Mobility and Technology: Understanding the Vulnerability Of Two Groups of Nomadic Pastoralists to Reindeer Losses

MOBILITY AND TECHNOLOGY:UNDERSTANDING THE VULNERABILITY OETWO GROUPS OE NOMADIC PASTORALISTS TOREINDEER LOSSES'Mark James Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

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A b s t r a c t - . ' • ' {

Between the nineteenth and early twentieth century reindeer mortality, particu-larly that caused by outbreaks of Siberian anthrax (sibirka), was proportionatelyhigher among Komi herds than amongst those of the Nenets, despite both groupspasturing animals in close proximity to one another, principally within theBol'shezemel'skaya tundra. Intriguingly, to escape infected land caused hy theseoutbreaks, the Komi emigrated to new regions whereas the Nenets appeared tobe relatively unaffected. However, upon closer examination of historical data, itis apparent that proportionately the Nenets lost track of twice as many reindeercompared to the Komi. Previous studies, despite providing little if any concreteevidence, suggested that characteristics of the Komi reindeer herding system(technology) made their reindeer more susceptible to sickness than tho.se of theNenets. This study, which involved anthropological field research as well as theuse of historical data and literature, foeu.sed on analysing the following charac-teristics of reindeer herding technology between the two groups: (a) veterinaryknowledge (b) frequency of herd observation, (c) frequency of movement, (d)pattern of pasturing. It was found that: veterinary knowledge between Komi andNenets was commensurate and thus cannot be used as an explanatory factor:Komi herds were more frequently observed than those of the Nenets: Komimoved more frequently than the Nenets and spent less time at encampments: andthe migration routes of Komi were longer and their pasturing corridors narrowerthan those of the Nenets. Differences in herd ohscrvation explained the differ-ences in lost reindeer between the Komi and Nenets. The Komi were less ableto identify and treat sick reindeer due to more frequent movements, larger herdsizes and less frequent corralling of the main productive herd compared to theNenets. The length of migration routes and narrowness of pasturing corridorsreduced the Komis' pasturing flexibility and thus their ability to avoid infectedpastures compared to the Nenets. These results are relevant to both historical andcontemporary herding praetices.Keywords: reindeer herding, technology, epizootie outbreaks, Siberian anthrax,Komi, Nenets, mortality

Statement of the Problem

There is considerable historical evidence that Komi reindeer herding has beenmore susceptible to disease (particularly Siberian anthrax) than other notnadicreindeer herding and that the frequency and magnitude of outbreaks of Siberian

142 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2doi: 10.3167/np.2006.100209 ISSN 0822-7942 (Print), ISSN 1752-2366 (Online)

Mark James Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

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anthrax were higher in places where Komi reindeer herding was practised (withthe exception of the Kola Peninsula where quarantine had been introduced).Hypotheses developed to explain this phenomenon by Islavin (1847), Kercelli(19()9a,b), Charnolussky (1930a,b) and Konakov and Kotov (1989, 1991)focused on the following four explanatory themes:

1. the Komis' reluctance to learn veterinary knowledge and skills from theNenets;

2. the Komis' large herd size being more susceptible to epizootic outbreaks, dueto faster spread of di.sease in large herds and reduced 'reaction' time to dealwith an outbreak:

3. the Komi's large herd size and 'intensive' reduction in lichen abundance inpastures leading to the weakening of the animals;

4. the Komis' large herd size increasing competition for resources (i.e. more timecompeting and less time foraging) and thus weakening the reindeer and makingthem more susceptible to disea.se.

Little evidence has been provided to support any of the above hypotheses. Thispaper focuses on investigating three questions: (I) Why were Komi herds moresusceptible to epizootic outbreaks (particularly Siberian anthrax) than those ofthe Nenets, despite sharing the same tundra? (2) What are the main differencesbetween the Komi and the Nenets systems of reindeer herding? (3) Are thereany peculiarities of the Komi system of reindeer herding (technology) thatmake reindeer more susceptible to disease?

Background

The Komi are one of only four groups of tundra nomadic pastoralists who herdlarge numbers of reindeer (Rangifer taratidus) and are therefote described asbeing engaged in 'large-scale' reindeer herding (Krupnik 1989). The others arethe Saami, the Nenets and the Chukchi (Slezkine 1994). The Komi are some-times considered as 'newcomers', since they only began herding reindeeraround three centuries ago, by adopting the Nenets system (Zhciebcov 1982;Konakov and Kotov 1991), which, interestingly, corresponds with the age oflarge-scale' reindeer herding per se (Krupnik 1976, 1989). Starting in the

l/.hma region of the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra, situated in the modetn KomiRepublic and the Nenets Autonomous Okrug area (Figure 1), the Komiincreased the numbers and sizes of their herds over a short period of time,principally by hiring Nenets labour (Islavin 1847; Kercelli 1911; Babushkin1930). expanded into Khanty-Mansi areas in the east and even emigrated tothe Kola Peninsula in the west (Konakov and Kotov 1991; Took 2003).Vladimir Islavin, who visited the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra from 1844 to1845, observed that the Komi had larger reindeer herds than those of the

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Figure I: liol'shaya Iiita study area in relation to the Kotni Repuhlic atid theRussian Federation

Nenets (i.e.. the aboriginal reindeer herding population in the tundra) andeconomically dominated the region (Islavin 1847: 21). Islavin also reportedthat the rapid growth of Komi herds took place between 30 to 40 years beforehis visit (Islavin 1847: 76). although recent authors doubt that this informa-tion is correct (see Konakov and Kotov 1991). Nevertheless, it appears that ittook no more than 100 years for the Komi to enlarge their herds beforeoutnumbering those of the Nenets.

