsopossibletocalculateause-valueofthedurablegoodsthat
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areownedbythehouseholdandimputeduse-valuecanthenbeaddedtohouseholdexpendituretocapturemorecompletelytheeconomicpositionofthehousehold.OftenusersofLSMSsurveysaremoreinterestedindistinguishingpoorfrommoderatehouseholdsratherthanrichfromveryrichhouseholdsandthelistofdurablegoodsinPart11Creflectsthatpropensity.
InmanyofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnionthesaleofhouseholddurablegoodshasbecomeacommonwayofsupportingconsumptionespeciallyamongpensioners.Inordertomeasuretheimpactofthisinsurveyhouseholds,questionshavebeenincludedinPart11Ctogatherinformationonitemssoldandmoneyearnedfromdurablegoodsalesinthelast12months.ThereportedamountscanbecomparedtothosereportedinSection14.
Value,yearofacquisition,resalevalue,andrentalincome,ifany,forRealEstateAssetsotherthanthedwellingandagriculturaluselandarecollectedinPart11D.Theapplicabilityandcontentofthissectionwilldependonthelegalsituationinthecountryofthesurvey.
HouseholdexpenditureonmoneyandgoodssentasremittancestoindividualswhoarenotmembersofthehouseholdisincludedinPart11E.Questionsareincludedtoidentifytheindividualinthehouseholdwhoisthesourceoftheremittanceandthetypeofrelationandsizeoftownoftherecipient.
Section12.FoodExpenditureandConsumption
Measuringfoodconsumptionofhouseholdsisveryimportantformanyreasons.Foodoftenaccountsforalargeshareoftotalhouseholdexpenditure,especiallyinpoorerhouseholds.Also,thehealthandwell-beingofindividualsdependsonthetypesandamountoffoodthatarebeingeateninthehousehold.InmanyofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,foodpricestoconsumersarestillsetor
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supportedbythegovernment.Measuringconsumptionpatternsisimportanttotheanalysisoftheincidenceofsuchsubsidies.Fifty-sevenfoodcategorieshavebeenincluded.Itisimportanttocapturethemostimportantitemsinthelocaldiet,avarietyoffoods,andthosefoodsthataresubjecttopublicpolicy.Thecontentofthelistmayneedtobeadaptedforthesurveycountry.
Box5.TermsintheFoodCategories
Groatscontainsbuckwheatandoats.
TheRussianwordforcategory20istranslatedvegetablemarrowwhichincludespumpkins,squash,zucchini,etc.butnotcantaloupeorothermelons.
GrapescanbeconsideredberriesandnotfruitinRussian.
Watermelonsandmelonsarealsonotconsideredfruit.
Otherfruitswouldincludepeaches,pears,plums.
Section13.Childbearing
PopulationgrowthandfertilityarenotusuallyproblemsofthesamemagnitudeinthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnionastheyareinmanycountriesinAfricaandAsia.PopulationgrowthwasquitelowintheSovietUnionanditremainslowamongtheethnicRussianpopulationsinmanyoftheindependentcountries.Atthesametime,fertilityandpopulationgrowthamongthenon-Russian
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populationsisoftenhigher.Also,infantmortalityisahealthprobleminmanyofthecountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.
Section13containsthecompletelistofthelivebirthsofthewomanchoseninSection7fromamongallofthewomeninthehouseholdage15to50torespondtothequestionsonfertility.Therearealsoquestionsonwhenshebegansexualrelations,thenumberofmiscarriagesandabortionsshehasexperiencedandonthebreastfeedingofhermostrecentchild.
InalmostallcountriesoftheformerSovietUnion,accesstomodernmeansofcontraceptionisverylimited.IntheSovietUnionabortionwasthemostwidely-usedmeansoflimitingorspacingbirths.Forthisreason,questionsonuseofbirthcontrolarelimitedtotwoquestionsinSection4Congeneralhealth.Iffamilyplanningandcontraceptionaretheobjectofcurrentgovernmenteffortorconcernoriftherehasbeenapublicorprivatefamilyplanninginitiative,thenthequestionnairecouldbemodifiedtoincludeamorethoroughsetofquestionsonknowledge,availability,anduseofvariousmethodsofcontraception.
