DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO (DRC) MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT AND SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (PERSUAP) JANUARY 2017 This document was produced for the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO (DRC)
MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL
PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT AND
SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (PERSUAP)
JANUARY 2017
This document was produced for the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) i
USAID/DRC Mission
INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION
USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP)
PROGRAM/ACTIVITY DATA
Activity Location:/Country Code DRC
Activity Name: ALL USAID/DRC PROGRAMS
Activity Number: MULTIPLE
Life-of-Activity Funding: Various
Period Covered 5 years
IEE Amendment Prepared by: Cadmus Group Inc.
Current Date: 2017
Expiration Date: 2022
IEE Amendment (Y/N): YES – amends all current USAID/DRC IEEs covering activities with potential pesticide use
Including Food Production, Processing & Marketing Activity (FPPM) PERSUAP AID-623-C-11-00008
SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL THRESHOLD DECISION (Place X where applicable)
Categorical Exclusion [ ] Deferral [ ] Positive Determination [ ] Negative Determination [X] Negative Determination w/ Conditions [X] Exemption [ ]
SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This mission-wide Pesticide Evaluation Report Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) addresses the requirements of 22 CFR 216.3(b) (“Pesticide Procedures”) regarding the procurement, use and support for use of pesticides on USAID/Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) programs. As such, it (1) establishes the set of pesticides for which procurement, use or support for use is authorized across all USAID/DRC programs; and (2) establishes the conditions under which the authorized pesticides may be procured, used, or their use supported to best ensure user, consumer and environmental safety. It amends all USAID/DRC IEEs covering activities that may involve the use of pesticides.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) ii
This PERSUAP covers programs under Development Objective 2 (DO2): Lives Improved through Coordinated
Development Approaches in Select Regions of the DRC Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS.)
The PERSUAP covers the following programs:
Feed the Future (FTF)
Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)
Food for Peace (FFP)
Other programs to be developed that do not differ in programmatic substance and have the same
or similar requirements for use of pesticide active ingredients (AIs) registered for the same or
similar uses by USEPA
These programs have the potential to include the following activities that may require pesticide use:
Crop Production;
Agricultural Research;
Seed Multiplication;
Post-Harvest Storage and Processing; and,
Livestock and Aquaculture production.
Crop production activities addressed by this PERSUAP include:
Food Crops including grains (sorghum, millet, maize), pulses (groundnuts, beans, soybean,
cowpeas), tubers (yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, Irish potato), Musaceae (banana and plantain);
Tree crops (coffee, oil palm, cocoa, chinchona/quinquina bark, rubber tree, citrus, mango, avocado)
and plantation crops (cotton, sugar cane and pyrethrum flowers).
Vegetables (tomatoes, cabbage, onions and other vegetables)
Livestock production activities covered in this PERSUAP include production of cattle, small ruminants
(goat and sheep), pigs, rabbits and guinea pigs, and poultry (chickens and ducks), as well as aquaculture.
This PERSUAP supersedes and replaces the following PERSUAPs:
Tuendelee Pamoja (Moving Forward Together) DFAP PERSUAP (expired July 31, 2016),
addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides;
Jenga Jamaa II (Building the Strength of Communities II) DFAP PERSUAP (expired June 30,
2016), addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides; and,
Simama (RISE) DFAP PERSUAP (expired August 31, 2016), addressing food commodity
protection by fumigation and contact pesticides.
THRESHOLD DECISION/ACTION TAKEN
A Negative Determination with Conditions is issued for procurement, use and support to the use of pesticides across the USAID/DRC portfolio, subject to compliance with the SAFER USE ACTION PLAN that comprises Section 6 of the document.
This PERSUAP addresses the conditions of the USAID/DRC Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
Negative Determination regarding the potential use of pesticides, following 22 CFR 216.3 (b) Pesticide
Procedures. This PERSUAP will closely inform the technical assistance and capacity building for
USAID/DRC supported activities, as well as for any partners/sub-grantees and beneficiaries.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) iii
The PERSUAP establishes requirements for safe pesticide use, particularly the support and use of personal
protection equipment (PPE) by any and all pesticide promoters, trainers and users. It identifies additional
measures required within the framework of a Safer Use Action Plan (SUAP)/Environmental Mitigation and
Monitoring Plan (EMMP). The conditions presented in the body of this PERSUAP are highlighted and
summarized below. The requirements come into effect upon approval of this PERSUAP:
As such:
Upon approval of this PERSUAP, pesticides containing AIs listed in Table 1 below are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. Procurement, use of or support for the approved pesticides must be in compliance with (1) the AI-specific uses and conditions in Table 1, and (2) the safer use conditions enumerated in the SUAP section.
Summary of Compliance Requirements: In summary, the conditions for Implementing Partners (IP) require that:
Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP can be supported by USAID funded programs in the DRC. Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the pesticide AIs listed in Table 1 are permitted for use/support/promotion with USAID/DRC funds of agricultural activities. This approval is subject to compliance with any conditions listed for each AI.
IPs will promote only pesticide products containing AIs approved by this PERSUAP. Pesticide use is broadly defined by USAID as procurement, transportation, storage, mixing, loading, application and disposal. It includes demonstrations, promotion and technical assistance, provision of samples, special payments, donations, subsidies and other forms of financial support including credit provision or guarantee of this credit for purchase of pesticides. USAID funded activities must not support AIs rejected by this PERSUAP or banned in DRC.
Those AIs rejected for support with USAID funding are listed in Table 5. Reasons for each rejection are
also listed. Pesticides banned in DRC are listed in Tables 6 and 7.
Allowed Pesticides
ONLY pesticides specifically approved by this PERSUAP are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. Table 1 lists these AIs and any conditions or limitations specific to the subject AI that emerge from the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) analysis.
As described in the following section, procurement, use and support to any use of pesticides is subject to these AI-specific conditions AND to the conditions for IPs and USAID set out in sections 6.3 and 6.4. These conditions likewise emerge or follow from the PER analysis.
Notwithstanding an AI’s “approved” status, Class I products (i.e. those labeled with skull and crossbones, the word DANGER and/or POISON or equivalent) may only be used by operators with restricted use pesticide (RUP)-level training and appropriate PPE, as certified by the Ministry of Agriculture (at such time as a professional pesticide applicator certification program may exist), an appropriate US or EU certification, or by the USAID MEO.
Upon approval of this PERSUAP, pesticides containing AIs listed in Table 1 below are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. Some of these pesticides have an identified use within an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) scheme provided in Annex A. All of them are registered by the EPA and, to the best of our ability to ascertain, listed by the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock; and are chosen conservatively with respect to their environmental and human health risk profiles, with specific risk-reducing conditions specified as appropriate in Table 1 (This Table 1 also appears in the body of the PERSUAP as Table 5).
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) iv
This PER does not evaluate artisanal pesticides and their ingredients, however in some cases IPM suggests use of artisanal solutions that are already commonly used by farmers in DRC. Artisanal pesticides are often prepared using variety of plant materials and organic and inorganic chemicals that may present health and environmental hazards. Notably, in addition to health and eco-system hazards, physical hazards can be
associated with each chemical used. It is important to know the hazard classification of each chemical used in preparaton of artisanal pesticide in order to determine many different aspects of safely handling that chemical. Some of the possible physical hazard classifications include: flammable and combustible liquids, oxidizers, explosives, corrosives, irritants, sensitizers, flammable solids, and more. Further informton about hazards presented by pesticide active ingredients, including those used in artisanal pesticides are found in the SUAP.
The regulatory status of all pesticides approved as well as detailed human health and ecological toxicological summaries are given in Annex B, Table B.3.
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
2,4-D Herbicide Has acid, amine salts and ester forms
with variable ecotoxicity from practically
non-toxic to highly toxic depending on
the form.
Some products are Acute Toxicity
Category I for irreversible eye damage
(particularly acid and salt forms);
Possibly Carcinogenic to humans
Do not use products that have signal word
Danger and skull and crossbones on
pictogram,
Reported found in provincial stores in DRC.
IPs must confirm registration status in DRC
before procurement of products with this AI.
Abamectin Insecticide,
acaricide and
Antiparasitic
Microorganis
m derived
Products over 1.9% are RUP
It is incompatible with many commonly
used pesticides.
Highly Toxic: Bees, birds, amphibians,
zooplankton
Smallholders should not use products with
concentration over 1.9% as such products can
be used only by properly trained and
qualified professionals with access to
necessary PPE.
Where products contain this AI in addition to
other AIs, product procurement must be
approved by the MEO
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) v
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Acetamiprid Insecticide Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly toxic to birds
Like other neonicotinoids it is suspected to
be involved in honeybee colony collapse
disorder, even if generally considered safer
than other chemicals belonging to the same
chemical group. Should not to be applied
during or close to flowering.
Aluminum Phosphide Fumigant All products are RUP
Fatal by inhalation
Highly toxic tobees
Can be used only by professional fumigators
for FFP activities
Implementers must refer to
USAID Programmatic Environmental
Assessment (PEA) for
phosphine fumigation of stored agricultural
commodity available at
http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.ht
m
Amitraz Acaricide,
Insecticide Potential neurotoxin
Possible Reproducive/Development
toxin
Possible endocrine disruptor
Possible carcinogen
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Insecticide Only strains approved and registered in
DRC should be used
Found in stores in DRC such as
http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-
products.aspx?p=CD, must confirm
registration in DRC before procurement
Bifenthrin Insecticide
Acaricide
Many products are RUP
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Potential development/reproductive
toxin
Possible carcinogen
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO approval
for use of products containing this AI.
Bispyribac-sodium Herbicide Potential groundwater contaminant
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) vi
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Copper hydroxide Fungicide Use products < 50% a.i. and possibly
granular or flowable formulations
Very persistent water, soil, sediment
Very toxic to aquatic organisms
Very hazardous in case of skin and eye
contact, slightly hazardous if inhaled
Do not use products that have DANGER
and/or oskull and crossbones on the label
Copper oxide Fungicide Moderately toxic
Copper oxychloride Fungicide Suspected endocrine disruptor
Do not use products that have DANGER
and/or skull and crossbones on the label
Cypermethrin Insecticide Many agricultural use products are RUPs
due to toxicity to fish and aquatic
invertebrates.
Highly Toxic to bees
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO approval
for use of products containing this AI.
Deltamethrin Insecticide Restricted for use in cotton, some EC
products are RUP due to toxicity to
aquatic organisms
Potential endocrine Disruptor
Highly toxic to some aquatic organzisms
such as crustaceans and to amphibians
Highly toxic tobees
IPs must receive MEO approval before
procurement and use of products containing
this AI.
Difenoconazole Fungicide Potential endocrone disruptor
Possible carcinogen
Highly Toxic toooplankton
Dimethoate Insecticide Few products are RUP
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Potential carcinogen, neurotoxin,
edocrine disruptor,
reproductive/developmental toxin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) vii
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Esfenvalerate Insecticide Most products are RUP
Highly toxic to aquatic organisms and
amphibians
Highly toxic to bees
Potential endocrine disruptor
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO approval
for use of products containing this AI
Ethofenprox Insecticide Likely carcinogen
Potential endocrine disruptor
Approved for veterinary use
EPTC (S-ethyl dipropyl
thiocarbamat) Herbicide Not approved in EU
Likely developmental toxin
Likely neurotoxin
Fenitrothion Insecticide Suspected endocrine disruptor
Fipronil Insecticide Many products are RUP
Possible carcinogen
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly toxic to aquatic organisms and
fishcrustaceans, zooplankton
Highly toxic to beesees
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO approval
for use of products containing this AI.
Fluazifop-p-butyl Herbicide Potential Reproductive or
Developmental Toxin
Fluroxypyr Herbicide Found in some RUP products
Glyphosate Herbicide Some products are Acute Toxicity
Category I for irreversible eye damage;
do not use products that have signal
word Danger
Probably Carcinogenic to humans
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) viii
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Imidacloprid Insecticide Implicated in possible impacts to bee
population (colony collapse disorder),
not to be used during flowering stage or
when bees are actively foraging
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Potential Reproductive/Development
toxin,
Potential Neurotoxin
Indoxacarb Insecticide Moderately to very highly toxic to
freshwater and marine/estuarine fish
and invertebrates
Found in stores in DRC such as
http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-
products.aspx?p=CD, must confirm
registration in DRC before procurement
Lambda-cyhalothrin Insecticide Most products are RUP
Highly toxic to fish and other aquatic
organisms.
Highly toxic to bees.
Potential endocrine disruptor
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO approval
for use of products containing this AI.
Mancozeb Fungicide Likely Carcinogen (USEPA)
Potential Endocrine Disruptor
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly Toxic to amphibians
Mefenoxam (Metlalxyl M) Fungicide Potential groundwater contaminant
Metalaxyl Fungicide Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Metaldehyde Molluscicide Potential ground water contaminant
Potential carcinogen
Found in stores in DRC such as
http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-
products.aspx?p=CD, must confirm
registration in DRC before procurement
Metsulfuron-methyl Herbicide Potential ground water contaminant
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) ix
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Nicosulfuron Herbicide Do not use when in products containing
Atrazine, these products are RUP
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Oxadiazon Herbicide Likely Carcinogen (EPA)
Potential Reproductive/Development
Toxin
Highly toxic to zooplankton
Penoxsulam Herbicide Possible carcinogen
Potential groundwater contaminant
Permethrin Insecticide Most are RUP
Not registered products in EU
Probable carcinogen
Hightly toxic to bees
IPs must receive MEO approval for
procurement and use of products containing
this AI.
Pirimiphos-methyl Insecticide Potential neurotoxin
Higly toxic to bees
Highly toxic to zooplankton
To be used only for stored products and
healh applications
Sulfur Fungicide and
miticide Human health risks include eye, skin and
inhalation
Elemental sulfur is not toxic, but it’s
derivatives are
Thiamethoxam Insecticide Highly toxic to bees
Implicated in possible impacts to bee
population (colony collapse disorder),
not to be used during flowering stage or
when bees are actively foraging.
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Thiophanate-methyl Fungicide Potential carcinogen
Potential groundwater contaminant
Potential reproductive toxin/mutagen
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) x
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Thiram Fungicide Included in the Rotterdam Convention
Highly toxic to fish, zooplankton,
amphibians, worms,
In the US and Europe used in
concentration below 15%, particularly
for seed treatment
Potential endocrine disruptor
Potential reproductive/development
toxin
Approved for use only as treated seed
Triadimenol Fungicide Possible carcinogen
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Possible neurotoxin
Potential reproductive/developmental
toxin
Use only when in treated seed
Triadimefon (parent of
Triadimenol)
Fungicide Possible carcinogen
Potential groundwater contaminant
Likely developmental and reproductive
toxin
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Triclopyr Foliar
herbicide and
fungicide
Few products are RUP
Some products are Category I for irreversible
eye damage; do not use products that have
signal word Danger or skull and crossbones
on the pictogram
Pesticides Considered but Rejected
Synthesizing across the foregoing PER analysis, Table 5 lists those AIs whose use by USAID projects was specifically considered but rejected. The grounds for rejection are also listed. This list includes not only candidate pesticides as listed in Section 5, but other chemicals whose importation into the DRC is banned in compliance with international agreements or which are believed might be available in the region and illicitly imported (See Tables 6 for the pesticides specifically banned by the Stockholm Convention and the Rotterdam Convention and Table 7 for products banned in DRC). This information is provided to support evaluation of future requests for amendment of this PERSUAP.
The rejected AIs are in some cases registered by USEPA, but are rejected for use or support in USAID/DRC programs for a variety of reasons such as prevalence of these AIs in products designated by USEPA as Restricted Use Products (RUP) due to high human or ecological toxicity.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) xi
In addition to these and other restrictions set out in Table 1 (Table 5 in the body fo the PERSUAP),
approval of the AIs listed is SUBJECT to conditions enumerated in the Safe Use Action Plan &
Compliance Tracker (“SUAP Tracker”) provided in Section 6.5. In summary these conditions are as
follows:
Commercial pesticide products procured, used or recommended for use must be properly labelled
in the national language and include specified essential information. Training in reading and understanding
of labels is one of the topics to be addressed under the mandatory requirement for understanding pesticide
risks and safe pesticide use.
Projects must assure use per the label instructions, including the correct use of appropriate PPE
(per label) for all pesticide use under their direct control. Otherwise, projects must assure access to, proper
use and maintenance of appropriate PPE and use per label to the greatest degree practicable.
Projects must require the use and maintenance of appropriate PPE—as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices; See Annex C.
Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key information for IPs to develop these plans.) IPs must utilize preventive IPM tools and tactics, examples of which are provided in Annex A. IPs will develop more extensive and detailed IPM plans that address major pests of their respective value chains and preventive non-chemical IPM tools/tactics recommended to be used before using PERSUAP-approved pesticides. These pesticides should be used only as the last resort after all preventive tools have been exhausted. Pesticides for plant protection must be part of an IPM scheme governed by crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans.
Appropriate project staff and beneficiaries must be trained in safe pesticide use and pesticide first aid. Mandatory requirement for understanding pesticide risks and safe pesticide use training. IPs must provide basic training to their staff and beneficiaries, including those using, selling, financing or providing extension services or demonstrating pesticides with USAID funding. Advanced training is required for certain AIs and products. Training must be reported to the agreement officer representative/contracting officer representative (AOR/COR). IPs must use appropriate training materials and must build awareness about human health and ecological risks of pesticides and promote safer pesticide use through promotion of pesticide best practices and safety use training. Training must include all topics listed in Annex C.