The reindeer of the Komi herds were, however, strongly affected byepidemics, particularly Siberian anthrax (sihirka) (Berezkin 1907; Kercelli1909a,b, 1911; Babushkin 1930; Konakov and Kotov 1991), especially duringthe nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when the Bol'shezemel'skayatundra, the main region where Komi nomads live side by side with manyNenets, was affected by several successive waves of the disease (Babushkin1930; Konakov and Kotov 1989). Indeed, outbreaks of anthrax in 1862-1866,1884-1887, 1896-1899, 1902-1904 and 1906-1909 increased reindeer mortal-ity and the population of herds declined by as much as 30-50 per cent aftereach outbreak (see Figure 2). According to the Komi Republican VeterinaryInformation Service, the last outbreak of anthrax in the Bol'shezemel'skayatundra occurred in 1930. It has no longer been a problem since then thanks tothe availability of inoculations (Plan Razvitiya Olenevodstva 2003: 22).

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Mark James Dwver and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

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Figure 2: Reindeer populations in the Bol'shezetnel'skaya tundra (with cortcspondingoutbreaks of Siberian anthrax)Data from 1842-1915 derived from statistics held by ihe Statistical Committee of theArchangelsk Governor. Source: Babushkin (1930: 82). Major anthrax outbreaks are highlightedwith vertical bais.

The expansion and emigration of Komi reindeer herding, mainly during thenineteenth century, was connected to the herders' avoidance of infectedpastures during periods of Siberian anthrax. According to Konakov and Kotov(1991) the Komi villages of Saranpaul' and Muzhy. for example, were foundedin the nineteenth century by Komi reindeer herders from the Usa valley(Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra) who crossed the Ural mountains into westernSiberia to avoid infected grounds in the 1860s. This resulted in the Komis'trans-Ural migrations. A further example, and piobably the most familiar towestern scholars, is the Komis' emigration to the Kola Peninsula due to anoutbreak of Siberian anthrax in the 1880s. The history of this migration is wellknown and has been documented in Russian by Charnolussky (1930a) andKonakov and Kotov (1989, 1991) and in English by Took (2003).

It appears that Komi herds were more susceptible to disease than those ofother nomadic pastoralists. There is no evidence that epizootic outbreaks werea considerable problem for other reindeer herding nomads, including tho.seliving in close proximity to the Komi. The European Nenets, for exatnple,who share the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra with the Komi, did not llee infectedpastures in such a spectacular way as did the Komi. Those Nenets whoemigrated to the Kola Peninsula (although quite numerous) were either takenthere by Komi as hired workers or belonged to the Kolva group (Konakovand Kotov 1989, 1991). The Kolva group, despite having Nenets self-iden-

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tity, was almost completely acculturated by the Komi; all herders spoke theKomi language and shared the Komi culture and method of herding (Konakovand Kotov 1991). Furthermore, it appears that the spread and intensity ofSiberian anthrax was associated with the movements and presence of Komireindeer herding. Indeed, although Siberian anthrax had been present inwestern Siberia for a long time (Silantyev 1897), it was not until the lastquarter of the nineteenth century that it seemed to cause substantial reindeermortality (Silantyev 1897). The increase in mortality in western Siberia seemsto correspond with the period when Komi reindeer herders made their appear-ance into the region (Konakov and Kotov 1991). The informants of Kercelli(1909a) insisted that the Malozemel'skaya tundra had been almost free ofanthrax before the arrival of Komi reindeer herds, although he could notsubstantiate this information. The only area of the tundra that had a lownumber of cases of anthrax' was the Kanin Peninsula in the European north-east, which was the region least populated by Komi herders (Vasilyev 1977).The only region that was populated by Komi nomads, yet not contaminatedby Siberian anthrax, was the Kola Peninsula (Russian Lapland) rellecting thefact that the Komi quarantined their animals before emigrating to this place(Konakov and Kotov 1989).

The apparent susceptibility of Komi reindeer herding to disease (especiallySiberian anthrax) attracted the attention of a number of scholars who concludedthat certain particularities of Komi herding technology made their reindeer par-ticularly vulnerable. One of the first hypotheses was put forward by VladimirIslavin who visited the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra in 1845. He suggested thatKomi reindeer often became ill due to the Komis' lack of herding knowledgeand veterinary skills:

Komi, who learned how to herd reindeer from Nenets were too lazy andgreedy to complete their education and started to practise their herdingwithout learning about the medical techniques and ways to treat diseases(Islavin 1847:47).'

Though Islavin provided little evidence for his suggestion it seems to havebeen generally accepted during the second half of the nineteenth century (e.g.,see Zhuravsky 1907, 1909). Subsequently, when evidence of the Komis' ownvocabulary for infectious diseases was published (Kercelli 1911; Babushkin1930) more sophisticated hypotheses emerged. Kercelli (1909b) believed thatthe susceptibility of Komi herds to di.sease was due to their large size;

Komi obtained herds of huge sizes, sometimes in excess of 5,000 animals.Such a large number of animals gathered in one place are, of course, aneasy target for disease. Anthrax spteads very quickly in such an enormousherd, infecting many reindeer with a single outbreak and causing thewhole herd to die out within several days. At the same time, its pathogenicorganism (vozhuditelya holezni) infects a huge territory ... Since Komiherds are large and pastured in close proximity to one another, the disease



spreads rapidly from one herd to another, swiftly covering an immenseI territory. This is probably the main reason for the significant losses of

reindeer among Komi reindeer herders. Nenets, whose herds are much' smaller, do not suffer as many losses from anthrax. Even if their reindeerI become infected, the disea.se spreads aeross the temtory more slowly and

the herders have time to take corrective measures. Those Komi who havesmall herds are also less vulnerable to the disease ... rich Komi herdershave already understood this and have started to divide their herds intosmaller groups. (Kercelli 19()9b: 10)

Kercelli, like Islavin before him, did not substantiate his suggestion withevidence. There was neither any information regarding the measures ownersof small herds took when outbreaks of anthrax occurred, nor data to show thatlarge herds were more vulnerable to antbrax, although this seems plausible.