Section14.OtherSourcesofIncome
IncomefromemploymentandindividualgovernmentpaymentsisgatheredinSection5,fromagricultureinSection9,fromhouseholdbusinessesinSection10,fromthesaleofhouseholdassetsinSection11.IncomereceivedbyhouseholdmembersasremittancesfromindividualswhoarenothouseholdmembersiscollectedinPart14A.Part14Bcollectsinformationonincomereceivedfromothersourcesincludinginheritance,insurance,interestonloanstootherpeople,gifts,rentalofpropertyandaidfromnon-governmentalorganizations.Foreachtypeofincomerespondentsareaskedtoprovideanestimateoftheamountreceivedinthelast12monthsincashandthevalueoftheamountreceivedinkind.Again,ifthesurveycountryis
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experiencinghighinflationduringthesurveyperiodthenitmaybenecessarytoshortentherecallperiodortoaskthequestionsintwoparts--theamountreceivedwithinthelasttwoweeksandtheamountreceivedinthelastyear.
Section15.LoansandSavings
Thepurposeofthissectionistomeasurethenetdebtofthehousehold.Itcanbeimportantinexplainingdiscrepanciesbetweenincomeandexpenditure.Italsoprovidesinsightintotheextenttowhichformalandinformalcreditmarketsareavailabletohouseholds.Thisinformationis,byfar,themostsensitiveofanycollectedinthehouseholdquestionnaireandforthisreasonithasbeenplacedattheveryendofthequestionnaire.Interviewersareinstructedtorespectthesensitivityofthesequestionsandtoaskthequestionsinprivatetothebest-informedperson.Ifprivacyisnotpossible,thentheinformantcanbeaskedtowritedowntheamountwhereonlytheinterviewercanseeit.
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5AdaptingthePopulationPointandPriceQuestionnaireThehouseholdquestionnairecollectsinformationonhouseholduseofseveralpublicservicessuchashealthcare,schooling,andemploymentservices.Toanalyzetheimpactofpublicpolicyintheprovisionofthoseservices,itisnecessarytoknowwhatservicesareavailabletoeveryone,notonlytothehouseholdsthatdidusethem.Thisinformationiscollectedinthepopulationpointquestionnaire.
Ingeneral,thepopulationpointquestionnairewillrequirelessmodificationthanthehouseholdquestionnaireastheitemscoveredareofamoregeneralnature.Nevertheless,considerationofthesectionsandthequestionsinlightofexistingconditionsandpolicyconcernsofthesurveycountryisworthwhile.
EthnicgroupsmustbespecifiedinSection1.DemographicInformation.Asitis,Section1containsonegeneralquestiononnetimmigration.Largechangesinthepopulationofsomecommunitiesisafeatureoflifeinmanyofthenewlyindependentcountries.Additionalquestionscouldeasilybeaddedtospecifythenumberwhohaveemigratedorthetypesofpeoplewhohaveemigratedorthedestinationofmostemigrants.
Similarly,morespecificquestionscouldbeaskedregardingemploymentandindependenteconomicactivityinSection3,orregardingspecificeducationorhealthconcernsinsections5and6.Perhapsclosureofhealthfacilities,orrunningtwoorthreeshiftsinschoolsiscommon.Questionsshouldbeincludedtodeterminetheextenttowhichthepopulationpointwasaffected.IftheMinistryofAgriculturewasconsideringanassistanceschemethatwouldprovideveterinaryservicesforallanimalsbutonlyinpopulationpointswhere
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horsesweregrown,thenaquestionshouldbeaddedtodeterminewhetherornotthepopulationpointwouldbeapartofthatscheme.Endlessexamplescouldbeimagined.Thequestionnairedesignerwillwanttoconsidereachsectionkeepinginmindthequestionsthatthedatashouldbeabletoaddress.
Section8containsaninventoryofpublicinstitutions.Forthissectionandsection2onInfrastructure,thelistofinstitutionsandservicesthatwillbeaskedcanbemodified.Cautionshouldbeusedinremovinginstitutionsbecause"almostevery"populationpointhasone.Forexample,existenceinthepopulationpointofadentistbecomesanimportantindicationofstandardoflivingpreciselyifthereareveryfewpopulationpointsthatdonothaveadentist.
Section9isthepricequestionnaire.Thepricequestionnairecontainsalistoffoodandnon-fooditems.Informationonlocalpricesisimportantincomparinglivingstandardsacrosshouseholdsandacrossregionsofthecountry.Thepricequestionnaireiscompletedineachareaatthesametimeasthehouseholdsurvey.Pricesshouldbecollectedforfrequentlypurchaseditems,itemsavailableinruralandurbanareas,pricesofspecialpolicyinterest,andfoodstaplesincludedintheconsumptionsection.