IPs must take necessary steps to prevent the development of pest resistance by using tools recommended by this PERSUAP such as rotating among different classes of each type of pesticide with different modes of action and monitoring and record keeping for detecting development of resistance. Projects must be systematic in their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring.
Projects seeking approval to purchase pesticides must certify that such procurement is compliant with this PERSUAP and provide other specified information for AOR/COR review and clearance.
Pass-down requirements. Prime contractors must include pesticide compliance requirements as set out
above into each grant or sub-contract that will involve support for pesticide use. Sub-contractors or
grantees will be responsible for reporting on risk and risk reduction to the prime contractor. Record-
keeping, reporting on compliance with the above conditions as part of regular project implementation
reporting, and pass-down of all above requirements to subcontractors, grantees and sub-grantees is required.
SUAP conditions must be implemented, and their implementation must be monitored and
reported. To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use and maintenance of appropriate PPE
– as well as safe pesticide purchase, transportation, handling, storage and disposal practices. SUAP
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) xii
implementation must be monitored and reported using the “SUAP Tracker” tracking tool provided in
Section 6.5.
Mandatory use of the “SUAP Tracker.” Any project subject to this PERSUAP must submit a completed
SUAP Tracker to its AOR/COR and MEO 30 days before the implementation of the activity and must
update it annually. The tracker is a mandatory tool for assigning responsibilities and timelines for
implementation of PERSUAP requirements, and for tracking compliance
Note: With respect to pesticides, the SUAP Tracker satisfies the requirement for an EMMP. Project
EMMPs should simply incorporate the SUAP Tracker by reference.
General conditions for USAID/DRC Mission require that:
1. USAID/DRC will put in place effective internal procedures to review pesticide use plans and pesticide procurement requests submitted by IPs. The MEO must review and approve all procurement requests.
2. Per ADS 204.3.4, AORs/CORs must assure that the requirements established by the IP Conditions summarized above are funded, implemented, and monitored.
3. Technical Offices must ensure that contract and award language requires compliance with the conditions established by this PERSUAP for each relevant project.
4. USAID/DRC must assure that all relevant mission staff receive an internal short-format (~1–2 hour) training on the requirements established by this PERSUAP.
5. At such time that pesticides are registered under the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Livestock’s List of Approved Pesticides, USAID/DRC must update this PERSUAP.
Responsibilities
Primary mission responsibility for environmental compliance over life-of-project (LOP) rests with AORs/CORs, Activity Managers and Team Leaders. The MEO and REA play key roles as compliance advisors and quality reviewers and gatekeepers of Reg. 216 documentation. IPs have responsibility for field implementation of environmental mitigation and monitoring measures, typically via the Compliance Tracker that satisfies the requirements of an EMMP, and periodic reporting.
Signed: __________________________ Date: 08/02/2017
08/02/2017Cleared.
Erika J. Clesceri
Cleared. Available on request. 03/16/2017
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................. XVIII
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose and Scope ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 USAID’s Pesticide Procedures ................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Definition of Pesticides ................................................................................................................................................................ 2 1.4 Integrated Pest Management ....................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.5 Methodology of persuap development............................................................................................................................................ 3 1.6 Structure of this PERSUAP ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. USAID/DRC PROGRAMMING ................................................................................... 5
2.1 USAID Programs ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Identification of Target Activities ............................................................................................................................................... 5
3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT ................................................................................ 7
3.1. DRC Country Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 3.2 Environmental regulations .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 3.3 Agriculture in the DRC ............................................................................................................................................................. 9
4. PER PART 1—BASELINE: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS AND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY ........................................................................................... 12
4.1 Agricultural Extension in the DRC ........................................................................................................................................12 4.2 Inputs value-chain ....................................................................................................................................................................12 4.3 Farmers use of pesticides ...........................................................................................................................................................13
5. PER PART 2—CANDIDATE PESTICIDES AND THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS .. 15
5.1 List of Candidate Pesticides ......................................................................................................................................................15 5.2 The 12-Factor Analysis ...........................................................................................................................................................18
6. SAFER ACTION USE PLAN (SUAP) ..........................................................................32
6.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................................................32 6.2 Allowed Pesticides ....................................................................................................................................................................32 6.3 Pesticides Rejected and Banned .................................................................................................................................................40 6.4 Summary of Compliance Requirements .....................................................................................................................................44 6.5 Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker .........................................................................................................48
ANNEX A: PESTS AND DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS AND AVAILABLE AND RECOMMENDED CONTROL METHODS ..................................................................56
Grains ............................................................................................................................................................................................56 Maize .............................................................................................................................................................................................64 Rice 72 Legumes/Pulses – Groundnuts, Cowpeas, Beans, Soybeans ............................................................................................................82 Tubers ............................................................................................................................................................................................89 Vegetables (Tomatoes, Onions, Cabbage, Other Vegetables) ...........................................................................................................97 Tree Crops (Coffee, Oil Palm, Cocoa, Chinchona/QuinQuina Bark, Rubber Tree, Citrus, Mango, Avocado) ........................... 107 Plantation Crops (Cotton, Sugar Cane and Pyrethrum Flowers) .................................................................................................. 118 Livestock ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 121
ANNEX B. PESTICIDE TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILES............................................ 122
Toxicity to humans ...................................................................................................................................................................... 122 Ecotoxicology ............................................................................................................................................................................... 123
ANNEX C. MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF TRAINING AND PESTICIDE SAFER USE ................................................................................................................................... 130
Training in Safer Use .................................................................................................................................................................. 130 Training in IPM ......................................................................................................................................................................... 130 Understanding Pesticide Labels and Material Safety Data SheetS ............................................................................................... 131 Protective Clothing and Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 134
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP)
Proper Spray Technique: Protecting Against Pesticide Spray Drift ............................................................................................... 135 Pesticide Transport and Storage ................................................................................................................................................... 136 First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning .................................................................................................................................................. 137 Proper Pesticide Container Disposal ............................................................................................................................................. 138 Monitoring and Data Record Keeping .......................................................................................................................................... 139
ANNEX D: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 140
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES .............................................................................. 142
TABLE OF TABLES
Table 1. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Approved for Procurement/Use/Support by Activities in the
DRC .............................................................................................................................................................................. iv
Table 2. Information Gathered by Consultants from Representative Locations in the DRC .......................... 3
Table 3. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Evaluated for Procurement/Use/Support by USAID Funded
Activities in the DRC ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Table 4. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Approved for Procurement/Use/Support by Activities in the
DRC .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 5. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Rejected for Procurement/Use/Support by Activities in the DRC
........................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6. Hazardous chemicals and pesticides Prohibited for importation into DRC listed in Annex III of
the Rotterdam Convention ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 7. Phytosanitary products whose use is prohibited in DRC Congo due to their carcinogenic,
mutagenic, toxic or ecological effects ........................................................................................................... 44
Table 8. IPM/Safe Use Requirements and Relevant Resources ................................................................................ 47
Table A.1. Sorghum and Pearl Millet Integrated Pest Management Plan………………………………………...56
Table A.2. Maize Integrated Pest Management Plan ................................................................................................... 64
Table A.3. Rice Integrated Pest Management Plan ....................................................................................................... 72
Table A.4. Legumes/Pulses - Groundnuts, Cowpeas, Beans, Soybeans Integrated Pest Management
Plan .............................................................................................................................................................................. 82
Table A.5. Tubers (Yams, Sweet Potatoes, Cassava, Irish Potato) Integrated Pest Management Plan ..... 89
Table A.6. Vegetables (Tomatoes, Onions, Cabbage, Other Vegetables) Integrated Pest Management
Plan .............................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Table A.7. Tree Crops (Coffee, Oil Palm, Cocoa, Chinchona/QuinQuina Bark, Rubber Tree, Citrus,
Mango, Avocado) Integrated Pest Management Plan ........................................................................ 107
Table A.8. Plantation Crops (Cotton, Sugar Cane and Pyrethrum FLowers)
Integrated Pest Management Plan .............................................................................................................. 118
Table A.9. Livestock Integrated Pest Management Plan .......................................................................................... 121
Table B.1. EPA System of Classification of Acute Toxicity ....................................................................................... 122
Table B.2. WHO System of Classification of Acute Toxicity .................................................................................... 123
Table B.3. Assessment of the Acute and Long-Term Toxicity of the Pesticides ............................................. 124
Table C.1. Handler PPE for Worker Protection Standard Products ...................................................................... 134
Table C.2. Pesticide Poisoning First Aid .......................................................................................................................... 137
Table C.3. Proper Methods to Dispose of Pesticides and Their Empty Containers ....................................... 138
Table C.4. Example of Monitoring and Record Keeping Chart .............................................................................. 139
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP)
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1. DRC Political Map ...................................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2. DRC Agro Ecological Zones ................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3. DRC Land Use/Cover .............................................................................................................................................. 10
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2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) xviii
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AI Active Ingredient
AOR Agreement Officer Representative
BEO Bureau Environmental Officer
CARPE Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment
CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy
CFR Code of Federal Regulation
COR Contracting Officer Representative
DPPV Direction de la Production et Protection des Végétaux
DFAP Development Food Assistance Program
DGDA Direction Générale des Douanes et Accises
DMEO Deputy Mission Environmental Officer
DO Development Objective
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo
EA Environmental Analysis
EMMP Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan
FFP Food for Peace
FIFRA Federal Fungicide, Insecticide, and Rodenticide Act
FTF Feed the Future
GUP General Use Pesticide
ICCN Congolese Nature Conservation Institute
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
IPAPEL Inspection Provincial à l'Agriculture, Pêche et Elevage
IPM Integrated Pest Management
MECNT Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism
MEO Mission Environmental Officer
MSDS Materials Safety Data Sheet
NGO Non-governmental Organization
OCC Office Congolais de Contrôle
PER Pesticide Evaluation Report
PHI Pre-Harvest-Interval
POP Persistant Organic Pollutant
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
REO Regional Environmental Officer
RUP Restricted Use Pesticides
SADC Southern African Development Community
SAPReF Southern Africa Pesticide Regulators Forum
SENAFIC Service National des Fertilisants et Intrants Connexes
SENASEM Service National de Semences
SUAP Safer Use Action Plan
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) xix
SNV Service National de Vulgarisation
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
USFDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration
WHO World Health Organization
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2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
In compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this PERSUAP:
Establishes the set of pesticides for which procurement, use or support for use is authorized across all USAID/DRC programs.
Establishes the conditions under which the authorized pesticides may be procured, used, or their use supported to best ensure user, consumer and environmental safety.
These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP.
The set of authorized pesticides and requirements
for safe use are established through the first sections
of the document, the Pesticide Evaluation Report
(PER), which culminates with an assessment of the
12 pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l)
required by 22 CFR 216.3(b) (See Box 1).
The Safe Use Action Plan (SUAP) in Section 6 provides a succinct, stand-alone statement of compliance requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. It also provides a template for assigning responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its Agreement Officer Representative/Contracting Officer Representative (AOR/COR), Deputy Mission Environmental Officer (DMEO) and Mission Environmental Officer (MEO).
This PERSUAP supersedes and replaces the following PERSUAPs:
Tuendelee Pamoja (Moving Forward Together) DFAP PERSUAP (expired July 31, 2016),
addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides;
Jenga Jamaa II (Building the Strength of Communities II) DFAP PERSUAP (expired June 30,
2016), addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides; and,
Simama (RISE) DFAP PERSUAP (expired August 31, 2016), addressing food commodity
protection by fumigation and contact pesticides.
1.2 USAID’S PESTICIDE PROCEDURES
Procurement or use of pesticides on USAID-funded or managed activities requires compliance with the Agency’s pesticide procedures, 22 CFR 216.3(b). In summary, this US federal regulation mandates that a pesticide may only be approved for procurement or use following an analysis of 12 specified factors focused on need and risk. More rigorous analytical requirements attach to pesticides designated by USEPA as restricted-use or pesticides not approved by USEPA for same or similar uses.
BOX 1. The 12 Pesticide ANALYSIS
FACTORS
A. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA) registration status of the
proposed pesticides
B. Basis for selection of pesticides
C. Extent to which the proposed pesticide
use is part of an IPM program
D. Proposed method or methods of
application, including the availability of
application and safety equipment
E. Any acute and long-term toxicological
issues with the proposed use, and
measures available to minimize such
hazards
F. Effectiveness of the requested pesticide
for the proposed use
G. Compatibility of the proposed pesticide
use with target and non-target
ecosystems
H. Conditions under which the pesticide is
to be used, including climate,
geography, hydrology, and soils
I. Availability of other pesticides or non-
chemical control methods
J. Host country’s ability to regulate or
control the distribution, storage, use,
and disposal of the requested pesticide
K. Provision for training of users and
applicator
L. Provision made for monitoring the use
and effectiveness of each pesticide
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Approval of any given pesticide under these procedures is contingent on specified restrictions and safer use requirements and requires Mission Director and Bureau Environmental Officer (BEO) clearance with concurrence by USAID officers identified by the Mission, usually the Mission Environmental Officer (MEO), Regional Environmental Officer (REO) or Advisor, and relevant practice officers and/or advisors.
Pesticide Evaluation Reports and Safer Use Action Plans (PERSUAPs) are generally the instrument by which the pesticide procedures are addressed. Once approved, PERSUAPs amend the Reg. 216 documentation, Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and Environmental Analyses (EAs), for the subject projects/activities and the conditions they establish become binding.
Generally, USAID is moving towards mission- or sector-level PERSUAPs rather than project-specific ones. This is intended to reduce redundant preparation effort, simplify compliance oversight, and enhance consistency.
1.3 DEFINITION OF PESTICIDES
Effective pest management is required to achieve intended development outcomes in USAID/DRC programs in agriculture and food security. Even in the context of USAID’s policy commitment to integrated pest management (IPM), effective pest management often requires the use of products defined as pesticides by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The EPA defines as pesticide
Any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest.
Any substance or mixture of substances intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.
Any nitrogen stabilizer1
Pesticides include biological pesticides (or biopesticides) including naturally occurring substances that control pests (biochemical pesticides), microorganisms that control pests (microbial pesticides), and pesticidal substances produced by plants containing added genetic material (plant-incorporated protectants).2
Except in limited circumstances, any substance falling within definition of a pesticide must be registered by the USEPA before it can be legally sold or distributed in the United States. One such exception to the registration requirement is for those pesticides that the Administrator, under section 25(b) of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), has determined “to be of a character which is unnecessary to be subject to this Act,” and that have been exempted from the requirements of FIFRA by regulation.3
In implementing its Pesticide Procedures, USAID is bound by the definition of “pesticide” utilized by USEPA and as established by the US Federal Fungicide, Insecticide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Per this definition, pesticides are agents used to kill or control (including repel) any pest, including insects, rodents or birds, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, or microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. The term “pesticide” applies to insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, microbicides, rodenticides, and various other substances used to control pests.4 Most pesticides are by design poisons, and their use entails a degree of risk to the environment including humans, animals, birds, fish, bees, and other living organisms.
1.4 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Since the early 1990s USAID has been committed to the philosophy and practice of IPM as official policy. There is not a single standard international definition for IPM, but there is wide agreement on its basic elements.
IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of damage from pests.
It employs a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation,
1 https://www.epa.gov/minimum-risk-pesticides/what-pesticide 2 https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides 3 https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2013-title40-vol25/xml/CFR-2013-title40-vol25-sec152-25.xml 4 "Types of Pesticides" About Pesticides. 05 Aug 2014. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 09 Aug 2015
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/types.htm.
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modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties to minimize pest damage.
Pesticides are used only after monitoring indicates they are needed according to established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism.
Pest control materials are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial and non-target organisms, and the environment.
IPM is strongly promoted as part of 22 CFR 216.3(b) Factor C (see Box 1 above).
1.5 METHODOLOGY OF PERSUAP DEVELOPMENT
This PERSUAP is based on input provided by USAID/DRC, extensive desk research and field interviews and data gathering conducted by regional expert consultants over a period of two months. The field interviews were conducted by four consultants gathering information from representative locations in the DRC, as shown in Table 2 below.
TABLE 2. INFORMATION GATHERED BY CONSULTANTS FROM REPRESENTATIVE LOCATIONS IN
THE DRC
CONSULTANT AREA OF
COVERAGE
SUBJECTS INTERVIEWED/SURVEYED
Théodore Munyuli
Bin Mushambanyi,
Ph.D.
South Kivu: Bukavu,
North Kivu, Goma.
Kinshasa.
Mercy Corps, ADRA, farmer associations and
cooperatives, input suppliers. Ministry of Agriculture
representatives, ag input importers, input retailers
(Kinshasa).
Rémy Mukendi
Tshibingu, M.Sc.
East Kasai: Mbuji-
Mayi, West Kasai:
Kananga.
Farmers, farmer organizations, researchers and
representatives of local and federal government,
input suppliers.
Many Madika-
Kennes, Ph.D.
Katanga:
Lumumbashi and
Kolwezi.
University of Lubumbashi, the University of Kolwezi,
INERA Kipopo, input suppliers, farmers.
Espoir Bisimwa
Basengere, Ph.D.
Tanganyika:
Kalemie, Moba*
Farmer organizations, farmers, input suppliers.
Note: *Site visit to Moba could not be completed due to security issues.