Charnolussky (1930a), who worked on the Kola Peninsula, suggested thatvulnerability of Komi reindeer to disease was a result of herding practices thatresulted in chronic overgrazing which weakened the animals:

] It takes several years for lichen to grow after grazing ... Komi herdersare aware of this, but systematically ignore the fact. They pasturereindeer in a solid group, permanently observing them and ensuring that

j all the lichen on a pastureland would he eaten or broken by reindeertrampling. As one Saami informant told me "Komi pasture a reindeer

j like a cow". Reindeer are not cows and lichen is not grass ... pasturing1 reindeer in this way hits back at them. Their reindeer do not eat properly

and are weak. Naturally, they often become ill. (Charnolussky 1930a:134;seeal.so 1930b: 38-39)

Charnolussky provided little evidence to support his hypothesis. Firstly, itseems that his Saami informant was referring to the way in which Komi kepttheir reindeer at pasture rather than to the foraging behaviour of the anitnalsthemselves. The informant's comment was therefore perhaps a way of sayingthat the Komi pastured reindeer more intensively than the Saami. However,nomadic semi-domesticated reindeer and non-nomadic domesticated cows donot share common patterns of foraging. There are marked diffetences in themovement to foraging ratio (i.e. the proportit)n of time spent foraging) betweengrazers (e.g. cows) and browsers (e.g. reindeer) (Owen-Smith 2002: 47-52),which is primarily due to differences in the tetnpotal and spatial distributionand quality of forage between temperate and Arctic biomes. Reindeer haveadapted to these highly seasonal environments, notably by selecting the mostnutritious forage in any given season and by having an intestinal tract that candigest poor quality forage (Owen-Smith 2002; Skogland 1989, 1978, 1983;Marion et al. 2005). Secondly. Charnolussky implies that the disappearance oflichen affected the health of the Komis' animals. The notion that reindeercannot survive in the absence of lichen is a myth. All reindeer eat a mixed dietin winter (see, e.g., Gaare and Skogland 1975; S0rmo et al. 1999; Mathiesen

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et al. 2000) and many populations have successfully adapted to environmentswhere lichens have been severely depleted by grazing and trampling, forexample South Georgia (Leader-Williams 1988), Svalbard (Tyler 1987) andnorthern Not way (Mathiesen 1999). Thirdly. Charnolussky's suggestion that'overgrazing' led to the ill health of Komi herds and thus to their suscepti-bility to disease is vague and unsatisfactorily documented. The concept of'overgrazing' is virtually meaningless ecologically in seasonal grazingsystems with highly variable and unpredictable climates (Behnke et al. 1993;Behnke 1999). It is a concept developed in the management of equilibriumsystems and has only limited application in systems better described in termsof 'non-equilibrium' or 'disequilibrium' dynamics (see Illius and O'Connor1999; Sullivan and Rohde 2002; Sullivan 1996; Behnke et al. 1993; Behnke1999; Landres et al. 1999; GilLson et al. 2003: Briske et al. 2003). 'Over-grazing' seems nowadays to be more a political issue rather than a detinedecological concept and is therefore perhaps best avoided altogether in thepresent context.

Finally. Konakov and Kotov (1991) appear to have developed a hybridhypothesis ba.sed on those of Kercelli and Charnolussky. They stated that thevulnerability of Komi herds to disease was due to their size and the herders'pasturing technique:

The observed pasturing eharaeteristic ... of Komi reindeer herdingpresupposes keeping all the reindeer in one narrow place. A herder shouldalways ensure that all the animals remain together and prevent groups ofanimals from e.scaping from the herd. Maintaining herd coherence is theirmain activity. From a biological point of view, this should provokeresource competition among animals due to the limited territory uponwhich they are kept. This competition depends on the number of animals:the larger the herd, the greater is the competition. Komi herds wereprobably the largest in the region, therefore, logically, competition amongreindeer must have been the highest. This means that Komi reindeer tnusthave spent more time trying to compete to get the best resources, etc. Inother words, they ran and competed more than they ate. This factor, aswell as the long migrations - also a chatacteristic of Komi reindeerherding - led to the weakening of animals and their susceptibility todiseases. (Konakov and Kotov 1991: 14)

It is reasonable to suggest that the level of intraspecific competition amongKomi herds might have been sufficiently high to have reduced the meanphysiological condition and even the health of some of the animals. However,the authors neither documented differences in the body mass or condition oreven fotaging patterns between different herds to substantiate their claim (see,e.g., Skogland 1983: 369). Consequently, the authors' hypothesis is uncon-vincing because it provides both an overly simplistic story and a lack ofempirical evidence.


Mark Jatties Dwyer atid Kirill Viaditnitovich Istomin

Approach and Methodology

Our object in this paper is to:(1) Compare the frequency and magnitude of reindeer diseases between the

Komi reindeer herding system and that of the Nenets. To achieve this, Komiand Nenets (living in the same geographical area) reindeer losses wereanalysed. The analysis was necessarily based on historical data from the FirstCircumpolar Census of 1925-1927^ as Siberian anthrax was no longer aproblem after the 1930-1940s.

(2) Document the existence of Komi 'traditional' veterinary knowledge andtechniques and to compare them to those of the Nenets. Participant ob.serva-tion of day-to-day herd management of Komi herding as well as informalinterviewing was carried out to document veterinary knowledge and treattnenttechniques at the present time. Patticipant observation and interviewing wastiot carried out atnong the Nenets on this subject due to lieldwotk time restric-tions. Therefore, the Komi Held data was compared to contemporary publishedNenets data. This contemporary study of veterinary knowledge and practicesatnong Komi reindeer herders was conducted to test Islavin's historical 'badstudents' hypothesis. It is assumed that if the Komi and Nenets have veteri-nary knowledge at the present time, it is likely that they also had similarknowledge in 1847, which is when Islavin formulated his hypothesis. Only theresults pertaining to knowledge concerning viral and other infectious reindeerdiseases (i.e. those related to epizootic outbreaks) are used. Selected examplesof herders' knowledge of di.seases and treatment methods will be discussed. Itis not the purpose of this paper to investigate the accuracy of 'traditional' diag-nosis nor the efficiency of their treatment methods in relation to modernveterinary practices.