Manycountriesalreadycollectpriceinformation.Itisstillimportanttoadministerthepricequestionnaireatthesametimeasthehouseholdquestionnaire.Thisisespeciallytrueduringhighinflation.Evenwheninflationisnotanimportantconcern,pricesarenotlikelytobecollectedineverypointandtheabilitytolinkhouseholdstothepricesatthatplaceandtimeisveryusefulduringanalysis.
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InsomeLSMSsurveys,facilityquestionnairesareusedtocompileextensiveinformationonthequalityservicesineachpopulationpoint.Inthesesurveys,eachmedicalfacility,forexample,isinterviewedtocollectinformationonprice,quality,andavailabilityofawidevarietyofservicesandsupplies.Facilityquestionnaireshavebeenusedtosurveyhealthfacilities,familyplanningfacilitiesandeducationfacilitiesinconjunctionwithLSMSsurveysinvariouscountries.
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6ConclusionThispaperappliesthesubstantialexperienceofLSMSsurveysinthecontextofthenewlyindependentstates.TheLSMSquestionnairesprovidedherearedesignedtobeofassistancetothoseattemptingtoconducthouseholdsurveysonstandardoflivingorlivingconditionsintheRussian-speakingcountriesoftheformerSovietUnion.
However,thequestionnaire,asitis,isnotreadyforuse.Significanttimeandeffortwillberequiredinlengthydiscussionswithgovernmentauthoritiesandpolicymakers.Eachsectionmustbetailoredtoreflectexistinginstitutions,lawsandcustomsspecifictoeachcountry.Iftheexistinginstitutionsarenotreflectedthesurveywillbefrustratingtointerviewersandrespondents.Itwillalsofailtoprovideaccuratedata.
Justasimportantly,questionnairewritersmustunderstandtheimportantpolicyquestionsthatthedatawillbeexpectedtoaddress.Discussionamongpolicymakersanddataanalystswilldeterminethevariablesthatareneededtoaddressquestionsempirically.Failuretoconsultsufficientlywiththepolicymakersanddataanalysts,willsignificantlydecreasetheusefulnessofthedata.
LSMSexperiencehasshownthattimespentinquestionnairedevelopmentisusuallywell-repaid.Thequestionnaireiseasierforinterviewerstoadminister,anditismoreinterestingandmorestraightforwardforrespondentstoparticipate.Thosefactorsthencontributetoensuringthatthequestionnairescontainfewermistakesandareasmallerburdenforthedataentryoperators.Datathatarecleanerandmorerelevanttopolicyandcontributetomoreusefulandmorewidelyusedanalysis.
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LSMSHouseholdQuestionnairefortheCountriesoftheFormerSovietUnion
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PART51.OTHERACTIVITIES
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PART5J.OTHERINCOME
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Section6.Migration
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Section7.RespondentsForRoundTwo
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ROUNDTWOEXPLAINAGAINTHEOBJECTIVESOFTHESURVEYANDTHECONFIDENTIALITYTHEDATA.READTHELISTOFHOUSEHOLDMEMBERS
DisplacedPersonsAndRefugees
PART8AMOVEMENTANDASSISTANCE
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PART8B.PROPERTYOFDISPLACEDPERSONSANDREFUGEES
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Section9.Agro-PastoralAcivities
PART9A.LAND
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PART9B.CROPS
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PART9B.CROPSContinued
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PART9B.CROPSEnd
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PART9C.CROPINPUTS
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PART9C.CROPINPUTSEnd
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PART9D.FOODPRODUCTSPRODUCEDFROMCROPSGROWNBYTHEHOUSEHOLD
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PART9E.LIVESTOCK
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PART9F.ANIMALPRODUCTS
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PART9G.VETERINARYSERVICE
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PART9I.HANDINSTRUMENTS
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PART9K.AGRICULTURALCREDIT