Based on interviews and field visits with implementing partners, local government representatives, NGOs, input suppliers, farmer associations and individual farmers, the regional expert consultants provided country specific information on all aspects of this PERSUAP including regulatory issues, input supply chains, product and equipment availability, extension services, farmer behavior, IPM issues and other relevant information.
1.6 USE AND STRUCTURE OF THIS PERSUAP
A PERSUAP has multiple functions. It is a regulatory document, a source of location specific information about pesticides, description of context in which pesticides will be used by USAID programs, a list of evaluated, approved and rejected pesticides, and a description of analysis by which these lists were developed. The PERSUAP also contains an Integrated Pest Management plan that provides crop protection suggestions including use of pesticides approved in this PERSUAP. The PERSUAP provides specific guidance for safer use of pesticides with further detail about safer use provided in the Annexes. IP activities that are implemented to ensure safer use of pesticides are tantamount to environmental mitigation and monitoring. Therefore, Safer Use Action Plan can be equated to the environmental mitigation and monitoring plan. A tracker provided in the Safer Use Action plan is a monitoring tool for plan implementation.
Sections 1 and 2 of this document provide an introduction to the PERSUAP purpose and scope and
pesticide management needs of programs supported by USAID/DRC.
Section 3 provides the environmental context, describes agricultural production practices, pesticide use
and the system of environmental protection and pesticide regulations.
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Sections 4 and 5 are the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) that analyzes the selected set of pesticides
and requirements for safe use, which culminates with an assessment of the 12 pesticide risk evaluation
factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b).
Section 6: The Safe Use Action Plan provides a succinct, definitive stand-alone statement of compliance
requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis and includes the list of AIs approved and rejected.
It also provides a mandatory template (the SUAP Tracker in Section 6.5) for assigning responsibilities and
timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must
complete this SUAP template and submit to its A/COR and MEO for approval.
Annexes: The PERSUAP Annexes provide a set of tools for SUAP implementation.
Annexes A, B and C. In keeping with USAID’s policy and promotion of IPM, this document analyzes
the preventive non-chemical IPM tools and tactics to be promoted by the IP. In order to provide the IPs
and their sub-grantees with guidance for the development of recommended detailed and extensive
integrated pest management plans for each specific pest or disease, this PERSUAP compiles and presents
this best practices information in Annex A.
Annex B analyzes the human and eco-toxicology of the pesticides.
Annex C lists mandatory training topics in Safer Use of Pesticides.
Annex D provides policy recommendations.
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2. USAID/DRC PROGRAMMING
As noted above, this PERSUAP covers both current USAID/DRC programs and foreseeable future programming. This section summarizes current programs with need and potential need for pesticide use.
2.1 USAID PROGRAMS
This PERSUAP covers programs under Development Objective 2 (DO2): Lives Improved through
Coordinated Development Approaches in Select Regions of the DRC Country Development Cooperation Strategy
(CDCS)
Additionally, the PERSUAP covers the following programs:
Feed the Future (FTF)
Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)
Food for Peace (FFP)
Others programs to be developed that do not differ in programmatic substance and have the
same or similar requirements for use of pesticide active ingredients (AIs) registered for the same
or similar uses by USEPA
2.1.1 FEED THE FUTURE
The DRC is not currently an FTF focus country, but its portfolio is strategically aligned with the FTF global objectives of reducing extreme poverty, under-nutrition, and hunger. FTF programs in the DRC support agriculture and nutrition programs and promote climate smart agriculture.
2.1.2 FOOD FOR PEACE
FFP provides cash, food vouchers, and locally and regionally procured commodities and U.S. food commodities to meet emergency food needs. In addition, FFP food aid programs are assisting populations in North and South Kivu and northern Katanga improve food security, nutrition, and health.
2.1.3 CARPE
USAID/DRC houses the USAID/Central Africa Regional operating unit that manages the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). CARPE’s strategic goal is: “Central Africa’s transition to climate-resilient, low-emissions development accelerated through sustainable management of biodiverse forests.” CARPE fulfills this goal through a comprehensive and integrated strategy which aims to: (1) improve the management of eight forest landscapes in the Congo Basin; (2) mitigate threats to biodiversity; (3) monitor the condition of forests, wildlife and the natural ecosystems of the Congo Basin and make this information available to the public and policy-makers; and (4) improve natural resources governance.
2.2 IDENTIFICATION OF TARGET ACTIVITIES
In addition to currently implemented projects/activities, this PERSUAP is designed to provide for the needs of future USAID/DRC projects with the same or similar pest management needs.
The PERSUAP addresses programs that potentially include the following activities that may require
pesticide use:
Crop Production;
Agricultural Research;
Seed Multiplication;
Post-Harvest Storage and Processing; and,
Livestock and Aquaculture production.
Production activities addressed by this PERSUAP include:
Food Crops including grains (sorghum, millet, maize), pulses (groundnuts, beans, soybean,
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 6
cowpeas), tubers (yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, Irish potato), Musaceae (banana and plantain);
Tree crops (coffee, oil palm, cocoa, chinchona/quinquina bark, rubber tree, citrus, mango,
avocado) and plantation crops (cotton, sugar cane and pyrethrum flowers).
Production of vegetables (tomatoes, cabbage, onions and other vegetables)
Livestock production activities covered in this PERSUAP include production of cattle, small
ruminants (goat and sheep), pigs, rabbits and guinea pigs, and poultry (chickens and ducks), as
well as aquaculture.
Current and planned USAID activities identified as requiring a PERSUAP are as follows.
Teaching and demonstration farms for a variety of crops.
On-farm demonstration plots for management of irrigated perennial crops.
Technical advice and support to small-scale farmers for perennial tree crop management.
Technical advice and support to small-scale farmers for grain crop production (including
minimum till practices).
Technical advice and support to small-scale farmers for production of vegetables.
Procurement of agricultural inputs (seeds, seedling, and other plant materials, fertilizer, pesticides
equipment and machinery).
Control of ecto-parasites on livestock.
Support to agricultural processing and storage facilities.
Matching grants or links to finance mechanisms for purchase of required equipment for
cultivation, processing, or marketing of crops to encourage value chain development.
Grants and Loans: USAID regulations apply to all recipients, direct and indirect, of USG funding. All projects that provide grants and loans for agricultural activities are responsible for ensuring enforcement of the requirements established by this PERSUAP.
Future project needs. Should future projects require the procurement, use or support to use of pesticide
AIs not authorized by this PERSUAP, or for uses not authorized by this PERSUAP, an amendment to
this PERSUAP will be necessary.
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3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT
3.1. DRC COUNTRY BACKGROUND
Geography. The DRC has about 25-mile (40-km) coastline on the Atlantic Ocean but is otherwise landlocked. The country straddles the equator and has widely differing geographical features, including mountain ranges in the north and west, a vast central plain through which the Congo River flows, and the volcanoes and lakes of the Kivu region. Major lakes in the DRC include Albert, Edward, Kivu, Mweru and Tanganyika.
Biodiversity. The DRC has the greatest extent of tropical rainforests in Africa, covering more than 100 million hectares. The forests in the eastern sector are particularly diverse as one of the few forest areas in Africa to have survived the ice age. About 45 percent of the DRC is covered by primary forest which provides a refuge for several large mammal species driven to extinction in other African countries. Overall, the country is known to have more than 11,000 species of plants, 450 mammals, 1,150 birds, 300 reptiles, and 200 amphibians.
Economy. One of the key challenges in the DRC is the lack of infrastructure, particularly transport infrastructure and electricity. An estimated 80-90 percent of the DRC’s population is engaged in the informal sector. In economic value, this parallel economy is estimated to be three times the size of the DRC’s formal GDP. In the conflict pockets of eastern DRC such as in Masisi and Walikale in North Kivu and parts of Ituri, an informal war economy has taken over with militarized natural resources exploitation and trade lying beyond the purview of state administrative institutions. Although the governance frameworks to formalize economic activity are gradually being put in place, the DRC’s undiversified economy – based almost entirely on natural resource extraction – has remained informal to this day with major environmental and social consequences.5
Governance. Fifty years after gaining its independence from Belgium, the DRC remains plagued by continuing governance challenges, corruption, insecurity, and widespread poverty. State institutions are generally weak, and efforts to bring lasting peace and security have so far produced mixed results. While the western part of the country enjoys relative calm, violent conflict persists in much of the eastern DRC, perpetrated by armed militias, domestic and foreign.
In 2008, at the request of the government of the DRC, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established a Country Programme and a project office in the capital, Kinshasa. The aim of the programme is to work with other members of the UN to assist the government of the DRC in its post-conflict recovery and sustainable development. UNEP concluded that with half of Africa's forests and water resources and trillion-dollar mineral reserves, the DRC could become a powerhouse of African development provided multiple pressures on its natural resources are urgently addressed.6 Unfortunately, this potential remains unfulfilled while the DRC continues to suffer from governance challenges, insecurity and ongoing rebel attacks in the east irregularly alleviated by the ill-conceived international intervention.
In collaboration with the Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism (MECNT) and the Congolese Nature Conservation Institute (ICCN), UNEP conducted a national, multi-thematic assessment of priority environmental issues facing the country in 20117.
5 http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_PCEA_EN.pdf 6 http://www.unep.org/newscentre/Default.aspx?DocumentID=2656&ArticleID=8890 7 http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_PCEA_EN.pdf
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FIGURE 1. DRC POLITICAL MAP
Source: focusafrica.gov.in
3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
Noteworthy legal developments in environmental protection in the DRC commenced with the adoption of a new Constitution on 18 February 2006, which clearly introduced environmental rights and obligations5 and provided for the creation of other domestic laws concerning, inter alia, the protection of the environment and tourism. Subsequently, around a dozen national laws in the DRC were introduced and/or amended to include environmental protection dispositions.
Environmental protection in the DRC faces numerous obstacles including:
Lack of funds
Inability of the Government to abide by national environmental laws
Gap between legislation and practice
Political instability
Lack of environmental pollution impact assessment
Absence of mechanisms of coordination of the cooperation between various sectors
Overlapping institutional mandates
No central database of cases examined by local courts and tribunals
No official journal (national or provincial) in which legal decisions and case law can be published. At most Universities environmental law is not offered at all, or at best as an elective course8
Crop protection, pest control and pesticide management approach is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock. Currently, the responsible authorities at the Ministry and at the provincial level have not yet adapted a cohesive strategy. The fight against pests in the region focuses on a few uncoordinated initiatives that include preventive and curative control and IPM.
8 Country Report: Democratic Republic of Congo, Recent Developments In Environmental Protection
Oliver Ruppel & Dignité Bwiza
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3.3 AGRICULTURE IN THE DRC
3.3.1 ECORIGIONS AND AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES
The DRC has 14 ecoregions either entirely or partly within its borders: (1) Central African Mangroves, (2) Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests, (3) Western Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, (4) Angolan Miombo woodlands, (5) Southern Congolian forest-savanna Mosaic, (6) Central Congolian lowland forests, (7) Eastern Congolian swamp forests, (8) Western Congolian swamp forests, (9) Northeastern Congolian lowland forests, (10) Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, (11) East Sudanian savanna, (12) Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands, (12) Albertine Rift montane forests, and (14) Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands. The Congo Basin, which stretches from the DRC across the Central African Republic, Congo, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon at 500 million acres, is one of the most critical wilderness areas on Earth, and the second largest tropical forest. It is home to many species of tropical plants, mammals, birds and fish, some of which are endangered.
The DRC is divided into three agroecological zones with the larger sub-humid zone, humid and the highlands. Cassava is grown throughout the country under all climatic conditions. Both tubers and leaves are eaten. Maize and corn, like cassava, is grown nationwide, but its principal culture is centered in the south. Millet and sorghum are grown exclusively in the savanna areas and are important only in the relatively dry far northern and southeastern parts of the country. Rice is grown mainly in the humid climate of the Congo River basin, particularly along the Congo in Équateur Region and also near Kisangani. Coffee has long been the DRC’s most important agricultural cash crop and is grown by both smallholders and large plantations. Yams and potatoes are cultivated principally in the forest zones of central part of the country, where they occasionally constitute the main staple. Peanuts are grown outside the central forest zones and are used to produce oil.9
It is estimated that total agricultural land in the DRC is 11.4 percent, with 3.1 percent arable land, permanent crops 0.3 percent and permanent pasture 8 percent, with forests covering 67.9 percent.10
FIGURE 2. DRC AGRO ECOLOGICAL ZONES
9http://www.photius.com/countries/congo_democratic_republic_of_the/economy/congo_democratic_republic_of_the_economy_
crops.html 10 http://www.indexmundi.com/democratic_republic_of_the_congo/land_use.html
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 10
FIGURE 3. DRC LAND USE/COVER
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/235983711_fig1_Fig-1-Land-use-and-cover-in-Democratic-Republic-of-Congo-
based-on-the-Africover-map
3.3.2 AGRICULTURE SECTOR
Agriculture accounts for about 40 percent of the national GDP and employs 70 percent of the population in the DRC. Commercial agriculture in the country is relatively limited as most producers are small-scale farmers and subsistence food producers because of the deterioration of market infrastructure caused by war.11
Agriculture is practiced mainly on subsistence level in the DRC, where farmers produce food for their own consumption. Cassava, plantains and maize are the most widely-grown crops. In some regions, groundnuts/peanuts and rice are grown. A wide range of fruits are grown across the country. These include mangoes, oranges, mangosteens, guavas, papaya, avocados and bananas. Smallholders often grow some cash crops. These include tobacco, coffee, sugar cane and cocoa. Rubber is also extracted from rubber trees, and palm oil from the kernels of palm trees.12
In terms of the structure of the DRC agriculture sector, in comparison to other African countries, its rural areas are relatively unstructured and organization remains focused on groups and informal associations. In the past, the DRC government has sought to promote different forms of association, including mutual associations and cooperatives, but the lack of a clear vision for their organization and limited resources available in the departments concerned, have not allowed for meaningful results.
The cooperative movement has however experienced a recent revival, as a result of social and political unrest. This is explained largely by the trust placed in them by donors and international NGOs, which consider them more credible than the state structures, for sending support to grassroots communities, beneficiaries of their interventions in rural areas. The cooperative groups and associations are involved in agriculture, processing of products, small animal husbandry, fishing, and marketing. These cooperative
11 http://www.abghq.com/downloads/DRC.pdf 12 ibid
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groups are structured umbrella or coordination platforms at the central and provincial level, to better defend the interests of their members and provide a better service in the supply of means of production,
market access and financing and advisory support.13
Dignitaries and politicians as well as private agricultural amateur entrepreneurial operators purchase agricultural land and practice farming for a secondary income or buy agricultural land as an investment. In some cases, these individuals own large tracts of land but exploit only limited plots for agriculture. The land and agricultural production on this land may be managed by an employee manager.
Most of the commercial crops such as coffee, cocoa, rubber, tea, palm oil and sugar cane are grown on plantations, with the production of tobacco and cotton largely in the hands of private small-hold farmers.
13 ibid
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4. PER PART 1—BASELINE: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS AND
MANAGEMENT CAPACITY
This section provides key information that serves as critical input to the 12-factor analysis (per 22 CFR 216.3(b)) undertaken in Section 5. It includes information regarding the local context (e.g., knowledge and awareness of pesticide safe use principles) that is critical to decisions regarding which pesticides can be safely used in the DRC.
4.1 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE DRC
Despite having one of the highest extension agent-to-farmer ratios and a pluralistic extension system, the DRC fails to deliver knowledge and technologies to rural areas due to lack of coordination, no unified and clear policy and mandate, lack of funding, aging and low competencies of agents, and lack of mobility and interactions of agents with key actors. The DRC agricultural extension system lacks enforcement of performance targets, systems of rewards and sanctions, mobility to foster linkages, and skills development.14
4.2 INPUTS VALUE-CHAIN
Input suppliers. There are three categories of input suppliers in the DRC, including large traders, urban stores and rural markets. Large international manufacturers and traders, such as ALM International, manufacture, mix, package and import pesticides into the DRC. These input suppliers may sell products to government funded agencies and research institutions such as the Inspection Provincial à l'Agriculture, Pêche et Elevage (IPAPEL), the Service National de Semences (SENASEM), the Service National des Fertilisants et Intrants Connexes (SENAFIC), and the Ministry of Agriculture, Plant Protection Department. They also may supply pesticides to donor agencies’ project implementers including USAID implementing partners.
In towns and urban centers, pesticides are sold at large and small stores and pharmacies. Pesticides are sold by agricultural input suppliers that sell seeds, agricultural equipment, tools and materials, veterinary products, fertilizers, and pesticide application equipment such as sprayers. These agricultural inputs and agrochemicals suppliers may act both as wholesalers and as retailers. Other stores that may sell pesticides in towns are home and garden stores and even general supply stores that sell food items. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is almost never available in these stores, reportedly due to lack of demand.
In rural areas, pesticides are sold in small shops usually located in the market. In general, pesticide trade is conducted by non-registered and uncertified businesses. Many interviewed input supply business owners claimed that they have authorization to sell pesticides (agrochemicals) and related agricultural inputs.