(3) Investigate which aspects of the Komi reindeer herding system mightbe responsible for making their reindeer more susceptible to disease thanthose herded by the Netiets. To achieve this, a contetnporary study of Komiand Nenets reindeer herding systems (technology) was conducted, whichfocused primarily on basic patterns of nomadic movement and methods ofherd control (management). Contemporary Komi and Nenets data was theprimary source for explaining differences in reindeer herding systems thatmight be linked to differences in reindeer losses between the two nomadicgroups. However, these data were cross-referenced with historical sources andit would appear that there is no reason to believe that substantial changes inthe Komi or the Nenets systems of reindeer herding have taken place betweenthe past (i.e. from the nineteenth to the beginning of the twentieth century)and the present.

Anthropological fieldwork was carried out among reindeer herders fromthe Inta region of the Komi Republic. This consisted of three expeditions withbrigades of the Komi Sovkhoz Bol'shaya Inta. although the territory itself is


Mobility atid Teclmology

mostly in that of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The first expedition tookplace in 2001 (September-November), the second in 2002 (June-December),and the third in 2003 (January-February). During these expeditions, ninemonths were spent with the 2nd/3rd brigade, one month with the lst/4thbrigade, one month with the 5th brigade and one month among several \amh-to ('free') Nenets' herders (whilst in close proximity to the Kara Sea). Duringvarious intervals - from August 2001 to February 2003 - a period of over amonth was spent interviewing retired reindeer herders in small remotevillages; Nenets herders in the village of Kharuta (three days); Komi herdersin the villages of Adzvavom (two weeks). Kocyuvotn (one week), Petrun'(three weeks) and Rogovoy (three days). A number of days was also spentwith state farm (sovkhoz) officials to ask questions regarding reindeerdiseases.

The research included participant observation and interviews that wereconducted both in the Komi and Russian languages. The interviews were infor-mal and no specially designed questionnaires were used. The standardtechniques of cognitive anthropological research were used during the inter-views (see, e.g. Michrina and Richards 1996). The interviews typically startedwith a question that led on to a di.scussion. This approach facilitated the iden-tification of terminology, which was later described and explained throughfurther discussions, practical demonstrations and participant ob.servation.Translations of Komi terms into Russian and English were carried out for thepurpose of analysis, based on the descriptions and knowledge of reindeerherders. The interviewing process was repeated several times with differentindividuals and groups of herders in order to cross-reference data. Participantobservation was used to study the technology of reindeer pasturing, whichessentially involved practical work among reindeer herders. Towatds the endof the fieldwork, the authors were directly involved in pasturing operations andassumed the responsibilities for pasturing the hetd of draught animals (hyk)independently.

Results and Discussion

Breakdown of the Causes of Reindeer Mortality and Lost Reindeer

The data from the First Circumpolar Census of 1925-1927" shows that overallreindeer losses (mortality and lost reindeer) were 35% and 30% respectivelyfor Komi and Nenets herds (Babushkin 1930: 101). The cau.ses of these los.sesdiffered between the two groups (.see Table 1). As a proportion of total rein-deer numbers, the Komi lost twice as many animals due to diseases and anegligible 4% more due to starvation compared to the Nenets. The Nenets losttrack of twice as many reindeer and lost some 8% more animals due to preda-tion compared to the Komi.


Mark Jatnes Dw\er und Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

Table 1: Breakdown of reindeer mortality andlost reindeer (%)

Komi Nenets

StarvationDiseasesPredatorsLost

11531818

7272640

Source: Babushkin (1930: 102)

There is really no way to assess the accuracy of these data. However, IgorKrupnik. one of the most eminent specialists in Cultural Ecology of Siberianand Northern peoples, considers the First Soviet Circumpolar Census as a reli-able source of information. In his book Native Whalers and Reindeer Herdersof Northern Eurasia, he names the work of Babushkin. together with otherworks stating the results of the Census in other regions, as 'high-quality arti-cles and subsistence-related reports, fully reminiscent of latter-day publicationsfrom the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Subsistence Division or theCanadian Area Economic Surveys' (Krupnik 1993: 15). Furthermore. Krupnikused Babushkin's data in his previous books in the Russian language (Krupnik1989).

Veteritutrx Knowledge

Komi names for reindeer infectious diseases and parasites have been previ-ously documented by Kercelli (19()9a) and Babushkin (1930). Little attentionhas been paid to Komi methods for treating disease. Our data confirms theexistence of a Komi vocabulary for the principal infectious diseases and para-sitic problems (as perceived by the reindeer herders) that affect reindeer (seeTable 2). Komi herders are currently not only able to describe the symptomsof a variety of diseases and parasitic problems (listed in Table 2) but are alsoaware of some of their causes. The herders are aware, for example, of theincreased risk of Necrohacillosis (kopytka or foot rot), during snow-freeperiods, when herding animals on wet and/or dirty ground (i.e. ground withhigh manure content), particularly if reindeer have open wounds or abrasions.Therefore, the pen that is routinely used to round up animals on a daily basis(karzak) is regularly moved to a fresh location when the chom' remains seden-tary for more than a few days. Wet pastures, such as sedge tundra bogs (.\ada)are also avoided during snow-free periods, but are used later on in the yearwhen they become frozen. Furthermore, the herders are aware that the diseasecan affect the mouth and tongue particularly when animals licked badlyinfected lesions on their hooves and body.

The herders also avoided pasturing reindeer in places where their animalswere at risk of minor cuts and abrasions (e.g. in areas with dense stands of


Mobility ami Technology\ . ' • • ; • •

Table 2: Summary of main reindeer infectious diseases from both historical sources anrecent participant observation and interviews

1.

2.

3.4.

5.6.

7.