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Section10.Non-FarmSelfEmpoyment
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Section10.Non-FarmSelfEmpoymentContinued
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PART10BASSETS
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PART10CEXPENDITURE
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PART10DREVENUES
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Section11ExpendituresAndDurableGoods
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PART11BANNUALEXPENSES
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PART11CDURABLEGOODS
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PART11DREALESTATEASSETS
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PART11EEXPENSESFORREMITTANCES
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Section12FoodExpenditureAndConsumption
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Section12AFoodExpenditureAndConsumptionContinued
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Section12AFoodExpenditureAndConsumptionContinued
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Section12FoodExpendingAndConsumptionEnd
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Section13.Childbearing
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Section14.OtherSourcesOfIncome
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PART14B.INCOMEFROMOTHERSOURCES
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Section15.LoansAndSavings
PART15A.MONEYANDGOODSLENTANDBORROWED
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PART15B.LOANSRECEIVEDBYMEMBERSOFTHEHOUSEHOLD
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PART15C.SAVINGS
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LSMSPopulationPointQuestionnairefortheCountriesoftheFormerSovietUnion
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LSMSWorkingPapers
No.1
Chander,Grootaert,andPyatt,LivingStandardsSurveysinDevelopingCountries
No.2
Visaria,PovertyandLivingStandardsinAsia:AnOverviewoftheMainResultsandLessonsofSelectedHouseholdSurveys
No.3
UnitedNationsStatisticalOffice.MeasuringLevelsofLivinginLatinAmerica:AnOverviewofMainProblems
No.4
Scott,deAndre,andChander,TowardsMoreEffectiveMeasurementofLevelsofLiving,andReviewofWorkoftheUnitedNationsStatisticalOffice(UNSO)RelatedtoStatisticsofLevelsofLiving
No.5
Scott,deAndre,andChander,ConductingSurveysinDevelopingCountries:PracticalProblemsandExperienceinBrazil,Malaysia,andthePhilippines
No.6
Booker,deAndre,andChander,HouseholdSurveyExperienceinAfrica
No.7
Deaton,MeasurementofWelfare:TheoryandPracticalGuidelines
No.8
Mehran,EmploymentDatafortheMeasurementofLivingStandards
No.9
Wahab,IncomeandExpenditureSurveysinDevelopingCountries:SampleDesignandExecution
No.10
SaundersandGrootaert,ReflectionsontheLSMSGroupMeeting
No.11
Deaton,ThreeEssaysonaSriLankaHouseholdSurvey
No.12
Musgrove,TheECIELStudyofHouseholdIncomeandConsumptioninUrbanLatinAmerica:AnAnalyticalHistory
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12 UrbanLatinAmerica:AnAnalyticalHistory
No.13
Martorell,NutritionandHealthStatusIndicators:SuggestionsforSurveysoftheStandardofLivinginDevelopingCountries
No.14
Birdsall,ChildSchoolingandtheMeasurementofLivingStandards
No.15
Ho,MeasuringHealthasaComponentofLivingStandards
No.16
Sullivan,Cochrane,andKalsbeek,ProceduresforCollectingandAnalyzingMortalityDatainLSMS
No.17
Grootaert,TheLaborMarketandSocialAccounting:AFrameworkofDataPresentation
No.18
Acharya,TimeUseDataandtheLivingStandardsMeasurementStudy
No.19
Grootaert,TheConceptualBasisofMeasuresofHouseholdWelfareandTheirImpliedSurveyDataRequirements
No.20
Grootaert,Cheung,Fung,andTam,StatisticalExperimentationforHouseholdSurveys:TwoCasesStudiesofHongKong
No.21
WoodandKnight,TheCollectionofPriceDatafortheMeasurementofLivingStandards
No.22
GrootaertandCheung,HouseholdExpenditureSurveys:SomeMethodologicalIssues
No.23
Ashenfelter,Deaton,andSolon,CollectingPanelDatainDevelopingCountries:DoesitMakeSense?