Importation. Pesticides are imported into the DRC from East and South Africa, Europe, and Asia. While some pesticides arrive into the DRC through the formal importation process, many are delivered directly across DRC borders, particularly from Rwanda in eastern DRC, and from Angola in southern DRC. The African wholesale distribution companies in turn purchase their products from manufacturers in India, Pakistan or China. Pesticides that arrive through the DRC porous borders are sold in stores and farm shops on the market. According to many input suppliers interviewed, formal laws governing the importation of pesticides into the DRC are unknown, and therefore inspections, taxation and duties are applied in an arbitrary fashion. Often pesticide products banned in other countries find their way into the DRC.
Government oversight. Several stores reported regular visits by government officials, while others reported irregular or no visits by government agencies. According to shop owners, inspectors arrived from numerous variety of government ministries and departments.
Availability of agrochemicals and other agricultural inputs varies significantly depending on location as well as on political stability of the region. This variability causes strong price fluctuation of agricultural inputs. There is also variability of demand based on type of crops grown as well as regional and seasonal variability. Demand for herbicide grows seasonally when weeds must be controlled during the dry seasons preceding rainy seasons. Demand is also based on farmers’ experience with resistance development.
14 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1389224X.2015.1026363
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Farmers in the DRC have limited chemical tools available to them to control pests. Those readily available to them are often broad spectrum and high acute and environmental toxicity.
Shops found in rural areas do not have products and price lists; however, those in urban areas may have a list of available products and prices which are frequently modified and updated. Pesticides, veterinary pesticides and veterinary products are often sold in the same store. In some shops pesticides are placed on the same shelves as food and medicine intended for human consumption.
Knowledge and training. Most retailers do not have formal education or training, however some have attended courses provided by donor funded programs and have agricultural degrees. Shop owners often advise farmers purchasing pesticides. Providing demonstrations to farmers is not a common practice among input suppliers, with the exception of during agricultural fairs. Demonstrations more frequently focus on veterinary products and spray equipment than on the selection and safe use of pesticides.
Most pesticide retailers understand the human health risks of pesticides and the risks of pest resistance development as a result of misuse of pesticides, however it is not clear whether they communicate this information to farmers. Sellers often assume that farmers are more knowledgeable about pesticide use than about the use of fertilizers. Shop owners consider training of farmers in use of pesticides and equipment, as well as pesticide use safety the responsibility of extension agents. Generally, services for repair of broken spraying equipment are not provided to farmers. Traders rarely sell Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) citing low demand.
Quality issues. Strong pesticide odors were noted in the pesticide shops visited, which usually indicates tampering with the original packaging and/or poor handling of pesticides. Farmers are not willing to buy pesticides packaged in large containers and often ask for smaller amounts. Original packaging is opened to place pesticides in small unlabeled or mislabeled containers thus creating hazards of pollution and compromising their initial quality. Pesticides not approved by the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock are often available for sale in these pesticide shops.
Disposal. Interviewed shop owners reported that they do not have products on shelves with expiration date beyond life of the product. However, it appears that the retailers do not dispose of such products and instead use them in their own gardens or sell them in their villages. Some reported disposing of unusable products in latrines, throwing them into garbage, bringing them to city dumping sites, or even throwing them on the road to be blown away by passing cars. According to interviews, used containers are sometimes buried, but many are disposed of in local trash collection areas, or are often reused by people in towns and villages.
4.3 FARMERS USE OF PESTICIDES
Pesticide availability. Smallholders in villages have difficulty accessing supplies in large towns. Input suppliers, on the other hand, may not open pesticide shops in villages due to potential risks including poor security, high market uncertainty, and low profitability. Farmers from rural communities may prefer to purchase their supplies in large towns due to a lack of trust in local village shops. According to farmers, these local village pesticide vendors often tamper with product packaging and may therefore sell products of inferior quality.
Many pesticides available on the market are counterfeit products with modified product content. Imports of non-authorized products (not yet registered or banned) or parallel illegal imports (registered products from non-registered sources) by non-authorized distributors are common.
Most farmers select from a very limited number of familiar broad spectrum pesticides that are available on the market. Pesticide demand is seasonal depending on the crop and region.
Pesticide use. Farmers in the DRC with access to pesticide products have become progressively dependent on pesticide use as they believe that current seed varieties at local markets require application of pesticides for higher yields. Seeds of local varieties have grown scarce in the many villages in certain areas of the DRC. Some farmers interviewed for this PERSUAP believe that local varieties are more resistant to pests, while new varieties perform well at the onset, but later become susceptible to pests and diseases. Pesticide use varies by crop. Pesticides are often used with vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbage, eggplants and potatoes, as well as maize and beans. On the other hand, farmers do not often apply
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pesticides to crops such as watermelon, cucurbits, onions, cassava, and sweet potato. More often than not, farmers cannot differentiate between crop stress and disease and therefore apply pesticides indiscriminately. Farmers do not observe pre-harvest-intervals (PHI) and sometimes purposely spray vegetables before harvesting. Demand for fungicides increases during the rainy season when there is higher prevalence of plant diseases.
Pesticides are usually applied by men in the DRC. Most farmers’ homesteads are a considerable distance from their fields. As a result, their families are not often nearby during pesticide application. Farmers can be seen using their cell phones, eating, drinking or smoking while spraying their crops. In some cases, agricultural pesticides are used for the control of household pests or rodents.
Many fields are reportedly established very close to surface and ground water sources, contributing to pesticide runoff and leaching into the water supply. In certain areas of the DRC, pesticides are used to kill bush meat, including in protected areas, and to trap fish in local rivers and streams.
Climate change. Depleted soils and plants weakened by unseasonable conditions resulting from climate change have introduced new pests and diseases to newly introduced crop varieties. According to farmers, newly introduced varieties in combination with climate change cause crops to become more susceptible to pests and diseases. As a result, farmers are forced to apply more powerful pesticide products, increasing their dependency on pesticides.
Agricultural practices. Farmers in the DRC may deplete or exhaust the soil through excessive exploitation, practicing slash and burn techniques, and monoculture. Tree cutting for charcoal and construction and other forms of vegetation removal further contribute to soil depletion and erosion. Plants grown on depleted and eroded soils with low microbial biomass and low nutrient availability are particularly susceptible to pests and disease. While many farmers possess a fair knowledge of pests, they are less likely to know the difference between disease and soil nutrient deficiency symptoms. Farmers depend on the use of chemical fertilizer to improve soil fertility but have limited knowledge and means to do so. Misuse of pesticides, including applying incorrect dosages (both over applying and under applying), poor quality products, and the continuous use of the same pesticide products contribute to growing pest resistance. The lack of phytosanitary controls and the unchecked or uncontrolled introduction of seeds and plant materials into the country contributes to the spread of plant diseases and (sometimes) non-native insects. Border control by inspectors to intercept and stop consignments that are contaminated with harmful organisms is not functioning in the DRC. Risk awareness and use of PPE. Anecdotally, farmers do not often ask for advice from pesticide vendors in the DRC. Farmers’ attitudes toward pesticide hazards vary from those not willing to use pesticides due to known health risks, to those knowingly applying pesticides without any protective equipment or regard for human and environmental hazards. According to interviews conducted in support of this PERSUAP, many farmers complain about both acute and chronic symptoms as well as skin and eyes injuries from pesticide exposure. Most farmers do not wear PPE, but some may use googles, dust-masks or gumboots. PPE is not usually available in stores since there is low demand due to its high price. Most farmers are not aware of the long-term impacts of pesticides nor the potential adverse impacts of pesticides on the environment and non-target organisms. On large farms and plantations in the DRC, pesticides are often applied by workers with limited knowledge and training. Appropriate pesticide safe use training is not provided. Plantation and farm workers that are issued PPE typically do not take the necessary precautions of proper cleaning and maintenance.
Storage and disposal. Most farmers store pesticides in field sheds. Some smallholders store pesticides in their houses. Any unused pesticides and used containers are usually disposed at the local dumping site located within the village.
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5. PER PART 2—CANDIDATE PESTICIDES AND THE 12-FACTOR
ANALYSIS
This section applies the analysis of the 12 factors required by 22 CFR 216.3(b) to assess the candidate pesticides for use/support with USAID funds, and to determine the specific conditions attendant to their use.
5.1 LIST OF CANDIDATE PESTICIDES
A candidate set of AIs was prepared based on the following criteria:
1. Request by current projects, 2. Availability in the local markets including in border towns, 3. Interviews with farmer associations and farmers, 4. Interviews with research organizations and local NGOs, 5. Inclusion in other PERSUAPs in the region, and, 6. Approval by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries.
This candidate set of AIs is presented in Table .
5.1.1 PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) EVALUATED FOR
PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
To document the decision-making process and to support consideration of future amendment requests, the PER analysis sets out the full list of AIs evaluated in Table 3 below. Pesticides permitted for use are found in Table 4 and those rejected are found in Table 5.
TABLE 3. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) EVALUATED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
USAID FUNDED ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) TYPE OF PESTICIDE
2,4-D Amine Herbicide, Plant Growth Regulator
Abamectin Insecticide and Antiparasitic
Acetamiprid Insecticide
Alpha-cypermethrin (alpha-methrin) Insecticide
Aluminum Phosphide Insecticide, Rodenticide (fumigant)
Atrazine Herbicide
Amitraz Acaricide, Insecticide
Azocyclotin Insecticide
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Insecticide
Beta-cyfluthrin Insecticide
Benomyl Fungicide
Bifenthrin Insecticide
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TABLE 3. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) EVALUATED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
USAID FUNDED ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) TYPE OF PESTICIDE
Bispyribac-sodium Herbicide
Brodifacoum Rodenticide
Bromadiolone Rodenticide
Bromophos Insecticide
Carbaryl Insecticide, Plant Growth Regulator
Carbendazim Fungicide
Carbosulfan Insecticide
Chlorophacinone Rodenticide
Chlorothalonil Fungicide
Chlorpyrifos ethyl Insecticide, acaracide and miticide
Copper hydroxide Fungicide
Copper oxide Fungicide
Copper oxychloride Fungicide
Coumatetralyl Rodenticide
Cyanazine Herbicide
Cyfluthrin Insecticide
Cypermethrin Insecticide
Cyphenothrin Insecticide
Deltamethrin Insecticide
Diazinon Insecticide
Dichlorvos (DDVP) Insecticide
Dicofol Miticide
Difenoconazole Fungicide
Difenacoum Rodenticide
Dimethoate Insecticide
D-trans-tetramethrin (stereoisomer of
Tetramethrin)
Insecticide
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TABLE 3. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) EVALUATED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
USAID FUNDED ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) TYPE OF PESTICIDE
Emamectin benzoate Insecticide
Endosulfan Insecticide and acaricide
EPTC (S-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate) Herbicide
Esfenvalerate Insecticide
Ethephon Growth regulator
Ethofenprox Insecticide, veterinary use
Fenamiphos Insecticide, nematicide
Fenitrothion Insecticide
Fenthion (DMTP) Insecticide, avicide, and acaricide
Fipronil Insecticide
Fluazifop-p-butyl Herbicide
Fluroxypyr Herbicide
Formothion Insecticide
Glyphosate Herbicide
Hexaconazole Fungicide
Imidacloprid Insecticide
Indoxacarb Insecticide
Lambda-cyhalothrin Insecticide
Malathion Insecticide
Mancozeb Fungicide
Maneb Fungicide
Mefenoxam (Metalaxyl M) Fungicide
Metalaxyl Fungicide
Metaldehyde Molluscicide
Methyl Bromide Acaricide, fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, nematicide,
and rodenticide (fumigant)
Metsulfuron-methyl Herbicide
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TABLE 3. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) EVALUATED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
USAID FUNDED ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) TYPE OF PESTICIDE
Nicosulfuron Herbicide
Oxadiazon Herbicide
Oxamyl Insecticide/Nematicide
Paraquat Herbicide
Penoxsulam Herbicide
Permethrin Insecticide
Pirimiphos-methyl Insecticide
Profenofos Insecticide
Propineb Fungicide
Sulfur Fungicide and miticide
Thiamethoxam Insecticide
Thiophanate-methyl Fungicide
Thiram Fungicide
Triadimenol (product of triadimefon) Fungicide
Triadimefon Fungicide
Triclopyr Foliar herbicide and fungicide
Tricyclozole Fungicide
Warfarin Rodenticide
5.2 THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS
FACTOR A: US EPA REGISTRATION STATUS OF THE PROPOSED PESTICIDES
In the U.S., EPA regulates pesticides through the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), as amended, and registers both AIs and products. Unless a full 22 CFR 216 Environmental Assessment is conducted, USAID-funded programs are limited to procuring, using, and/or supporting the use of pesticides registered by EPA for the same or similar uses. An emphasis is placed on “similar use” because some crops and pest species found overseas are not present in the U.S. Therefore, pesticides may not be registered for the exact use required by a USAID activity.
The EPA designates some products as restricted use pesticides (RUPs). The EPA classifies a particular pesticide product as restricted if it determines that the product may be hazardous to human health or to the environment even when used according to the label. In the U.S., pesticides products that are labeled RUP can only be sold to and used by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision, and only
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for those purposes covered by the applicator's certification (such as for row crops, tree crops, or structural pests).
22 CFR 216 requires a full environmental assessment before use of a RUP can be supported with USAID funds, except for RUPs so designated solely for reason of user hazard, as stated in §216.3(b)(1)(ii). RUPs designated solely for reason of user hazard can be authorized for procurement or use with USAID funding on the basis of a user hazard analysis in the PERSUAP. In this case, the recipient government must be made aware of the hazard, and a mitigation action will be made and implemented with additional technical assistance.
The analysis of smallholder pesticide knowledge and awareness in the DRC (see Section 4) indicates that it would not be appropriate to authorize USAID funds to support user-hazard RUPs for smallholder production. RUP pesticides are allowed in these programs only with a caveat that they will be used, recommended for use, or supported for use by trained pest control specialists. If and when recognized training program is in place, such training must include components described in Annex C.
FACTOR B: BASIS FOR SELECTION OF PESTICIDES
PEST MANAGEMENT NEED Pesticides to be approved must serve a known pest management need for target USAID/DRC activities. Both current and potential future needs are considered by this PERSUAP. The crop-pest specific needs for pesticides are given in Annex A. The pesticides and the pests that they address are summarized below:
Insecticides/Acaricides.
Systemic insecticides to protect against sap-sucking pests such as aphids and scale insects.
Contact insecticides for lepidopterous, coleopterous pests and locusts.
Acaricides for control of Spider Mite.
Stomach poisons for control of locusts and Codling Moth.
Contact insecticide/acaricide for control of ecto-parasites on livestock.
Herbicides.
Broad-spectrum herbicides to kill all vegetation, especially needed for minimum tillage.
Selective herbicides to control broad-leaved weeds in cereal crops.
Selective herbicides to control graminaceous weeds (e.g. Wild Oat) in cereal and broad-leaved crops.
Fungicides. Fungal diseases are a serious constraint on yields. Farmers need fungicides as seed treatment, foliar application and to protect packaged fresh fruit. Details are given in Annex A.
Molluscicides. Molluscicides are required to protect against slugs and snails which may cause damage to vegetables.
Rodenticides. Rodenticides are required to protect stored commodities in buildings against rats and mice.
Fumigants. Fumigation is a method of pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous pesticides—or fumigants—to suffocate or poison the pests within. Fumigation of stocked commodities is commonly practiced by Title II programs.
Microbicides. Antimicrobial products kill or slow the spread of microorganisms. Microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi such as mold and mildew. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates antimicrobial products as pesticides, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates antimicrobial products as drugs/antiseptics. As pesticides, antimicrobial products are used on surfaces. As antiseptics, antimicrobial products are used to treat or prevent diseases in people and other organisms.
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REGISTRATION STATUS Pesticides selected must be registered by USEPA as well as by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock in the DRC.
EFFICACY IN LOCAL CIRCUMSTANCES Pesticides must be shown to be effective for crops/seeds under the climates and conditions similar to those found in USAID/DRC intervention areas. According to field visit results, farmers have found certain pesticides to be ineffective for a number of potential reasons, including poor product quality, improper use, or growing resistance from indiscriminate use.
AVAILABILITY Locally available pesticides have been considered for inclusion in this PERSUAP, but others that are desirable, but not currently available were also considered. According to interviews with representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock and agricultural input suppliers in the DRC, USAID projects have the option of importing products that they particularly wish to see adopted and can encourage local businesses to provide them in the future.
FACTOR C: EXTENT TO WHICH THE PROPOSED PESTICIDE USE IS PART OF AN IPM
PROGRAM
All projects involved directly in crop production will develop pest management plans based on IPM principles. The strategy of USAID partners working with farmers in the DRC will be to stress agronomic improvements based on the adoption of better technologies such as improved crop varieties, agronomic practices, and the use of indigenous pest control practices.
The IPs must incorporate pesticide management in their core farmer training programs and recommendations. Technical support to agricultural activities should fully incorporate IPM as the basis for effective pest management. Where an IP has little control over the actions of beneficiaries in the field, it will promote and support the use of integrated pest management plans (IPMPs) to the greatest extent practicable.
A systematic IPMP brings together different pest control tactics into one program.15 Direct pesticide use and direct extension activities by USAID/DRC programs will be governed by IPM-based crop-specific IPMPs. The crop-by-crop pest and control measures tables in Annex A, are intended to serve as suggestions and drafts of these plans, which will be refined by the agriculture sector IPs.
IPMPs will necessarily be at a level of technical complexity appropriate to the local context, but will embody core IPM principles: emphasis on use of non-chemical controls (building on existing practices), with need-based, targeted use of relative-least-toxicity pesticides.