Diseases(English/Latin)'

SiberianAnthraxNecrobacillosis(foot rot)Foot-and-mouthInfestation ofmaggots

PasteurellosisWarble t\y/Nasal bot fliesRabies

Diseases(Russian)'

Sibirka

Kopytka

YachurZarazheniyeHchinkamipodkozhnogoovodaPasterulyozOvoda

Beshenstvo

Diseasesin Komi(Kercelli)'"

Gord Kulom(lit. "red death')Kok visem(lit. "leg illnes')Not mentionedYur visem (lit.head illness)

Lob visemUgra

Not mentioned

Diseasesin Komi(Babushkin)"

Sibirka

Gyzh potom (lit.'hoof explosion)UpriYur visem

Lob visemUgra

Not mentioned

Diseasesin Komi(Dwyer/Istomin

Sibirka

Kok visem

YachurYur visem

Lob visemUgra

Dikyalom

Key to diseases:According to our interviews witb both herders and state farm (.mvt/ioj) officials, the translations ofanthr.ix (sibirlici), Necrobacittosis (t<ok visem). foot and mouth (vactiur). warble fly (ui^ra) and rabies(dikjalnm) are consistent with those of previous authors (Kercelli and Babushkin) and are well knownto the authorities. According to the state farm, reindeer are protected against rabies and anthrax byregular vaccination.

The direct translation of yur \isem is 'head-disease'. It is difficult to establish precisely what thismeant as it was not possible to take samples for chemical analysis. It would appear that flies' eggs -that later turn into maggots - are a likely cause. Maggots are a particular problem when reindeer aregrowing their antlers and are more abundant during warm weather (see Aldrich 2002). Maggots inantlers of reindeer are not a problem in reindeer husbandry in Fennoscandia. but there are some reports.Nilssen et al. (1996) state that in calUphorids like Lucilia spp., activation, upwind orientation andlanding appear to ixxur in response to putrefactive sulphur-rich volatiles, originating from bacterialdecomposition products (Ashworth and Wall 1994). One of the most abundant species caught in theirstudy. Protophormia terraenovac (see Table 2) causes wound myiasis and can be a serious parasite ofcattle, sheep and reindeer (Hall and Smith 1993). Hadwen and Palmer (t922) reported that wounds ofAlaskan reindeer were often infected w ith P. lernienovae larvae. Interesting, the e.\it openings from H.tarandi (on the backs of the reindeer) attracted blowflies {P. terracnovae). sometimes causingconsiderable losses. There appears to be no reports of similar problems with reindeer husbandry inFennoscandia. even though Nilssen's study showed P. terraenovac to be abundant there. However, thisdoes not mean that blowflies are not a problem elsewhere (e.g. in the Eurasian tundra). The maggotsin question are Calliphorktai' (blowflies, or bluebottles), a large family of flies that lay their egg in meatand lish, usually of dead animals. Some species, however, may attack living animals, for example theScrew worm flies, Cochliomyia hominivorax. which may kill sheep. Consequently, the most likely fliesresponsible for causing Yiir visem are blowflies (Calliplwridae).

The direct translation of loh visem is 'spleen-disease' and again it is difficult to establish aprecise veterinary translation. Pasieuiellosis (caused by the P. miittocicla. P. haemolytka and P.scptica) could be a possibility given that the pathologies (e.g. enlarged spleen) match thosedescribed by the herders. The herders also mentioned that the disease is worse during hot weather,which also matches veterinary observations. The herders noted that there is an increased risk ofloh visem should the antlers be cut or broken, which suggests that the disease or diseases are trans-mitted via the wound. Pasteureltosis is transmitted by aerosol, droplets and faeces and is thereforea possibility (Machintosh et al. 2002: 256). It is likely that there are many diseases that also matchthe herders' descriptions, such as Brucellosis (see Dieterich and Morton 1990; Machintosh et al.2002).

Ugra includes warble Hies and nasal bot Hies (see Dieterich and Morton 1990).Note: All of the above diseases and parasitie problems affect reindeer predominately during

snow-free periods.


I Mark Jatnes Dwyer ami Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

willow - roshsha), which was a greater probletn during snow-free periodswhen bushes were tnore exposed and proliferate. Reducing the access of infec-tion (i.e. by minimising abrasions) and avoiding wet ground with high manurecontctit. that harbour foot rot bacteria (mainly Fusobacteriutn necropltorum).are well docutnented tiieasures to tninitrtise the risk of infection (sec Dieterichatid Morton 1990; Dieterich 1985; Edwards et al. 2001; Wobeser et al. 1975;Barker et al. 1993: Langworth 1977). Oral lesions resulting in the destructionof tissue of the tongue, gingival and the roof of the tnouth are also well knownpathologies that result from chronic cases of foot rot (Machintosh et al. 2002;Edwards et al. 2001).

Our data detnonstrate that herders' have an understanding of the increasedrisk of lob visem when reindeer either have their velvet antlers ijmtitiy) inten-tionally removed or when antlers have been damaged or broken. String orrubber bands are attached to seal the wound following the rernoval of velvetantlers in spring but no anti-bacterial and/or insect repellent sprays that reducethe risk of infection are applied (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Dieterich 1985).Consequently, it is plausible that antler breakage or rernoval could increase therisk of bacteria entering the body through an antler wound thus causitig aninfection. Furthertnore. open wounds attract biting insects and can increase thechance of maggot infestation (Aldrich 2002). Both scenarios would be madeworse with increased air tctrtperature and would therefore vary on a year toyear basis in frequency and amplitude.

Among the Komi, treatment methods exist for all of the diseases and para-sitic problems listed in Table 2. with the exception of Siberian anthrax,foot-and-mouth disease and rabies, which were deemed untreatable. Consis-tent with the previous account (Kercelli 1909b: 9), it was said that infectedreindeer with these diseases could only be slaughtered so as to prevent furtherherd contairtination. The main method for treating all other sicktiesses in rein-deer involves segregating the animal atid securing it near the chom for a periodof several days, which, according to the herders, is an effective cure in itself.This is said to be especially the case for kok visem (foot rot), if caught in itsearly stages. However, to increase the likelihood of recovery, the surface ofthe infected area must be washed using boiled water and be kept clean. Rein-deer were slaughtered in instances when they could not be treated. This wascalled "need slaughtering' (vvnuzhdentivy zabov) and state helicopters wereoccasionally sent to the tutidra to collect carcasses. In recent times, the herdershave been using penicillin antibiotics (provided by the state), but they ques-tion their effectivetiess. It is well documented that early detection ofnectobaciltosis is essential and isolation from other animals is necessary toprevent the disease spreading (Machintosh et al. 2002; Wobe,ser et al. 1975).Itijections of antibiotics and foot baths can be effective, but they need to becorrectly administered (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Machintosh et al. 2002;Wobeser et al. 1975) and it is unlikely that the herders have the right training.