No.24
Grootaert,MeasuringandAnalyzingLevelsofLivinginDevelopingCountries:AnAnnotatedQuestionnaire
No.25
GrootaertandDubois,TheDemandforUrbanHousingintheIvoryCoast
No.AinsworthandMuñoz,TheCôted'IvoireLivingStandardsSurvey:Design
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No.26
AinsworthandMuñoz,TheCôted'IvoireLivingStandardsSurvey:DesignandImplementation
No.27
Grootaert,TheRoleofEmploymentandEarningsinAnalyzingLevelsofLiving:AGeneralMethodologywithApplicationstoMalaysiaandThailand
No.28
DeatonandCase,AnalysisofHouseholdExpenditures
No.29
Glewwe,TheDistributionofWelfareinCôted'Ivoirein1985
No.30
Deaton,Quality,Quantity,andSpatialVariationofPrice:EstimatingPriceElasticitiesfromCross-sectionalData
No.31
Suarez-Berenguela,FinancingtheHealthSectorinPeru
No.32
Suarez-Berenguela,InformalSector,LaborMarkets,andReturnstoEducationinPeru
No.33
vanderGaagandVijverberg,WageDeterminantsinCôted'Ivoire
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
No.34
AinsworthandvanderGaag,GuidelinesforAdaptingtheLSMSLivingStandardsQuestionnairestoLocalConditions
No.35
DorandvanderGaag,TheDemandforMedicalCareinDevelopingCountries:QuantityRationinginRuralCôted'Ivoire
No.36
Newman,LaborMarketActivityinCôted'IvoireandPeru
No.37
Gertler,Locay,Sanderson,Dor,andvanderGaag,HealthCareFinancingandtheDemandforMedicalCare
No.38
Stelcner,Arriagada,andMoock,WageDeterminantsandSchoolAttainmentamongMeninPeru
No.39
Deaton,TheAllocationofGoodswithintheHousehold:Adults,Children,andGender
No.40
Strauss,TheEffectsofHouseholdandCommunityCharacteristicsontheNutritionofPreschoolChildren:EvidencefromruralCôted'Ivoire
No.41
Stelcner,vanderGaag,andVijverberg,Public-PrivateSectorWageDifferentialsinPeru,198586
No.42
Glewwe,TheDistributionofWelfareinPeru198586
No.43
Vijverberg,ProfitsfromSelf-Employment:ACaseStudyofCôted'Ivoire
No.44
DeatonandBenjamin,TheLivingStandardsSurveyandPricePolicyReform:AStudyofCocoaandCoffeeProductioninCôted'Ivoire
No.45
GertlerandvanderGaag,MeasuringtheWillingnesstoPayforSocialServicesinDevelopingCounties
No.Vijverberg,NonagriculturalFamilyEnterprisesinCôted'Ivoire:A
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No.46
Vijverberg,NonagriculturalFamilyEnterprisesinCôted'Ivoire:ADescriptiveAnalysis
No.47
GlewweanddeTray,ThePoorduringAdjustment:ACaseStudyofCôted'Ivoire
No.48
GlewweandvanderGaag,ConfrontingPovertyinDevelopingCountries:Definitions,Information,andPolicies
No.49
ScottandAmenuvegbe,SampleDesignfortheLivingStandardsSurveysinGhanaandMauritania/PlansdesondagepourlesenquêtessurleniveaudevieauGhanaetenMauritanie
No.50
Laraki,FoodSubsidies:aCaseStudyofPriceReforminMorocco(alsoinFrench,50F)
No.51
StraussandMehra,ChildAnthropometryinCôted'Ivoire:EstimatesfromTwoSurveys,1985and1986
No.52
vanderGaag,Stelcner,andVijverberg,Public-PrivateSectorWageComparisonsandMoonlightinginDevelopingCountries:EvidencefromCôted'IvoireandPeru
No.53
Ainsworth,SocioeconomicDeterminantsofFertilityinCôted'Ivoire
No.54
GertlerandGlewwe,TheWillingnesstoPayforEducationinDevelopingCountries:EvidencefromRuralPeru
No.55
LevyandNewman,Rigiditédessalaires:Donnéesmicroéconomiquesetmacroéconomiquessurl'ajustementdumarchédutravaildanslesecteurmoderne(inFrenchonly)
No.56
GlewweanddeTray,ThePoorinLatinAmericaduringAdjustment:ACaseStudyofPeru
No.57
AldermanandGertler,TheSubstitutabilityofPublicandPrivateHealthCareoftheTreatmentofChildreninPakistan
No.Rosenhouse,IdentifyingthePoor:Is''Headship"aUsefulConcept?
Page 168
No.58
Rosenhouse,IdentifyingthePoor:Is''Headship"aUsefulConcept?