IP pesticide recommendations must stress to farmers pest recognition and minimum application based on monitoring, rather than applying pesticides for blanket protection from seeding to harvest. For the promotion of IPM, pesticide accounting programs and decision tools for the use of common pesticides need to be implemented by the IPs.
However, it should be acknowledged that the implementation of IPM in the DRC is hampered in several ways. Both input suppliers and farmers have limited trust in the ability of natural pesticides to solve complex pest control problems. Commercial biopesticide products are expensive due to the very limited supply and demand in the DRC. No commercial biopesticides are registered and research institutions are not equipped to evaluate such products under local conditions in the DRC. Farmers in the DRC prepare artisanal pesticides derived from natural plants and based on local knowledge. Such artisanal pesticides are often used by smallholders and are reportedly effective. However, these substances have not been evaluated for efficacy and dosage, nor tested for human or environmental toxicity. In addition, although potentially efficient against some pests and disease agents, many of these substances have not been screened by USEPA.
15 "Private Pesticide Applicator Safety Education Manual." Private Pesticide Applicator Manual. University of Minnesota. Web. 18
Aug. 2015. http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/pesticide-safety/ppatmanual.html.
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The monitoring schemes developed for establishing economic thresholds for pest and natural enemy populations are fairly sophisticated and expensive practical tools. There is no funding for DRC local institutions for research on naturally occurring antagonists of pests in agro-ecosystems, including ways to exploit crop plants that favor the antagonists.16
FACTOR D: PROPOSED METHOD OR METHODS OF APPLICATION, INCLUDING THE
AVAILABILITY OF APPLICATION AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Methods of applications will depend on the pesticide formulation. The manual knapsack sprayer is one of the most common forms of pesticide application, especially in conventional agriculture. Sprayers range in size and complexity and can be made of fiberglass, plastic or stainless steel. Many farmers in the DRC do not own sprayers. Some farmers use makeshift sprayers and containers.
Granular pesticides are applied most commonly by hand. Some granular products are designed so that they can be shaken out of the package without requiring any special application equipment. Granules can also be placed inside bait stations. Once applied, granular pesticides release the AI slowly; some must be watered-in after (or before) application to activate the insecticidal action. Insecticide dusts are important tools in the control or elimination of ants and spiders and can be applied by hand to where the pests tend to hide or migrate.
Application of a pesticide to seeds is a process designed to reduce, control or repel disease organisms, insects, or other pests which attack the seed or seedlings. The kinds of seeds that are normally treated with one or more pesticides are: com, maize, peanuts, cotton, sorghum, wheat, oats, rye, barley, millet, soybeans (under some conditions), and most vegetable seed.17 Most dressed seed is pretreated by manufacturers.
Pesticides can also be placed in bait trap formulations. The amount of AI in most bait formulations is quite low, usually less than five percent. The bait either attracts the pests or is placed where the pests will find it. Pests are killed by eating the bait that contains the pesticide.
Fumigation of commodities is a highly dangerous procedure requiring high quality training and specialized equipment. Some commodities can be fumigated under gas impermeable tarpaulins. In other cases, vehicles or containers are fumigated with their loads. The most satisfactory method is to use purpose-built fumigation structures. It is essential that fumigation be carried out only as stipulated in USAID guidelines (http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.htm) and only then with the approval of the MEO, who will ensure that these requirements are fulfilled.
The use of contact pesticides for external parasites on livestock will depend on type of pesticide. For applying liquid contact pesticides, pour-on treatment is typically used. Dusts are applied with individual hand treatment and systemic pesticides are applied by pour-ons and spot treatment.18
FACTOR E: ANY ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICOLOGICAL HAZARDS, EITHER
HUMAN OR ENVIRONMENTAL, ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROPOSED USE, AND
MEASURES AVAILABLE TO MINIMIZE SUCH HAZARDS
EXPOSURE Humans may be exposed to the risk of pesticide poisoning in the following ways:
User. The user or applicator comes into close contact with pesticides. The pesticides may splash
on the skin, into the eyes, be inhaled or accidentally ingested (especially when eating or smoking
with contaminated hands). Cleaning and unclogging of sprayers also poses a high potential for
dermal contact. However, users are best placed to be aware of the risks and to be trained and
equipped to be protected against them.
Bystander. The greatest pesticide risk to bystanders, people near to but not engaged in spraying,
is wind-borne drift of spray particles, which may be inhaled. Bystanders may also be exposed by
16 http://issues.org/16-3/ehler/ 17 http://pest.ca.uky.edu/PSEP/Manuals/4-SeedTreatment.pdf 18 http://www.tractorsupply.com/out-here_issues_2011-summer_livestock-pest-control
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entering the sprayed area before the pesticide has broken down or by reusing the empty used
pesticide containers. Pesticides stored insecurely in homes may also cause accidental poisoning,
especially if pesticides are aliquoted into repurposed bottles. Pesticide awareness needs to be
extended beyond users and applicators.
Consumer. Pesticides may be ingested by the ultimate consumer of the harvested crop if a
sufficient period between spraying and harvest is not allowed. Systemic pesticides are particularly
dangerous in this respect.
Environment. Contamination of the environment, including the air, soil, sediments and
especially water supplies, is an important means by which people can be exposed to pesticide
poisoning. Environmental exposure includes exposure of other non-target organisms including
animals, birds, fish, amphibians, insects and microorganisms to pesticides.
ACUTE TOXICITY Acute toxicity refers to the immediate effects (0-7 days) of exposure to a pesticide. Highly acutely toxic pesticides can be lethal at very low doses.
Two Acute Toxicity classification systems are referred to in this document: the USEPA system and the World Health Organization (WHO) system.
According to the USEPA system, formulated pesticide products (which often include inert ingredients)
are given an overall acute toxicity rating which is shown on the label on the pesticide container:
Category I: Extremely toxic (Danger) Category II: Highly toxic (Warning) Category III: Moderately toxic (Caution) Category IV: Slightly toxic, Relatively non-toxic
The EPA also requires that pesticides in categories I-III carry a signal word (e.g. Danger, Warning, Caution). Therefore, there may be more than one classification for an AI depending on concentration and inert ingredients in the formulation.
The WHO classification system is based on AIs.
This PERSUAP does not approve Acute Toxicity Class I Products. While the AIs approved for this
PERSUAP have been chosen conservatively with regard to their risk profiles, some products with these
approved AIs may nonetheless be EPA Acute Toxicity class 1 or equivalent on the basis of their acute
oral, dermal or inhalation toxicity. All products in which methanol (methyl alcohol used as a solvent) is
present at 4 percent or more are also categorized as Class I. Such products are marked with the skull and
crossbones symbol and the word “POISON” or “DANGER” or the equivalent.
Under the conditions of this PERSUAP, such products may ONLY be used by professionally trained certified and registered pest control specialists and NEVER by smallholder farmers.
Farmers should be encouraged to select least toxic products and trained in the safe use of all products allowed by this PERSUAP.
Products that are sold in their original packages are properly labeled. However, where the original packaging was tampered with to create smaller packages, the labels are missing. Use of products without a label should be discouraged.
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LONG TERM TOXICITY Pesticides may also cause long term hazards to human health. Sub-chronic effects of a toxic substance cause effects for more than one year but less than the lifetime of the exposed organism. Chronic toxicity of a substance or mixture of substances causes harmful effects over an extended period, usually upon repeated or continuous exposure, sometimes lasting for the entire life of the exposed organism. Those that cause the most concern are:
Carcinogenicity. Exposure to some substances may cause the development of cancer.
Neurotoxicity. Exposure to some pesticides may cause chronic neurodegenerative disorders such
as Parkinson disease.
Reproductive or Developmental Toxicity. Exposure to some pesticides may cause birth defects
or interfere with normal development.
Endocrine Disruption. Many pesticides and industrial chemicals are capable of interfering with
the proper functioning of oestrogen, androgen and thyroid hormones in humans and animals.
It is important to read the label and look for signal words identifying the product's acute toxicity. But it also important to look for statements identifying chronic toxicity. A pesticide may be low in acute toxicity (signal word Caution), but it may have a label statement identifying potential chronic toxicity requiring appropriate PPE. When handling a product that may have chronic toxicity, the user must wear the required PPE when handling or working with the pesticide to minimize or eliminate exposure to the pesticide.
Table 1 (also 4), the list of approved pesticides, includes a description of the potential chronic effects of approved AI that must be considered when selecting pesticides.
ECOTOXICITY Ecotoxicology is the study of how chemicals interact with organisms in the environment. With few exceptions, such as pheromones, pesticides are, by their very nature, toxic to some organisms. They may therefore harm organisms other than the pests at which they are directed. These may include directly beneficial organisms, such as honeybees and other pollinators, the natural enemies of pests, and other useful organisms such as fish or rare and endangered organisms making an important contribution to biodiversity.
Over 98 percent of sprayed insecticides and 95 percent of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Pesticides may find their way into other environments through spray drift, water runoff or transported in the bodies of moving animals. Aquatic environments are especially vulnerable in this respect.
The environmental fate of pesticides, once applied, depends upon the physical and chemical properties of the pesticides and the surrounding soil or water. Some pesticides may break down into harmless derivatives in a short time, while others, which are chemically stable, persist indefinitely. Some pesticides may break down, to produce an equally or more toxic by-product. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants aims to eliminate the use of such chemicals.
Some pesticides do not readily break down in the bodies of animals and so may be ingested by predators and thus accumulate in the food chain. The organo-chlorine pesticides have been particularly harmful in this respect, causing, until they were banned, a catastrophic decline in populations of raptorial birds.
Depending on their physical and chemical properties, pesticides may be carried into the groundwater, which may be the source on which people depend for their domestic supplies. They may also find their way into drainage systems – streams, rivers and lakes – and harm the organisms in these ecosystems
The movement of pesticides by leaching and runoff depends on their solubility in water and their ability to adhere to soil components such as clay particles. These properties, together with the vulnerability of habitats into which the pesticides may be translocated must be taken into account when assessing the environmental risks of using particular pesticides.
Before applying a pesticide, it is important to become familiar with the area to be treated and its surroundings. Some pesticides are less environmentally friendly than others and may not be selected for sites with special concerns.
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Cultivated fields and orchards are themselves functioning ecosystems, dependent for their productivity on many organisms other than the crops themselves. These include pollinators, natural enemies of pests (insects, mites, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, and micro-organisms) and soil organisms necessary for fertility. There are also other plants and animals which are a source of food and those contributing to biodiversity. Birds and fish are especially vulnerable to pesticide poisoning. Each pesticide or pesticide class comes with a specific set of environmental concerns.19
The neo-nicotinyls, imidacloprid and acetamiprid, have recently aroused the concern that sub-lethal doses to bees can reduce the viability of colonies. Therefore, these pesticides should not be used when crops are in flower. Imidacloprid is often used as a seed dressing and it is unlikely, though not impossible, that this could expose pollinators during flowering to harmful doses.
Pyrethroids have been found to be especially toxic to fish. Care must be taken to avoid contaminating aquatic habitats with bezoyl-ureas, as they are harmful to crustaceans, essential components of most aquatic food chains.
Herbicides are believed to present a concern because of their concentration in the water supply, due to runoff from agricultural use. Herbicides can be slightly, moderately or highly toxic to aquatic organisms. They may cause the reduction of sensitive species and the abundance of tolerant species. Long term effects of concern include endocrine disruption and carcinogenicity. The resistance of weeds to herbicides is becoming a worldwide problem. All herbicide labels warn the user to keep the product out of lakes and streams. Many herbicides, including glyphosate, carry label statements about groundwater contamination. Care must be taken to ensure that such products are not used where groundwater contamination is likely.20
Pesticides that are labeled as natural or organic are not necessarily harmless to humans or the environment. Many are quite safe to use but some have hazards associated with them. Other problems can emerge from poor pesticide management practices. Over time, repeated application increases pest resistance, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence.21
MITIGATING MEASURES TO MINIMISE HAZARDS OF PESTICIDE USE The assessment of the acute, long-term and environmental toxicity of the pesticides being evaluated is summarised in Table B.3 in Annex B. The toxicity of pesticides to non-target organisms is a major consideration in the decision as to whether they should be used. The toxicity to aquatic organisms and honeybees of the pesticides assessed is included in Table B.3.
Any products equivalent to EPA RUPs are only allowed for use by trained specialists. Products with acute toxicity class I (Red Label, Words Danger-Poison, skull and crossbones on the pictogram) are rejected by this PERSUAP for use except where specified for use by trained specialists.22 Products with toxicity class II and III and potential chronic effects are allowed for use only by trained individuals using appropriate PPE.
Accordingly, the SUAP in Section 6 identifies restrictions on the set of AIs that are supported for use only by trained and certified agricultural or pest control professionals, based on toxicity screening. The SUAP details measures for minimizing pesticide risks. These measures include: adoption of an IPM approach that emphasizes prevention, sanitation and exclusion of pests, use of traditional practices, and utilizing pesticides only as a last resort when other options have failed. Note that the ecotoxicity information in Table B.3 also provides a key reference for the development of crop- and pest-specific pest management plans. Critical measures also include:
Projects will ensure that staff responsible for pesticide use have access to the necessary safety information found in Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Where MSDSs are not available in-country from dealers, they can be found online or requested from the manufacturer. Where
19 Originally published in 1987 as Pesticide Use and the Environment, Nevada Pesticide Applicator’s Certification Workbook, SP‐
87‐07, by W. Johnson, J. Knight, C. Moses, J. Carpenter, and R. Wilson. Updated in 2012 by M. Hefner and S. Donaldson,
University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, and J. Carpenter, Nevada Department of Agriculture.
http://www.unce.unr.edu/programs/sites/pesticide/files/pdf/PesticideUseAndEnvironment.pdf
20 https://ipm.illinois.edu/pubs/iapmh/11chapter.pdf
21 "Pesticides: Environmental Effects." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency. Web. 18 Aug. 2015.
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ecosystem/ . 22 "Hazard Communication Standard Pictogram." Hazard Communication Standard Pictogram. United States Department of Labor. Web. 18 Aug. 2015. https://www.osha.gov/Publications/HazComm_QuickCard_Pictogram.html
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project staff do not directly supervise pesticide application, the project will prepare information leaflets in the appropriate local languages.
Projects will ensure that staff and beneficiaries using, storing or transporting pesticides have the PPE appropriate to the task (see Annex C).
USAID will ensure that all projects using pesticides will have adequate training for all those using, storing or transporting pesticides. (see Annex C).
If possible, projects will promote the use of small single use containers of pesticides to remove the hazard of smallholders buying or keeping small unlabeled packages of pesticide and the return of used containers to the dealer for safe disposal.
FACTOR F: EFFECTIVENESS OF THE REQUESTED PESTICIDES FOR THE PROPOSED USE
In most countries, pesticides are usually registered in country once they undergo registration testing. Although the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries maintains a list of registered AIs and products, the Ministry reportedly does not conduct efficacy trials. Farmers often complain about the efficacy of pesticides and express distrust in quality of products sold, particularly those removed from their original packaging. Misuse and misapplication of pesticides contributes to growing resistance and reduced efficacy. To the extent possible, projects should use the least toxic and most effective pesticides in the context of their IPM plans.
FACTOR G: COMPATABILITY OF THE PROPOSED PESTICIDES USE WITH TARGET AND
NON-TARGET ECOSYSTEMS
Synthetic organic insecticides associated with broad nontarget effects, with potentially hazardous residues, and with exposure risks to applicators, that are found on the markets in the DRC, are much less compatible with local ecosystems than newer products developed in the last decade, that have safer properties and smaller environmental impacts than older synthetic organic pesticides. Nevertheless, new products share many of the problems that have been presented by traditional synthetic organic insecticides. Additionally, the newer products are rarely found on the market and are more expensive. To the extent possible, this PERSUAP aimed to recommend pesticides with safer properties.23
FACTOR H: THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE PESTICIDE IS TO BE USED,
INCLUDING CLIMATE, FLORA, FAUNA, GEOGRAPHY, HYDROLOGY, AND SOILS Topography. Factors that control pests include climatic factors (e.g., wind, temperature, sunshine, and rain), air or water pollution, and topographic features (rivers, lakes, and mountains) that can affect pest movement. Such natural controls can hold pests in check or promote proliferation.24 The DRC is dominated by the central Congo basin, a vast rolling plain with an average elevation of about 1,700 feet (520 meters) above sea level. The lowest point of 1,109 feet (338 meters) occurs at Lake Mai-Ndombe (formerly Lake Leopold II), and the highest point of 2,296 feet (700 meters) is reached in the hills of Mobayi-Mbongo and Zongo in the north. The basin may once have been an inland sea whose only vestiges are Lakes Tumba and Mai-Ndombe in the west-central region.25 Climate. The DRC is divided into four major climatic regions. In the equatorial climate zone, temperatures are hot, the average monthly temperature rarely dropping below the mid-70s F (low to mid-20s °C). Humidity is high, and it rains throughout the year. Annual precipitation at Eala, for example, averages 71 inches (1,800 mm). The tropical or subequatorial climate zone, marked by distinct dry and rainy seasons, is found north and south of the equatorial region. The dry season lasts from four to seven months (usually April to October), depending largely on distance from the Equator. In Kananga about 63 inches (1,600 mm) of precipitation falls annually. Short dry spells of several weeks’ duration may occur during the rainy season.