Mobility and Techtiology

A further example of Komi treatment methods is that of loh visetn (possiblyPastetdrellosis). According to the herders, the reindeer should first be givensalted blood and water to drink. If this is ineffective the swolleti loh (spleen)should be pierced with a clean knife.'- Should the animal survive, it is saidthat it will no longer be able to fatten in subsequent years. The pathology ofPasteurellosis includes an enlarged spleen and the septicaemic form ofPasteurellosis results in acute haemorrhagic disease (Machintosh et al. 2002:256). which may explain why the herders give reindeer blood. No suggestioncould be made for the surgery. The problem of ugra (warble fly) larvae is dealtwith by lightly cutting the skin of the reindeer to retnovc the larvae that havedeveloped. This is important as warble flies impair the health of reindeer andother than using the drug Invermectin. that kills warble flies, nasal bot flies,and other internal and external parasites (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Dieterich1985). nothing else could be dotie.

According to Khomich (1995), the Nenets were aware of these diseases andparasitic probletns and used similar treatments, but there is no publishedevidence suggesting they had more extensive or sophisticated knowledge thanthe Komi. It appears, therefore, that the veterinary knowledge of the Komi andthe Nenets was sitnilar contrary to Islavin's hypothesis. Other explanatoryfactors are therefore needed to account for the higher level of disease atnongKomi reindeer. . , .

Herding Practices

Our data indicates sharp differences in (i) frequency of herd observation: (ii)pattern of herd movement; and (iii) frequency of nomadic movement betweenKomi and Nenets reindeer herders.

The interviews undertaken in this study show that Komi brigades have twoherds that are herded separately; the main productive herd (kor) and the trans-port herd {byk). During the summer, both herds are under continuousobservation (24hours/day) by a reindeer herder who controls them with dogsand uses a sledge pulled by reindeer as a means of transport. The herders' workpattern rotates on a shift basis with each shift lasting 24 hours. The transportherd is pastured in close proximity to the herders' tent {chom) and is controlledby either less experienced reindeer herders {yando) or veterans. As autumnapproaches and daylight decreases, the shifts gradually become shorter. Thus,the Komi observe all their reindeer all of the time, the lack of daylight beingthe only inhibitor. The exception is the winter time, when reindeer are lessactive and herders regularly check the 'condition'" of the herd, but do notnecessarily observe it contitiuously.

There is a sharp contrast in the frequency with which the Komi and theyamb-to ('free') Nenets observe their herds. Our data shows that the Nenetsdo not have a .separate transport herd and. therefore, the transport and produc-tive reindeer are pastured as a single herd that is rounded up and driven close


Mark Jatnes Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

ito the chom once or twice each day. This process enables the herders to selectand leash tiew (fresh) transport anitnals in exchange for reindeer that are tiredfrom their previous day's work. This process occurs early in the evening and,once completed, the herd is set free and starts slowly to disperse away frotnthe chotn. After some titne. a herder leaves the chotn to check the herd and. ifrequired, alter its direction of movemetit. A herder returns to his herd severaltitnes during the course of his watch; the number of times depends upon factorssuch as weather conditions, temperature and the presence of mosquitoes, allof which affect the behaviour of reitideer and can heavily inlluence the speedand direction of movement of herds (Skogland 1989). The style of Nenetsobservation is. therefore, sporadic and less frequent than that of the Komi.These observations appear to corroborate those of Kercelli (1911). whodescribed the Nenets herds as being 'unattended' tiiost of the titne duringsumtner and winter during which only periodic checks were carried out(Kercelli 1911: 111-13).'''

The pattern of movement of Komi reindeer herders is linear and vertical(from south to north). The length of migration routes {vorga) in this study wasup to 1.000km in total, but routes of 1.400km are known to have been usedup to 25-30 years ago.'" A viirga is a track (the width of a sledge) that Komifollow when moving between pastures and is normally used by two Komiherding brigades.'" Up to 20ktn separated one vorga from another. The Kotnishared this space (i.e. corridor) for tnoving their animals between their desig-nated summer and winter pastures, i.e. where they had exclusive pasturingagreements (see Figure 3). The long narrow pattern of votga and corridorsrunning parallel to one another is typical of Komi reindeer herding enterprisesthroughout the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra.''

The basic land use principle is that two brigades that share a vorga tnustnot pasture their reindeer on the same side. i.e. one should pasture their herdto the left and the other to the right. There are almost no rules for the twobrigades that share the cotnnion corridor (i.e., pastures between two vorga) andpasturing is essentially organised on a first come first served basis. The herdersacknowledged that it was better to be first (in snow-free periods), since thevegetation was always better and. therefore, the herd easier to control. Theherd is generally behind the chotn and. as it approaches, the brigade movescither further north or south - depending on the season - to a new cncamp-tnent {chotn tnesto). Despite the corridor being up to 20km in width, the patternof herd movement is latitudinal and the route to fresh pastures cannot beachieved by moving longitudinally. Close proximity to neighbours is avoided.so as to reduce the chance of herds mixing with those of neighbouringbrigades. Consequently, a brigade that moves faster usually benefits from freshpastures and has a lower risk of its herd mixing, since it is ahead of the neigh-bouring herds, whilst the brigade left behind finds partially exploited pastureswhere its herd is tnore likely to mix with those of neighbouring herds. These



Exclusive sumtner pastures

Around1,000 km

Twobrigadesshare thisterritory

20km

Exclusive winter pastures

Figure 3: Komi tnigration pattern and basic arrangetnetit of pastures (based on theatithors' itifortnants atid participatory obsenrition - diagratn not to scale)

factors are important in maintaining herd control, which is essential to Komireindeer herding (see also Istomin 2000).