No.59
Vijverberg,LaborMarketPerformanceasaDeterminantofMigration
No.60
JimenezandCox,TheRelativeEffectivenessofPrivateandPublicSchools:EvidencefromTwoDevelopingCountries
No.61
Kakwani,LargeSampleDistributionofSeveralInequalityMeasures:WithApplicationtoCôted'Ivoire
No.62
Kakwani,TestingforSignificanceofPovertyDifferences:WithApplicationtoCôted'Ivoire
No.63
Kakwani,PovertyandEconomicGrowth:WithApplicationtoCôted'Ivoire
No.64
Moock,Musgrove,andStelcner,EducationandEarningsinPeru'sInformalNonfarmFamilyEnterprises
No.65
AldermanandKozel,FormalandInformalSectorWageDeterminationinUrbanLow-IncomeNeighborhoodsinPakistan
No.66
VijverbergandvanderGaag,TestingforLaborMarketDuality:ThePrivateWageSectorinCôted'Ivoire
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No.67
King,DoesEducationPayintheLaborMarket?TheLaborForceParticipation,Occupation,Occupation,andEarningsofPeruvianWomen
No.68
Kozel,ThecompositionandDistributionofIncomeinCôted'Ivoire
No.69
Deaton,PriceElasticitiesfromSurveyData:ExtensionsandIndonesianResults
No.70
Glewwe,EfficientAllocationofTransferstothePoor:TheProblemofUnobservedHouseholdIncome
No.71
Glewwe,InvestigatingtheDeterminantsofHouseholdWelfareinCôted'Ivoire
No.72
PittandRosenzweig,TheSelectivityofFertilityandtheDeterminantsofHumanCapitalInvestments:ParametricandSemiparametricEstimates
No.73
Jacoby,ShadowWagesandPeasantFamilyLaborSupply:AnEconometricApplicationtothePeruvianSierra
No.74
Behrman,TheActionofHumanResourcesandPovertyonOneAnother:WhatWeHaveYettoLearn
No.75
GlewweandTwum-Baah,TheDistributionofWelfareinGhana,198788
No.76
Glewwe,Schooling,Skills,andtheReturnstoGovernmentInvestmentinEducation:AnExplorationUsingDatafromGhana
No.77
Newman,Jorgensen,andPradhan,Workers'BenefitsfromBolivia'sEmergencySocialFund
No.78
Vijverberg,DualSelectionCriteriawithMultipleAlternatives:Migration,WorkStatus,andWages
No. Thomas,GenderDifferencesinHouseholdResourceAllocations
Page 170
No.79
Thomas,GenderDifferencesinHouseholdResourceAllocations
No.80
Grosh,TheHouseholdSurveyasaToolforPolicyChange:LessonsfromtheJamaicanSurveyofLivingConditions
No.81
DeatonandPaxson,PatternsofAginginThailandandCôted'Ivoire
No.82
Ravallion,DoesUndernutritionRespondtoIncomesandPrices?DominanceTestsforIndonesia
No.83
RavallionandDatt,GrowthandRedistributionComponentsofChangesinPovertyMeasure:ADecompositionwithApplicationstoBrazilandIndiainthe1980s
No.84
Vijverberg,MeasuringIncomefromFamilyEnterpriseswithHouseholdSurveys
No.85
DeatonandGrimard,DemandAnalysisandTaxReforminPakistan
No.86
GlewweandHall,PovertyandInequalityduringUnorthodoxAdjustment:TheCaseofPeru,198590
No.87
NewmanandGertler,FamilyProductivity,LaborSupply,andWelfareinaLow-IncomeCountry
No.88
Ravallion,PovertyComparisons:AGuidetoConceptsandMethods
No.89
Thomas,Lavy,andStrauss,PublicPolicyandAnthropometricOutcomesinCôted'Ivoire
No.90
Ainsworthandothers,MeasuringtheImpactofFatalAdultIllnessinSub-SaharanAfrica:AnAnnotatedHouseholdQuestionnaire
No.91
GlewweandJacoby,EstimatingtheDeterminantsofCognitiveAchievementinLow-IncomeCountries:TheCaseofGhana
No. Ainsworth,EconomicAspectsofChildFosteringinCôted'Ivoire
Page 171
No.92
Ainsworth,EconomicAspectsofChildFosteringinCôted'Ivoire
No.93
Lavy,InvestmentinHumanCapital:SchoolingSupplyConstraintsinRuralGhana
No.94
LavyandQuigley,WillingnesstoPayfortheQualityandIntensityofMedicalCare:Low-IncomeHouseholdinGhana
No.95
SchultzandTansel,MeasurementofReturnstoAdultHealth:MorbidityEffectsonWageRatesinCôted'IvoireandGhana
No.96
Louat,Grosh,andvanderGaag,WelfareImplicationsofFemaleHeadshipinJamaicanHousehold
No.97
ColombeandDemery,HouseholdSizeinCôted'Ivoire:SamplingBiasintheCILSS
No.98
GlewweandJacoby,DelayedPrimarySchoolEnrollmentandChildhoodMalnutritioninGhana:AnEconomicAnalysis
No.99
BakerandGrosh,PovertyReductionthroughGeographicTargeting:HowWellDoesItWork?
No.100
DattandRavallion,IncomeGainsforthePoorfromPublicWorksEmployment:EvidencefromTwoIndianVillages
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