23 https://www.nap.edu/read/9598/chapter/8#252 24 http://www.nasda.org/File.aspx?id=30498
25 https://www.britannica.com/place/Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo
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The Atlantic climate zone is confined to the west coast. The low elevation and the cold Benguela Current are the major influences. At Banana the average annual temperature is in the high 70s F (mid-20s °C), and precipitation averages about 30 inches (760 mm) yearly. The mountain climate occurs in the eastern high plateaus and mountains. In Bukavu, for example, the average annual temperature is in the mid-60s F (high 10s °C), and annual precipitation levels measure about 52 inches (1,320 mm). Climate Change. Climate models predict that by 2050, the DRC average annual temperature is likely to increase by 2.5–3.7 °C, with seasonal droughts occurring more frequently and lasting longer. It is also anticipated that annual rainfall will increase in the “Cuvette” region (Province of Equateur), while appreciable decreases will occur in the rest of the country and extreme climate events will increase in intensity and frequency. Decreased rainfall will be felt most severely in the southern part of the country, especially in the belt of tropical climate savannahs where over 70 percent of the rural population lives. It is expected, for example, that by 2020, the Katanga province is likely to experience only five months of rainy season compared to seven months today. Farmers in such regions do not have access to varieties of agricultural seeds that are adequately adapted to these climate disturbances.26
Soils. There are two main types of soils in the DRC. The equatorial soils are found in the warm lowlands of the central basin and receive rain throughout the year. These soils are covered by dense forests and are very thick in swampy areas and nourished by humus. The savannah soils face a greater threat of erosion, but the river valleys still contain rich and fertile alluvial soils. In the most productive agricultural area, the highlands of the Great Lakes region, the soils are rich and derived from volcanic lava.
Hydrology and water resources. The DRC has Africa’s largest internal renewable water supply with 52 percent of the continent’s surface water reserves and 23 percent of its internal renewable water resources. In addition, rain is abundant as the DRC receives 6,000 billion m3 of rainfall every year. Seventy percent of the DRC’s renewable water resources are generated from rainfall within the country. The Congo River has the largest discharge volume in Africa and 62 percent of the Congo Basin lies within the DRC, covering 98 percent of the country, with one of the most extensive river networks in the world. Rivers and lakes comprise approximately 3.5 percent of the DRC's surface area. Water resources are linked to the country’s vast forest ecosystems, and even though surface water is abundant, the majority of the population depends on groundwater and springs for safe drinking water. Groundwater comprises 47 percent of DRC’s internal renewable water resources. An estimated 1,000 deep-drilled wells exist in the DRC, servicing only a small percentage of the population. Limited well drilling has occurred since the 1990’s, and most groundwater is exploited using dug wells or mechanical pump wells. While the DRC holds over half of Africa’s water reserves, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) three quarters of the population, mostly people living in rural areas, have no access to safe drinking water. Despite the fact that the DRC is “water-rich”, it is currently facing a serious drinking water supply crisis. Water infrastructure was plagued by years of underinvestment, conflict, and a fast growing population. Only around 26 percent of the population has access to safe drinking water. Additional issues in the water sector include degradation of drinking water sources from land-use changes, poor construction and maintenance of rural water systems, and water pollution. 27 Many agricultural plots are established in the vicinity of local rivers, on river and stream banks and close to sources of drinking water thereby contributing to water pollution. Protected areas and parks. A number of parks in the DRC are on the UNESCO World Heritage List; however, because of the effects of wars, immigration and poaching, these parks are also inscribed on the World Heritage in Danger List. The major protected areas and parks include: Salonga National Park, the largest equatorial forest in Africa, is in the central basin of the Congo River. The park is home to the bonobo, a small chimpanzee-like ape. The Okapi Wildlife Reserve occupies part of the Ituri forest. The reserve is named after the okapi, a relative of the giraffe, which inhabits the region.
26 http://www.uncclearn.org/sites/default/files/inventory/gef61_0.pdf 27 DRC Kivu Value Chain (FtF) Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
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Garamba National Park consists of grasslands, savannahs, woodlands, forests and rivers. Animals include the elephant, giraffe, hippopotamus and white rhinoceros. Kahuzi-Biega National Park, an area of tropical forest, is named after its extinct volcanoes, Kahuzi and Biega. A group of mountain gorillas live in the park. Mountain gorillas also live in Virunga National Park. Nyiragongo, part of the Virunga Volcanic Chain, is one of Africa's most active volcanoes.28
Vulnerable habitats. Primary ecosystems include tropical and subtropical grassland, savanna, shrub land, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests.
Ongoing instability, poor infrastructure, and a failing economy have led to hunting in surrounding forests. Hunting for bushmeat threatens many of the DRC’s endemic species as locals trap animals for a cheap source of food.
Deforestation also remains an ongoing problem in the DRC. Slash-and-burn agriculture has destroyed many hectares of land while farmers often lack the necessary education to employ sustainable agricultural practices.
FACTOR I: THE AVAILABILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF OTHER PESTICIDES OR NON-
CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS
Crop protection specialists aim to develop pest control methods that are compatible with the goals of sustainable and productive agriculture. To meet these goals, crop protection must integrate a range of complementary pest control methods in a mutually enhancing fashion, namely IPM.
IPM focuses on six control areas:
Cultural pest control: is the use of farming or cultural practices that make the crop environment less favorable to pest species, for example, the choice of sowing and harvest dates to minimize damage, intercropping, vegetation management and crop rotations.
Biological control: is the manipulation, conservation or introduction of natural enemies: predators, parasites, or pathogens.
Physical and mechanical control: is the application of direct or indirect measures that kill the pest, disrupt its physiology other than by chemical means, exclude it from an area, or adversely alter the pest's environment.
Host plant resistance: is the breeding and use of crop varieties that are less susceptible to pests (e.g. insects, diseases, nematodes, parasitic weed, and birds.).
Judicious use of pesticides: is pesticide application to protect rather than avenge the crop. The use of pesticides has a cost that is not only the price of the product and its application, but its effect on beneficial organisms such as natural enemies and pollinators. The decision to use a pesticide is therefore based on an assessment that the pest population, or expected population, will cause damage that exceeds all these costs: the economic threshold. Determining the economic threshold requires considerable research and experience. Decision making needs to be based on regular scouting, sometimes supported by pheromone traps where available.
Legal/regulatory control: includes the enforcement of measures and policies that range from quarantine to land and water management practices. These policies include the prevention of the entry and establishment of undesirable plant and animal pests in a country or area and eradication, containment, or suppression of pests already established in limited areas (quarantines). This approach to pest management must involve area-wide operations that include
28 http://worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=DRC
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many rural households and are enacted for the common good of both farmers and society at large.
Formally, the development of IPM strategies requires the following steps.
Identify the major pests, quantify losses caused by them in a given agro-ecosystem and determine the economic thresholds;
Study the biology, behavior and population dynamics of the pests to understand the features that may be exploited for pest management;
Establish the role of local natural enemies and develop mass-rearing, or mass-culture for disease agents on insects;
Study and develop other suitable components of IPM, such as intercropping and other cultural practices;
Integrate these components into an appropriate IPM technology and test for compatibility and efficacy under different ecological conditions; and
Develop a simple protocol for monitoring the impact of IPM technology in the field.29
In the context of the DRC, where much of the technical capacity for the above is lacking, the essential step in IPM is the correct identification of the pests or pathogens to which the various crops are subject and a realistic assessment of the damage they can potentially cause.
Once this is known, it is possible to develop a proactive approach to plant protection, rather than responding to infestations after the damage has been done.
The first element in the plan must be good cultural practices. Healthy plants grown in good conditions are more resistant to pests and diseases. The use of resistant varieties, when available, is also important. (See the tabular IPM Plan in Annex A.)
The second element is routine preventive measures such as crop rotation for annual crops, or dormant season spraying with mineral oil for tree crops.
The third element is the encouragement of natural enemies. These may be reared in a laboratory and released, but more important—and most applicable in the context of the DRC—is not killing them by inappropriate pesticide application.
The fourth element is monitoring for the presence of economically harmful densities of pests that may occur because of favorable conditions. This may be done with pheromone traps or simple examination of the plants.
The fifth element is the choice of an effective control method, should this be necessary. The options may be mechanical removal of the pests, but the selective use of a safe and effective pesticide may be the best option. The IPM Plan in Annex A provides guidance as to chemical- and non-chemical control measures for common pests of many crops.
Some of the implementing partners in the DRC are emphasizing the utilization of biological natural pesticides. Biopesticides are derived from natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. Notably, biopesticides are also considered pesticides and are registered by USEPA. However, some low-risk AIs (primarily essential oils and other plant extracts) are exempt from regulation under the US Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and therefore may be used by implementing partners without approval via this PERSUAP.
Farmers in the DRC often prepare artisanal products such as mixtures of fermented leaves of Ricinus communis, Tephrosia vogelii, Erythrina abyssinica, Tetradenia riparia, Nicotiana tabacum, Datura stramonium (Ntobololo), Casingo (Shusha) and Lupin (purple flowers that look like Tephrosia) that are used on a variety of crops and pests.
For example, against coffee rust disease, farmers use a natural pesticide prepared from chili peppers, garlic, papaya leaves, sodium bicarbonate, olive oil and water.
29 http://www.fastonline.org/CD3WD_40/CD3WD/AGRIC/G49ABE/EN/B5_11.HTM#B5_11_2
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The natural enemies (e.g. parasitoids, and predators) of coffee pests are not yet known in the DRC. No research is being performed to better understand hosts breeding sites, and reservoirs of different natural enemies. Local researchers believe that the promotion of natural botanical pesticides and landscape habitat management to favor biological control and pollination services is critical in coffee production in the DRC.
To control vegetable pests farmers prepare pesticides from Tithonia diversifolia, Annona squamosa, garlic, Carica papaya, Capsicum frutescens, Melia azedarach and Azadirachta indica, ash, mineral soap and palm oil, animal manure and eucalyptus in various formulations.
Overall, farmers are very interested in using low cost artisanal products and want to learn more about appropriate formulation and dosages needed to prepare them. Implementing partners and local researchers in the DRC believe that there is a need for locally based research to validate formulations and dosages, as well as the effectiveness of the products currently used by farmers.
Because healthy crops grown in fertile soils are generally resistant to pests and tolerant of disease, IPM practices must include practices to improve plant health and integrated soil fertility management. Practices such as composting, vermiculture, mulching, establishing hedges, terracing and other soil erosion control measures, cultivating on contours and reducing acidity with lime amendments, as well as promoting agroforestry systems should be considered as effective IPM measures.
FACTOR J: THE REQUESTING COUNTRY’S ABILITY TO REGULATE OR CONTROL THE
DISTRIBUTION, STORAGE, USE AND DISPOSAL OF THE REQUESTED PESTICIDE
PESTICIDE REGISTRATION PROCESS The DRC is a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). SADC member states have been involved in the process of harmonizing pesticide registration procedures and regulations.30 In SADC there are few countries that have formulated clear-cut policies that reduce chemical and pesticide use, their risks to the environment, human and animal health, and reliance on pesticides in the management of pests and vectors. Like many other southern African countries, the DRC lacks effective and fully operational systems for pesticide regulation and control. It does not provide sufficient support to farmers on the best practices in sustainable pest management and pesticide use. Widespread overuse, misuse, mishandling and mismanagement of pesticides are all too common throughout the region. The Southern Africa Pesticide Regulators Forum (SAPReF), begun in 2011, is a group of pesticide regulators from SADC member countries who are collaborating and working together on matters related to pests and pesticide management. The major challenge for the SAPReF has been the lack of an action plan containing concrete steps towards reducing the risks posed by pesticides and strengthening the regulation and management of pesticides in member countries.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock, Direction de la Production et Protection des Végétaux (DPPV), issues a list of approved pesticides and products on an annual basis; however, this list is not widely distributed nor widely known. According to discussions with the Chief31 of the Registration of Pesticides Bureau of DPPV, proposed pesticide products are evaluated and approved based on comparison with lists published by international organizations (WHO, EU, SADC, or FAO). If the pesticide products are approved in accordance with these standards, they are registered and included on the list of approved pesticides.
RELEVANT INSTITUTIONS AND REGULATORY ENFORCEMENT The constitution in the DRC has been amended several times since its independence in 1960. New legislation and regulations are developed at the ministerial level. Current laws are presidential decisions or decrees. For legislation to become law, it must be published in the presidential bulletin as a decree. The major legislation related to pesticide management in the DRC includes: (1) the Law on Agriculture, setting
30 http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnact580.pdf 31 Personal communication with Mr. Christian Tebila Kiaku, Chef de Bureau en charge de l'Homologation des Pesticides, DPPV,
Ministry of Agriculture, January 2017
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the guiding principles on agriculture in the DRC, published in December of 2011,32 and the Decree on Phytosanitary Regulations,33 promulgated in November of 2005.
In the DRC, the institutions with responsibility for pesticide management include, within the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock, the DPPV, the Direction de Production de Santé Animale (DPSA), the Service National des Fertilisants et Intrants Connexes (SENAFIC), and the Service National de Vulgarisation (SNV). The relevant institutions within the Ministry of Commerce include the Direction Générale des Douanes et Accises (DGDA), and the Office Congolais de Contrôle (OCC).
Despite this legislative and institutional framework, the relevant DRC government departments and institutions do not have the regulatory mandate, authority and budget to engage in crop protection activities or to develop policy and regulations for pesticide registration and safe use.34
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND TREATIES The DRC has ratified the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (i.e. the Rotterdam Convention), which promotes shared responsibilities among the signatories for the importation of hazardous chemicals. In August 2016, the DGDA and OCC published a decree requiring pre-shipment inspection of imports to the DRC. Among other things, the decree bans the importation of Rotterdam Convention listed chemicals and phytosanitary products deemed harmful to people and the environment.35 Despite this importation ban, many of the products listed in the decree are available in urban and rural stores. The DRC has also ratified the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, an international environmental treaty that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
SUMMARY Much remains to be done in the DRC at the policy, enforcement and infrastructure development level to ensure the safer use of pesticides. Issues that need to be addressed and require capacity building and funding include, but are not limited to: (1) the development of registration policy and guidance, proper phytosanitary controls, import regulations including taxation, duties and fines, (2) support for relevant institutions including those conducting testing and research on biopesticides and IPM technologies, (3) establishing pesticide safety public information systems, (4) strengthening education and developing formal training and certification systems, (5) strengthening formal input supply chains and reigning in the informal markets, (6) establishing quality controls of the input supply chains, (7) developing infrastructure to address analytical needs for quality controls, and (8) developing disposal and recycling infrastructure.
A fundamental problem in determining the US regulatory status of pesticides available in the DRC is that they do not conform to US standards of labeling and quality. The DRC does not have a functioning system able to regulate or control the registration, import and distribution, storage, use and disposal of pesticides.
FACTOR K: THE PROVISIONS MADE FOR TRAINING OF USERS AND APPLICATORS
Training is the chief factor in ensuring safe and effective pesticide use by USAID projects. In the past, projects in the DRC have provided training of variable quality. It is therefore strongly recommended that there be a program-wide training policy with a common syllabus, implemented by a dedicated, trained team of trainers.
Training must be directed to the following recipients.
32 “Loi n° 11/022 du 24 décembre 2011portant principes fondamentaux relatifs à l’agriculture”, http://agriculture-
rdc.net/agri/documents/loiagricole.pdf 33 Décret 05/162 du 18 novembre 2005 portant sur la réglementation Phytosanitaire. 34 PICAGL, 2016, Pest and Pesticide Management Plan for the Programme Integre de Croissance Agricole dans la Region des
Grands Lacs-Projet Regional (PICAGL) 35 https://verigates.bureauveritas.com/wps/wcm/connect/cc71ca004d1fd4c8954dbfd3ae22b828/GSIT+-
+Congo+(Dem+Rep+of)+Datasheet+Rev+8.pdf?MOD=AJPERES
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Project staff who will apply or handle pesticides, or serve as extension agents.
Beneficiary farmers who will use and apply pesticides.
Individuals being trained as extension agents by the projects.
Enterprises or cooperatives receiving USAID-funded loans or other credit support that deal in or use pesticides.
Beneficiary agro-input dealers.
Training topics must include the following;
Definition of pesticides.
Pesticide risks and the understanding that pesticides are bio-poisons.
Concept of AIs vs. formulated products.
Classes of pesticides and the concept that specific pesticides are effective only against a certain class of organism.
Concept of proper application rates and pesticide resistance and techniques for avoiding misapplication.
Survey of the core elements of Safer Pesticide Use: IPM, safe purchase, transport, storage, mixing, application, reentry and pre-harvest intervals, clean-up and disposal, including specific treatment of PPE.
Pesticide first aid and spill response.
Reading and interpreting pesticide labels -- particularly to understand PPE requirements and other precautions, dosage rates, and to identify AIs and expiration dates.
Proper operation and maintenance of sprayer or other equipment.
Record keeping and monitoring.
All training must include a pre- and post- course evaluation of the participants. Participants will only be accepted as “trained” if their evaluation is satisfactory. The brief refresher training must be provided at least annually.
The application of certain, higher-risk products requires training beyond the basic level.
NGOs in the DRC occasionally provide training in safe pesticide use to extension agents and input suppliers. However, there is no formal government certification for such training.