The interviews undertaken among the Nenets show that they move in adifferent way to the Komi. Despite having linear and latitudinal tnigrationroutes, their 'sporadic' approach to observing their reindeer was sufficient toprevent neighbouring choms frotn being as close to one another as was thecase for Komi reindeer herding brigades (see Figure 4). The distance betweenneighbouring Nenets camps was at least 30km and could be as much as 80kmgiven that a herd could be pastured up to 30km away from where an encatnp-ment was located. Furthermore, instead of the herd being behind the chotn, itwas in fact pastured around it. The herd would start by being pastured closeto the chom and gradually moved further and further away in a 'circular spiral'pattern of movement. Once the herd became inipractically far frotn the chottithe encampment was moved to a new location; considering that the width of


Mark James Dw\er and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomitt

Corridor: minimum of 30km (up to 80km)

Neighbouring clan

Movement tonew encampment

Around 250 km

The herd rotates around the encampmentlike a spiral (starting close to theencampment and gradually movingoutwards) until it becomes too far to travellor the herders. At this stage the herders' /families move their animals to a newlocation. The distance between differentclans is at least 30km.

Figure 4: Nenets migration pattern atid basic arratigement of pastures {based on theauthors' itiforttumts and participatory observation)

the 'corridor' was much wider than that of the Komi, the Nenets had greaterflexibility with regard to movemetit. i.e. they could tnove longitudinally as wellas latitudinally given that their territory was wider.

The migration routes of Nenets on the Bol'shezemePskaya tundra were muchshorter than those of the Komi. The free Nenets interviewed in this studyrepotted that they sjxjnt winters close to Vorkuta (see Figure 1). being about50km north of the tree line, whereas their Komi neighbours spent their wintersat least 250ktn further south. Reindeer herders from Kharuta'" said that thosebrigades of the Kharuta sovkhoz, which consisted mostly of Nenets, tetided tospend the winter in the tundra (i.e.. north of the tree litie). This evidence matchesthe dctnarcations of reindeer herding passages of the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundraon official tnaps. The Nenets' herding corridors are shorter (around 250-400km)but wider (30-60km) than those of the Komi.

The brigade and the herd movements of the Komi were much more frequentthan those of the Nenets. The Komi tnovements were as follows. In June and


Mobility atid Techtiology

July the herd was moved daily or every .second day. until reaching the summerpastures, where the reindeer herders stayed no more than two weeks (usuallystarting in early August). The frequency of movement on the return to thewinter pastures was similar to June and July but gradually slowed when thesnow appeared in late September to early October. Frotn October to Decemberherd movements were every four to seven days, becoming even less frequentonce the herders reached their winter pastures. During the winter the herdersgenerally stayed in one location for three weeks or more and their tnovementswere sporadic, variable and had no particular pattern. Towards the end of winter,the herders began to move north at a similar pace to that of October and Novetn-ber until the calving grounds were reached in early May. After calving, thebrigade started to move every other day and so the cycle continued. Thisaccoutit closely resembles that described by Kercelli (1911: 3-26).

The Nenets moved less frequently. They typically spent one and a halfmonths in summer pastures (see also Khomich 1995). We did not live withNenets herders for any length of time and cannot provide a detailed accountof their movements through the annual cycle. However, the Nenets herdersstored their snowmobiles {burati) near the river Sayaga approximately 50kmfrom their summer pastures. This indicates that their movements in snow-freeperiods must be either infrequent, short or both compared to those of the Komiherders. These results are similar to those of Khomich (1995).

Conclusion <

The differences in both the frequency of herd observation, the frequency ofnomadic movement and the arrangement of pastures between the Kotni andthe Nenets in the Bol'shezemel'skaya tutidra partially explains, both in the pastand present, (i) the greater vulnerability of Komi herds to reindeer sickness(including outbreaks of Siberian anthrax) cotnpared to the Nenets, and (ii) theNenets' greater susceptibility to losing track of reindeer as well as losinganimals to predators compared to the Komi.

The most basic form of veterinary procedure known to the Komi and theNenets involves the early immobilisation of infected reindeer. This has provedto be an effective treatment to combat both foot rot and the spread of diseaseto the rest of a herd (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Edwards et al. 2001: Wobeseret al. 1975; Barker et al. 1993; Langworth 1977), A prerequisite for thesuccessful immobilisation of reindeer is the ability both to identify and catchan infected animal and be able to keep it in one place for a lengthy period.This study, like that of Kercelli (1909a.b. 1911). indicates that the Komi areless able to achieve this compared to the Nenets. They generally have largerherds, which make it more difficult to identify diseased animals, and they movemore frequently than the Nenets, especially in snow-free periods when diseases

158 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) V VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2


stich as foot rot are prevalent. Thus, with the exception of the two-week periodthat the Komi spend in their sutnmer pastures as opposed to the six weeks thatthe Nenets spend in theirs, it is almost impossible for the Komi to immobiliseinfected animals for more than a day or two. Moreover, frequent movementstiiake it difficult to catch infected animals given that the herd tnust first berounded up. This is labour intensive and virtually impossible when a brigadeis set to move to a new encampment {chotn tnesto). Since the Nenets have onlyone herd (which compri,scs both transport and productive reindeer), which, inany ca.se. is rounded up daily, their system of tnanagement is more conduciveto catching sick animals. Consequently, the Komi are forced to slaughter poten-tially treatable sick animals simply because the herders have to move andcannot afford the titne to treat them.

It would be potentially devastating for the herds if anitnals infected withSiberian anthrax were not isolated quickly to reduce the spread of the disease.However, before treatment with penicillin or the prevention of the disease withtoxoid vaccine, the only method of control was incineration or deep burial ofdiseased animals (Machintosh et al. 2002: 250). This must have been difficultfor reindeer herders, since there would have been little choice other than toslaughter infected animals and avoid infected land. It was previously pointedout that the Komi had less flexibility of movement (i.e. corridors being long,vertical and narrow) cotnpared to the Nenets (i.e. corridors being .severalhundred kilometres shorter yet four titnes wider than those of the Kotni). Thismeans that at least in principle, the Kotnis' system of pasturing tnade it diffi-cult for the herders to avoid infected land. On the other hand, the Nenets,having a shorter, yet wider pasturing corridor, would have had more flexibil-ity of movement and thus greater ability to avoid contaminated areas.Consequently, despite living in the same Bol'shezetnel'skaya tundra, theKomis' lack of flexibility of movement, and thus their restricted ability to avoidinfected areas, made their herds more susceptible to sickness (includingSiberian anthrax) than the herds of the Nenets.