FACTOR L: THE PROVISIONS MADE FOR MONITORING THE USE AND
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PESTICIDES
MONITORING USE AND EFFECTIVENESS The use of pesticides by USAID supported programs in the DRC will be monitored as part of the projects’ crop management extension program. Any incidents reported by program staff or farmers will be followed up by M&E staff.
The project must maintain records of all pesticide use, monitor pesticide effectiveness, and scout for resistance. Training in monitoring and reporting must be provided to farmers. Where literacy or language is a limiting factor, training should be developed to address this concern. Some products are considered low risk for resistance development, while others allow a limited number of applications per season because of the high risk of resistance development, and must alternate with pesticides from different chemical groups.
IPs will be required to report as stipulated in the SUAP in Section 6.
As part of this reporting, IPs directly supporting farm-level pesticide use or extension will be required to report on instances observed of pesticide resistance. USAID monitoring and evaluation field visits will examine pesticide compliance.
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6. SAFER ACTION USE PLAN (SUAP)
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This Safer Use Action Plan is the definitive statement of implementing partners’ pesticide compliance
requirements and is synthesized from the PER analysis:
Section 6.2, immediately below, delineates allowed pesticides and provides advisories and
restrictions for their use.
Section 6.3 delineates rejected and banned pesticides.
Section 6.4 summarizes the mandatory safe use conditions attendant to use/support of these
pesticides.
Section 6.5 defines these conditions in the attached Mandatory Template, entitled “Pesticide
Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker,” for assigning responsibilities and timelines for
implementation of these requirements, and for tracking compliance.
With respect to pesticides, the “Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker” (Section 6.5)
satisfies the requirement for an EMMP. The project EMMP should simply incorporate the SUAP by
reference.
6.2 ALLOWED PESTICIDES
Upon approval of this PERSUAP, pesticides containing the AIs listed in Table 4 below are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. (Table 4 is the same as Table 1 in the Executive Summary.) These pesticides have an identified use within an IPM scheme provided in Appendix A; are registered by the EPA and listed by the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock, and are chosen conservatively with respect to their environmental and human health risk profiles, with specific risk-reducing conditions specified as appropriate in Table 4.36
The AIs listed in the table below can be in products that are designated as RUPs as well as in products
designated as General Use Pesticides (GUP).
RUPs are pesticides which are not available to the general public in the United States. The "Restricted
Use" classification restricts a product to use by a certificated pesticide applicator or under the direct
supervision of a certified applicator. This means that a license is required to purchase and apply the
product. Certification programs are administered by the federal government, individual states, and by
company policies that vary from state to state.37 Restrictions can apply to the particular crop,
formulations, concentrations or uses.
Products can be designated RUP because of human acute (immediate) and chronic (long-term) health
risk; physical hazards, such as risks of fire or explosion; and eco-toxicity hazards, such as potential risks of
water pollution and risk to flora and fauna. RUP pesticides are designated as such if their toxicity exceeds
36 Human health and ecological toxicological summaries and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) registration status
for each pesticide are presented in Table B.1 in Annex B. 37 EPA Pesticide Worker Safety. (n.d.). Retrieved August 17, 2015, from http://www2.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-
use-products-rup-report
MANDATORY TEMPLATE
Every Project Subject to this PERSUAP must submit a completed SUAP template to its
AOR/COR by the date specified on the attached tracker template and must provide an
annual update.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 33
certain hazard criteria. The skull and crossbones symbol and the word “Poison” identify pesticide
products that are determined to be in Toxicity Class I based on at least one of the following acute toxicity
studies: acute oral, acute dermal, or acute inhalation. If methanol is present at 4 percent or more, then the
pesticide is also designated Toxicity Class I.
Only GUP products are approved for use by farmers. RUP products that contain AIs listed in the table
below can be used only by professionally trained certified and registered pest control specialists. Class I
products are not approved for use by farmers by this PERSUAP.
Farmers must be trained to use Class II and III products. The training must require farmers to interpret
product labels to understand product health risks, physical hazards, eco-toxicity, and required safety
measures. Training requirements are specified within this SUAP. For more complete information on
impacts of these AIs on human health and environment, please see Annex B, Table B.3.
Table 4 specifies AI- and product-specific risk-reducing conditions. Two of these restrictions are as follows:
No Acute Toxicity Class I Products. While these AIs have been chosen conservatively with
regard to their risk profiles, some products with these approved AIs may nonetheless be EPA
Acute Toxicity Class I or the equivalent on the basis of their acute oral, dermal or inhalation
toxicity. All products in which methanol (methyl alcohol used as a solvent) is present at 4 percent
or more are also Class I. Such products are marked with the skull and crossbones symbol and the
word “POISON” or “DANGER” or equivalent.
Under this PERSUAP, such products may ONLY be used by professionally trained certified and
registered pest control specialists and NEVER by smallholder farmers.
Some Products Require Label Approval. Similarly, some approved AIs are present in
products designated RUPs by EPA.38 Generally, AIs for which a significant percentage of US
products are RUP have been rejected by this PERSUAP. However, a few such AIs are approved
under this PERSUAP where they meet an important pest management need for which there is no
reasonable alternative. For such AIs, the conditions in Table 4 require IPs to submit the label of
the proposed product together with the intended use to USAID for COR and MEO approval
prior to procurement or use. To approve the use, the MEO must verify that the closest US-
registered analogue to the product is not RUP.
This PER does not evaluate artisanal pesticides and their ingredients, however in some cases IPM
suggests use of artisanal ingredients that are already commonly used by farmers in DRC.
Note that some particularly low-risk AIs are exempt from regulation under the US Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and therefore can be used by implementing partners without
approval via this PERSUAP. These are listed at http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-
12/documents/minrisk-active-ingredients-tolerances-2015-12-15.pdf.
(A list of pesticides Inert Ingredients that are exempt from FIFRA is available at:
38 In the United States, the same AIs can be in products that are designated by EPA as Restricted Use Pesticides (RUP) as well as
in products designated as General Use Pesticides (GUP). RUPs are pesticides which are not available to the general public in the
United States. The "Restricted Use" classification restricts a product to use by a certificated pesticide applicator or under the
direct supervision of a certified applicator. This means that a license is required to purchase and apply the product. Certification
programs are administered by the federal government, individual states, and by company policies that vary from state to state
(see http://www2.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report). Products can be designated RUP
because of human acute (immediate) and chronic (long-term) toxicity/health risk, physical hazards such as risks of fire or
explosion, and eco-toxicity hazards such as potential risks of water pollution and risk to flora and fauna.. Restrictions can apply
to the particular crop, formulations, concentrations or uses.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 34
http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-01/documents/section25b_inerts.pdf.)
The below-listed pesticides (as AIs) are permitted for use/support on USAID funded programs in the
DRC, SUBJECT to compliance with any conditions enumerated in these tables and those enumerated in
the “Safer Use Action Plan and Compliance Tracker” that comprises Section 6.5. (A summary of these
conditions is provided in Section 6.4.) Human health and ecological toxicological summaries and US EPA
registration status for each are presented in Table B.3 in Annex B.
PESTICIDES APPROVED FOR AGRICULTURAL USE
IMPORTANT NOTE: Any product containing these AIs that is marked with skull and crossbones or the words “danger” or “poison” or the equivalent may ONLY be used by professionally trained certified and registered pest control specialists and NEVER by smallholder farmers.
TABLE 4. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
2,4-D Herbicide Has acid, amine salts and ester forms
with variable ecotoxicity from
practically non-toxic to highly toxic
depending on the form.
Some products are Acute Toxicity
Category I for irreversible eye damage
(particularly acid and salt forms);
Possibly Carcinogenic to humans
Do not use products that have signal word
Danger and skull and crossbones on
pictogram,
Reported found in provincial stores in DRC.
IPs must confirm registration status in DRC
before procurement of products with this
AI.
Where required by the “AI-Specific Concerns” column in the table below, IPs must submit
the pesticide product label to the MEO/A/COR for review and approval. The MEO/A/COR will
review each product label against the USEPA guidance for RUPs provided at
https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report .
IPs must always review the pesticide label for the PPE requirements and the environmental
hazards statement. IPs must always keep pesticides away from water bodies including vulnerable
groundwater sources. AIs that have been identified as potential groundwater contaminants are
identified in the “AI-Specific Concerns” column below.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 35
TABLE 4. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Abamectin Insecticide,
acaricide and
Antiparasitic
Microorganis
m derived
Products over 1.9% are RUP
It is incompatible with many commonly
used pesticides.
Highly Toxic: Bees, birds, amphibians,
zooplankton
Smallholders should not use products with
concentration over 1.9% as such products
can be used only by properly trained and
qualified professionals with access to
necessary PPE.
Where products contain this AI in addition
to other AIs, product procurement must be
approved by the MEO
Acetamiprid Insecticide Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly toxic to birds
Like other neonicotinoids it is suspected to
be involved in honeybee colony collapse
disorder, even if generally considered safer
than other chemicals belonging to the same
chemical group. Should not to be applied
during or close to flowering.
Aluminum Phosphide Fumigant All products are RUP
Fatal by inhalation
Highly toxic tobees
Can be used only by professional fumigators
for FFP activities
Implementers must refer to
USAID Programmatic Environmental
Assessment (PEA) for
phosphine fumigation of stored agricultural
commodity available at
http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.h
tm
Amitraz Acaricide,
Insecticide Potential neurotoxin
Possible Reproducive/Development
toxin
Possible endocrine disruptor
Possible carcinogen
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Insecticide Only strains approved and registered
in DRC should be used
Found in stores in DRC such as
http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-
products.aspx?p=CD, must confirm
registration in DRC before procurement
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 36
TABLE 4. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Bifenthrin Insecticide
Acaricide
Many products are RUP
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Potential development/reproductive
toxin
Possible carcinogen
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO
approval for use of products containing this
AI.
Bispyribac-sodium Herbicide Potential groundwater contaminant
Copper hydroxide Fungicide Use products < 50% a.i. and possibly
granular or flowable formulations
Very persistent water, soil, sediment
Very toxic to aquatic organisms
Very hazardous in case of skin and eye
contact, slightly hazardous if inhaled
Do not use products that have DANGER
and/or oskull and crossbones on the label
Copper oxide Fungicide Moderately toxic
Copper oxychloride Fungicide Suspected endocrine disruptor
Do not use products that have DANGER
and/or skull and crossbones on the label
Cypermethrin Insecticide Many agricultural use products are
RUPs due to toxicity to fish and aquatic
invertebrates.
Highly Toxic to bees
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO
approval for use of products containing this
AI.
Deltamethrin Insecticide Restricted for use in cotton, some EC
products are RUP due to toxicity to
aquatic organisms
Potential endocrine Disruptor
Highly toxic to some aquatic
organzisms such as crustaceans and to
amphibians
Highly toxic tobees
IPs must receive MEO approval before
procurement and use of products
containing this AI.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 37
TABLE 4. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Difenoconazole Fungicide Potential endocrone disruptor
Possible carcinogen
Highly Toxic toooplankton
Dimethoate Insecticide Few products are RUP
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Potential carcinogen, neurotoxin,
edocrine disruptor,
reproductive/developmental toxin
Esfenvalerate Insecticide Most products are RUP
Highly toxic to aquatic organisms and
amphibians
Highly toxic to bees
Potential endocrine disruptor
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO
approval for use of products containing this
AI
Ethofenprox Insecticide Likely carcinogen
Potential endocrine disruptor
Approved for veterinary use
EPTC (S-ethyl dipropyl
thiocarbamat) Herbicide Not approved in EU
Likely developmental toxin
Likely neurotoxin
Fenitrothion Insecticide Suspected endocrine disruptor
Fipronil Insecticide Many products are RUP
Possible carcinogen
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly toxic to aquatic organisms and
fishcrustaceans, zooplankton
Highly toxic to beesees
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO
approval for use of products containing this
AI.
Fluazifop-p-butyl Herbicide Potential Reproductive or
Developmental Toxin
Fluroxypyr Herbicide Found in some RUP products
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 38
TABLE 4. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Glyphosate Herbicide Some products are Acute Toxicity
Category I for irreversible eye damage;
do not use products that have signal
word Danger
Probably Carcinogenic to humans
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Imidacloprid Insecticide Implicated in possible impacts to bee
population (colony collapse disorder),
not to be used during flowering stage
or when bees are actively foraging
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Potential Reproductive/Development
toxin,
Potential Neurotoxin
Indoxacarb Insecticide Moderately to very highly toxic to
freshwater and marine/estuarine fish
and invertebrates
Found in stores in DRC such as
http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-
products.aspx?p=CD, must confirm
registration in DRC before procurement
Lambda-cyhalothrin Insecticide Most products are RUP
Highly toxic to fish and other aquatic
organisms.
Highly toxic to bees.
Potential endocrine disruptor
Products with this AI should not be used by
smallholders. IPs must receive MEO
approval for use of products containing this
AI.
Mancozeb Fungicide Likely Carcinogen (USEPA)
Potential Endocrine Disruptor
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly Toxic to amphibians
Mefenoxam (Metlalxyl M) Fungicide Potential groundwater contaminant
Metalaxyl Fungicide Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Metaldehyde Molluscicide Potential ground water contaminant
Potential carcinogen
Found in stores in DRC such as
http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-
products.aspx?p=CD, must confirm
registration in DRC before procurement
Metsulfuron-methyl Herbicide Potential ground water contaminant
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 39
TABLE 4. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Nicosulfuron Herbicide Do not use when in products
containing Atrazine, these products are
RUP
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Oxadiazon Herbicide Likely Carcinogen (EPA)
Potential Reproductive/Development
Toxin
Highly toxic to zooplankton
Penoxsulam Herbicide Possible carcinogen
Potential groundwater contaminant
Permethrin Insecticide Most are RUP
Not registered products in EU
Probable carcinogen
Hightly toxic to bees
IPs must receive MEO approval for
procurement and use of products
containing this AI.
Pirimiphos-methyl Insecticide Potential neurotoxin
Higly toxic to bees
Highly toxic to zooplankton
To be used only for stored products and
healh applications
Sulfur Fungicide and
miticide Human health risks include eye, skin
and inhalation
Elemental sulfur is not toxic, but it’s
derivatives are
Thiamethoxam Insecticide Highly toxic to bees
Implicated in possible impacts to bee
population (colony collapse disorder),
not to be used during flowering stage
or when bees are actively foraging.
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Thiophanate-methyl Fungicide Potential carcinogen
Potential groundwater contaminant
Potential reproductive toxin/mutagen
Thiram Fungicide Included in the Rotterdam Convention
Highly toxic to fish, zooplankton,
amphibians, worms,
In the US and Europe used in
concentration below 15%, particularly
for seed treatment
Potential endocrine disruptor
Potential reproductive/development
toxin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 40
TABLE 4. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS
Approved for use only as treated seed
Triadimenol Fungicide Possible carcinogen
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Possible neurotoxin
Potential reproductive/developmental
toxin
Use only when in treated seed
Triadimefon (parent of
Triadimenol)
Fungicide Possible carcinogen
Potential groundwater contaminant
Likely developmental and reproductive
toxin
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Triclopyr Foliar
herbicide and
fungicide
Few products are RUP
Some products are Category I for
irreversible eye damage; do not use
products that have signal word Danger or
skull and crossbones on the pictogram
6.3 PESTICIDES REJECTED AND BANNED
Only pesticides specifically approved (i.e., appearing in the “lists of approved pesticides” in
Table 4 above) under this PERSUAP are authorized for use by USAID supported programs in
the DRC. For reference, the tables below document pesticides (as AIs) that were specifically
considered and rejected for use by the analysis undertaken in this PERSUAP.
Pesticides listed in Table 5 are REJECTED for procurement or use by USAID supported programs in the DRC. (See Tables 9 for the pesticides specifically banned by the Stockholm Convention and the Rotterdam Convention and Table 10 for AIs banned for import in DRC).
TABLE 5. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) REJECTED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI)
REJECTED
TYPE OF PESTICIDE REASON FOR REJECTION
Alpha-cypermethrin Insecticide Many agricultural use products are
RUPs due to toxicity to fish and
aquatic invertebrates.