Like Khomich (1995), we found that the Nenets observed their reindeer lessfrequently than the Komi. This explains why, proportionately, they lost trackof twice as many reindeer and may have lost a higher number of reindeer topredators than the Komi.

Finally, this study shows how two seemingly similar notnadic cotnmunitiesare in fact vulnerable to different factors which are intrinsically linked to theirrespective herding systems (technologies). This implies that reindeer herdingcommunities are vulnerable to different factors, which probably also appliesto factors such as global climate change and industrial development (especiallypetrochemical extraction).



Notes

1. We wish to thank all the reindeer herders (Komi and Nenets) of the Inta region undbeyond who gave us tremendous hospitality and welcomed us as extended family. Wewould also like to thank the many friends and officials who helped us with our work,particularly the Shurakov, Alekseevich and the Yangasov families. Credit should alsobe given to Professor Ame C. Nilssen for his entomological contribution and a specialthanks to Dr Nicholas J.C. Tyler for his general help, patience, enthusiasm and endlesssupport. Finally, we wish to thank our wonderful families for putting up with our longabsences when carrying out fieldwork and special thanks to Mrs Eileen J. Dwyer forher interest in our work and her editing skills.

2. Minor and isolated cases of anthrax were reported, but nothing that amounted to whatwas described as an outbreak (Silantyev 1897).

3. All translations (Russian-English) have been carried out by the authors.4. Reindeer herding data was previously eollceted regionally rather than aeeording to

ethnicity (see Babushkin 1930). Considering that Komi and Nenets occupy the sameterritory within a region and that the data does not differentiate between the twogroups, data analysis is generally impossible. However, the Eirst Circumpolar Censusprovides the only data where both groups were treated independently, which is whythis information was used,

5. The 'free' Nenets - also known a,s 'private Nenets' (Nenets-chastniki, Nenets-lichniki)or yamb-to Nenets - are a small group of reindeer herders whose predeeessorsmanaged to escape Soviet colleetivisation in the 1930-1940s by retreating to distantpails of the tundra. These Nenets do not belong to any reindeer herding enterprise(sovkhoz or kolkhoz) and many of them do not have Rus.sian citizenship, which makesit impossible to determine their exact demography. Eor further information see(Bjorklund 1996).

6. The census was carried out over a period of three years (1925-1927) by two teams ofresearchers travelling in eastern and western parts of the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra.The published figures represent averaged results obtained by both teams. No singleherd (brigade) was observed during the three-year study, since a number of brigadeswere visited throughout the period of the study. The methodology is described in thefirst ehapter of Babushkin's book.

7. Chom: conical tent structure, not unlike a wig-wam, which is the abode of Kominomadic reindeer herders.

8. Russian words were translated into English using the 2001 Complete Oxforddictionary.

9. The translation of Komi terms into their most likely Russian, English and Latinequivalents was achieved through diseussions with colleagues.

10. Disease 1 (Kereelli 1909a: 14); diseases 2.4. 5 and 6 (Kercelli 1909: 31).11. Diseases 1.2. 5 (Babushkin 1930: 168); diseases 3.4 and 6 (Babushkin 1930: 169).12. Clean knife: one that has been heated until it turns red.13. Condition of the herd: this means that the herd is under control. There are a number of

factors that can alter the state of the herd by disturbing it and causing its dispersal, suchas attacks from predators (e.g. Skogland 1989) or poor foraging conditions as a resultof unfavourable snow and iee conditions (e.g. Henshaw 1968: Collins and Smith1991). Komi reindeer herders regularly eheek the herd to ensure that such problems donot occur.


Mark James Dwwr and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

14. Kercelli (1011; 113) describes an incident of herd mixing during his expeditions. Hereports that on one occasion during the summer, Komi herders, with whom theresearcher travelled, found an unattended herd thai threatened to mix with their herd.The herders prevented the two herds mixing and later cheeked the earmarks of the'alien" herd. They discovered that it belonged to a certain Nenets family, so they drovethe herd lo their encampment. Having returned the herd to its rightful owner, theydiscovered that the Nenets had not even noticed that it had gone astray and had beenso close to mixing with that of another herd. It transpired that the herd had been left"unattended' lor a whole day.

\5. In our study area, it appears that the number of brigades decreased and herd sizesincreased, as a result of Soviet collectivisation (mainly from the 1930-l960s).Migration routes also shortened from around 1,400km to around 1,000km around25-30 years ago, as a result of collectivisation and lifestyle changes. We found noevidence of major change in herding technology and management from pre-Soviettimes to the present.

16. A brigade is a community of herders who live in a single chom (tent). Historically, actioiii includetl two families, but it can now include up to four families. This meansthat it is not uncommon for up to 15 people to love in a single ctioin.

17. See the of(icial maps of land arrangements in the Nenets Autonomous Area (obtainedfrom the Department of Economy of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug).

18. Kharuta is a Nenets village at a latitude similar to that of Vorkuta, but some15()-2()()kin to the west

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Mark James Dwver and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin

Mark James Dwyer was previously at the Scott Polar Research Insti-tute, Cambridge, where he undertook his PhD. He is now an ESRC-funded Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Geography Department,University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2 3EN, UK.Email; [email protected]

Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin, completed his PhD at the Itistitute ofLanguage, Literature and Culture, Komi Scientific Centre, KomiRepublic, Syktyvkar, Russia, where he subsequently worked as aresearcher before taking up a Postdoctoral position at the Max PlanckItistitute for Social Anthtopology, Advokatenweg 36, 06114Halle/Saale, Germany. Email: [email protected]


Mobility and Technology: Understanding the Vulnerability Of Two Groups of Nomadic Pastoralists to Reindeer Losses

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