Highly Toxic: bees
Atrazine Herbicide Products containing this AI are RUP
Likely Carcinogen
Likely groundwater contaminant
Suspected endocrine disruptor
Azocyclotin Insecticide Not registered by USEPA
Benomyl Fungicide No Federally registered products in
the US
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 41
TABLE 5. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) REJECTED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI)
REJECTED
TYPE OF PESTICIDE REASON FOR REJECTION
Beta-Cyfluthrin Insecticide Most product are RUP
WHO: 1b = Highly hazardous
Brodifacoum Rodenticide Not allowed in DRC
Not approved by EU
Highly hazardous
Bromadiolone Rodenticide Bromadiolone traps that are GUP
Not registered/avaiolable in DRC
Second-generation anticoagulant is
RUP
Bromophos Insecticide On the list of WHO obsolete
pesticides
Carbaryl Insecticide, Plant
Growth Regulator
Banned in EU
High toxicity to bees
High chronic toxicity potential
Potential groundwater contaminant
Carbendazim
Fungicide
Potential Reproductive or
Developmental Toxin
Highly Toxic: Zooplankton
Moderately Toxic: Fish
Slightly Toxic: Bees, Amphibians,
Crustaceans
Carbosulfan Insecticide No Federally registered products in
the US
Banned in EU
Banned by Rotterdam convention
Chlorophacinone Rodenticide USEPA Acute Toxicity Category 1
Chlorothalonil
Chlorotalonil
Fungicide DRC importation ban
Some products containing this AI
are RUP
Likely carcinogen
Potential groundwater contaminant
Chlorpyrifos ethyl Insecticide Most products are RUP
Coumatetralyl Rodenticide Not registered by EPA
Cyanazine Herbicide No products containing this AI are
registered in the US
Cyfluthrin Insecticide Most product are RUP
Not registered in DRC
WHO: 1b = Highly hazardous
Very Highly Toxic: Fish, Crustaceans,
Zooplankton
Highly Toxic: Bees
Cyphenothrin Structural use mostly
Has veterinary uses for pests only in
the US
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 42
TABLE 5. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) REJECTED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI)
REJECTED
TYPE OF PESTICIDE REASON FOR REJECTION
Diazinon Insecticide All crop products products are RUP,
livestock products are not RUP
Banned in Europe and DRC
Probably carcinogenic to humans
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly Toxic: Bees
Dichlorvos (DDVP) Insecticide Banned in Europe and DRC
WHO: 1b = Highly hazardous
Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to
humans
Fatal by inhalation
Highly Toxic: Bees, Crustaceans
Dicofol Miticide No USEPA registered products
Banned in DRC
Difenacoum Rodenticide WHO hazard classification 1A
d-trans-tetramethrin
(isomer of Tetramethrin)
Insecticide This isomer is not registered by
USEPA
Possible human carcinogen
High toxicity to aquatic organisms
Highly toxic to non-target bees
Emamectin benzoate Insecticide Most products are RUP
Potential pollutant of undergroung
water
Endosulfan Insecticide, Acaricide All products are RUP
Banned in Europe and DRC
Included in the Rotterdam
Convention and subject to full PIC
procedure.
Included in Annex A of Stockholm
Convention
Fatal by inhalation
Very Highly Toxic: Fish
Highly Toxic: Crustaceans
Ethephon Plant Growth regulator USEPA Category I for acute dermal
irritation and eye irritation
Cholinesterase inhibitor
Fenamiphos Insecticide, nematicide No Federally registered products
Fenthion (DMTP) Insecticide, avicide,
and acaricide
No Federally registered products
available in the US
Not registered in EU
Formothion Insecticide Not registered by USEPA
Malathion Insecticide DRC importation ban
Probably carcinogenic to humans
Potential pollutant of underground
waters
Highly Toxic: Bees
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 43
TABLE 5. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) REJECTED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY
ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI)
REJECTED
TYPE OF PESTICIDE REASON FOR REJECTION
Maneb Fungicide No Federally registered products in
the US contain this AI
Methyl Bromide Acaricide, fungicide,
herbicide, insecticide,
nematicide, and
rodenticide (fumigant)
All products are RUP
Oxamyl Insecticide,
Nematicide
Several products are RUP
WHO: 1B = Highly hazardous
Paraquat Herbicide All products are RUP in US
Banned in EU
Rotterdam convention pesticide
Profenofos Insecticide, miticide RUP
Potential neurotoxin
Potential groundwater contaminant
Toxic to aquatic organisms
Propineb Fungicide Not registered by USEPA
Trycyclazole Fungicide No Federally registered products
contain this AI
Warfarin Rodenticide USEPA Toxicity Category I
TABLE 6. HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS AND PESTICIDES PROHIBITED FOR IMPORTATION INTO DRC
LISTED IN ANNEX III OF THE ROTTERDAM CONVENTION
2,4,5 T and its salts (2,4,5-T et ses sels) 2,4,5 T and its salts (2,4,5-T et ses sels)
Alachlor (Alachlore) Alachlor (Alachlore)
Aldicarb (Aldicarbe) Aldicarb (Aldicarbe)
Aldrin (Aldrine) Aldrin (Aldrine)
Binapacryl Binapacryl
Captafol Captafol
Chlordane Chlordane
Chlordimeform (Chlordimeforme) Chlordimeform (Chlordimeforme)
Chlorobenzilate Chlorobenzilate
D.D.T D.D.T.
Dieldrin (Dieldrine) Dieldrin (Dieldrine)
DNOC and its salts (Dinitro-ortho-crésol
(DNOC) et ses sels)
DNOC and its salts (Dinitro-ortho-crésol (DNOC) et ses
sels)
Dinoseb and its salts and esters (Dinoseb
et ses sels et esters)
Dinoseb and its salts and esters (Dinoseb et ses sels et
esters)
EDB (Dibromo -1,2 éthane) EDB (Dibromo -1,2 éthane)
Endosulfan Endosulfan
Ethylene dichloride (Dichlorure
d'ethylène)
Ethylene dichloride (Dichlorure d'ethylène)
Ethylene Oxyde (Oxyde d'ethylène) Ethylene Oxyde (Oxyde d'ethylène)
Fluoro acetamide (Fluoro acetamide) Fluoro acetamide (Fluoro acetamide)
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 44
TABLE 6. HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS AND PESTICIDES PROHIBITED FOR IMPORTATION INTO DRC
LISTED IN ANNEX III OF THE ROTTERDAM CONVENTION
HCH HCH
Heptachlor (Heptachlore) Heptachlor (Heptachlore)
TABLE 7. PHYTOSANITARY PRODUCTS WHOSE USE IS PROHIBITED IN DRC CONGO DUE TO THEIR
CARCINOGENIC, MUTAGENIC, TOXIC OR ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Dicofol
Brodifacoum
Coumachlore
Diazinon
Dichlorvos
Carbendazim
Chlorothalonil
Malathion
Naphtalène
Paraquat
6.4 SUMMARY OF COMPLIANCE REQUIREMENTS
Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP can be supported by USAID funded programs in the DRC. Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the pesticide AIs listed in Error! Reference source not found. (Table 5 is the same as Table 1 in the Executive Summary) are permitted for use/support/promotion with USAID/DRC funds of agricultural activities. This approval is subject to compliance with any conditions listed for each AI.
IPs will promote only pesticide products containing AIs approved by this PERSUAP. Pesticide use is broadly defined by USAID as procurement, transportation, storage, mixing, loading, application and disposal. It includes demonstrations, promotion and technical assistance, provision of samples, special payments, donations, subsidies and other forms of financial support including credit provision or guarantee of this credit for purchase of pesticides. USAID funded activities must not support AIs rejected by this PERSUAP. Those AIs rejected for
support with USAID funding are listed below in Tables 6, 7 and 8.
USAID funded activities must not support use of products that contain inert ingredients prohibited by USEPA. On December 20th, 2016 USEPA published a list of 72 inert ingredients prohibited from use in pesticide products. An inert ingredient is any substance (or group of structurally similar substances if designated by the Agency), other than an “active” ingredient, which is intentionally included in a pesticide product. It is important to note, the term “inert” does not imply that the chemical is nontoxic.39 For a list of prohibited inert ingredients please see https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-prohibits-72-inert-ingredients-use-pesticides. USAID funded activities can support the use of low-risk AIs. Some particularly low-risk AIs
(primarily essential oils and other plant extracts) are exempt from regulation under the US Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and therefore may be used by implementing partners
without approval via this PERSUAP. These AIs are listed at
http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-12/documents/minrisk-active-ingredients-tolerances-
39 https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/guidance-documents-inert-ingredients
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 45
2015-12-15.pdf. A list of pesticides Inert Ingredients that are exempt from FIFRA is available at:
http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-01/documents/section25b_inerts.pdf.
In addition to these and other restrictions set out in Error! Reference source not found. approval of
the AIs listed in Table 5 is SUBJECT to conditions enumerated in the Safe Use Action Plan &
Compliance Tracker (“SUAP Tracker”) provided in Section 6.5. In summary these conditions are as
follows:
Commercial pesticide products procured, used or recommended for use must be properly
labelled in the national language and include specified essential information. Training in reading and
understanding of labels must is one of the topics to be addressed under the mandatory requirement for
understanding pesticide risks and safe pesticide use.
Projects must assure use per label, including the correct use of appropriate PPE (per label) for all
pesticide use under their direct control. Otherwise, projects must assure access to, proper use and
maintenance of appropriate PPE and use per label to the greatest degree practicable.
Projects must require the use and maintenance of appropriate PPE—as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices; See Annex C.
Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key information for Implementing Partners (IPs) to develop these plans.) IPs must utilize preventive IPM tools and tactics provided in Annex A. IPs will develop more extensive and detailed IPM plans that address major pests of their respective value chains and preventive non-chemical IPM tools/tactics recommended to be used before using PERSUAP-approved pesticides. These pesticides should be used only as the last resort after all preventive tools have been exhausted. Pesticides for plant protection must be part of an IPM scheme governed by crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans.
Appropriate project staff and beneficiaries must be trained in safe pesticide use and pesticide first aid. Mandatory requirement for understanding pesticide risks and safe pesticide use training. IPs must provide basic training to their staff and beneficiaries, including those using, selling, financing or providing extension services or demonstrating pesticides with USAID funding. Advanced training is required for certain AIs and products. Training must be reported to the AOR/COR. IPs must use appropriate training materials and must build awareness about human health and ecological risks of pesticides and promote safer pesticide use through promotion of pesticide best practices and safety use training. Training must include all topics listed in Annex C.
IPs must take necessary steps to prevent the development of pest resistance by using tools
recommended by this PERSUAP such as rotating among different classes of each type of pesticide and
monitoring and record keeping for detecting development of resistance. Projects must be systematic in
their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring.
Projects seeking approval to purchase pesticides must certify that such procurement is compliant
with this PERSUAP and provide other specified information for AOR/COR review and clearance.
Pass-down requirements. Prime contractors must write pesticide compliance requirements as set out
above into each grant or sub-contract that will involve support for pesticide use. Sub-contractors or
grantees will be responsible for reporting on risk and risk reduction to the prime contractor. Record-
keeping, reporting on compliance with the above conditions as part of regular project implementation
reporting, and pass-down of all above requirements to subcontractors, grantees and sub-grantees is
required.
SUAP conditions must be implemented, and their implementation must be monitored and
reported. To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use and maintenance of appropriate
PPE – as well as safe pesticide purchase, transportation, handling, storage and disposal practices. SUAP
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 46
implementation must be monitored and reported using the “SUAP Tracker” tracking tool provided in
Section 6.5.
Mandatory use of the “SUAP Tracker.” Any project subject to this PERSUAP must submit a
completed SUAP Tracker to its AOR/COR and MEO 30 days before the implementation of the activity
and must update it annually. The tracker is a mandatory tool for assigning responsibilities and timelines
for implementation of PERSUAP requirements, and for tracking compliance.
Note: With respect to pesticides, the SUAP Tracker satisfies the requirement for an EMMP. Project
EMMPs should simply incorporate the SUAP Tracker by reference.
General conditions for USAID/DRC require that:
1. USAID/DRC put in place effective internal procedures to review pesticide use plans and pesticide procurement requests submitted by IPs. The MEO must review and approve all procurement requests.
2. Per ADS 204.3.4, AORs/CORs must assure that the requirements established by the IP Conditions summarized above are funded, implemented, and monitored.
3. Technical Offices must ensure that contract and award language requires compliance with the conditions established by this PERSUAP for each relevant project.
4. USAID/DRC must assure that all relevant mission staff receive an internal short-format (~1–2 hour) training on the requirements established by this PERSUAP.
5. At such time that pesticides are registered under the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Livestock’s List of Approved Pesticides, USAID/DRC must update this PERSUAP.
Responsibilities
Primary mission responsibility for environmental compliance over life-of-project (LOP) rests with AORs/CORs, Activity Managers and Team Leaders. The MEO and REA play key roles as compliance advisors and quality reviewers and gatekeepers of Reg. 216 documentation. IPs have responsibility for field implementation of environmental mitigation and monitoring measures, typically via the Compliance Tracker that satisfies the requirements of an EMMP, and periodic reporting. Table 8 summarizes the resources included herein to support IPM and safe use of pesticides.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 47
TABLE 8. IPM/SAFE USE REQUIREMENTS AND RELEVANT RESOURCES
IPM/SAFER USE
REQUIREMENT
KEY RESOURCES PROVIDED
Pesticide recommendations
and use must be governed by
a set of crop- and pest-specific
IPM-based pest management
plans.
(IPs are responsible for
developing these plans.)
ANNEX A: sets out crop-by-crop, pest-by-pest chemical and non-
chemical management methods recommended by this PERSUAP. The
pests and control methods table for each crop is intended to serve as
a rough draft for a crop-specific pest management plan.
ANNEX B: provides toxicology information for each approved active
ingredient (AI), including human acute toxicities and chronic health
issues, water pollution potential, as well as potential eco-toxicities to
important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee pollinators, birds
and several aquatic organisms. This information is summarized in
Table B.3.
Appropriate project staff and
beneficiaries must be trained
in safe pesticide use and
pesticide first aid.
ANNEX C: Mandatory Elements of Pesticide Safe Use Training
provides significant discussion of safe use training elements.
To the greatest degree
practicable, projects must
require use and maintenance
of appropriate PPE—as well as
safe pesticide purchase,
handling, and disposal
practices.
Pesticide use requires risk
management capability and
capacity including the
necessary institutional and
physical infrastructure.
ANNEX D: Policy Recommendations.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 48
6.5 PESTICIDE SAFER USE ACTION PLAN & COMPLIANCE TRACKER
USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural PERSUAP Must be submitted to AOR/COR by Date: and annually updated thereafter.
PERSUAP COMPLIANCE TRACKER
BASIC INFORMATION SUBMISSION DATES:
Prime Contractor Initial submission
Project Annual Update #1
Pesticide
Compliance Lead
& Contact
Information
Annual Update #2
Summary of Pest
Management
Needs on Project
Annual Update #3
Note: Pesticide “support” = use of USAID funds to: purchase pesticides; directly fund the application of pesticides; recommend pesticides for use; enable
the application or purchase of pesticides via provision of application equipment, credit support, etc.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 49
PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN & COMPLIANCE TRACKER: 2017 USAID/DRC MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PERSUAP
REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE
STATUS (IF NOT
KNOWN, SO INDICATE)
ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &
MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE
(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)
STATUS OF
COMPLIANCE
ACTIONS
SUPPORT ONLY THE PESTICIDES AUTHORIZED BY THE 2017 USAID/DRC MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PERSUAP
To be implemented Immediately
Inventory Pesticides being supported and ensure NO SUPPORT
for Class I chemicals.
(insert extra rows if needed)
Ensure that Restricted Use Pesticides (RUPs), as classified by US
EPA, can only be used by or under supervision of a certified
pesticide applicator.
Distribute copies of the list of allowed AIs with matching
commercial product names and list of cancelled products to all
project field extension staff & advice regarding the Date:
deadline for compliance (below).
To be implemented as soon as possible but not later than Date:
Assure that USAID-funded pesticide support is limited to ONLY
PESTICIDES APPROVED BY PERSUAP.
Continue verification throughout life-of-project
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 50
REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE
STATUS (IF NOT
KNOWN, SO INDICATE)
ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &
MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE
(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)
STATUS OF
COMPLIANCE
ACTIONS
Pesticide technical assistance and use must be governed by a set of locally adapted IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions.
For agricultural activities these will be crop-and-pest specific.
To be implemented by this Date:
Starting from the information in PERSUAP Annex A and
drawing on PERSUAP Annex B, adopt/develop crop- and pest-
specific IPM-based pest management plans (PMPs).
For chemical controls, PMPs must include the use restrictions
specified in the Annex B pesticide profiles. (e.g. no use near
surface waters.)
Translate PMPs into crop-specific field reference guides or
posters for farmers to anticipate and manage pests.
To be implemented by this Date:
Provide first-time training to appropriate project staff, partners
and beneficiaries in PMPs;
Provide refresher training annually.
From Date:
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 51
REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE
STATUS (IF NOT
KNOWN, SO INDICATE)
ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &
MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE
(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)
STATUS OF
COMPLIANCE
ACTIONS
Require and enforce PMP implementation in situations where
the project has direct control over pesticide use
Require and enforce that field extension under direct project
control be PMP-based.
Where project control over extension or agricultural practice
on the ground is less than complete, promote and support the
PMPs to the greatest practicable extent.
Ongoing over Life of Project (LOP)
Modify PMPs over LOP based on ground-truthing/field
experience.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 52
REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE
STATUS (IF NOT
KNOWN, SO INDICATE)
ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &
MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE
(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)
STATUS OF
COMPLIANCE
ACTIONS
For all target activities appropriate project staff & beneficiaries must be trained in safe pesticide use & pesticide first aid.
Ensure availability of product label and MSDS. For all products
that will be in use, the project personnel must obtain and
review the product label and MSDS to ensure that pesticide
users are aware of potential hazards and are undertaking all
measures to minimize risks to human health and safety and to
the environment.
Ensure that for all beneficiaries that receive support for
procurement and use of seed treated with pesticides, training
in handling dressed seed is provided.
Develop a training plan for pesticide safe practices and IPM for
project staff and beneficiaries, including at least annual
refresher training.
Develop or source curricula conforming to required training
elements specified in Annex C.
Implement training plan, providing first-time training to all
relevant staff and beneficiaries within six months.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 53
REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE
STATUS (IF NOT
KNOWN, SO INDICATE)
ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &
MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE
(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)
STATUS OF
COMPLIANCE
ACTIONS
To the greatest degree practicable, all projects must require use & maintenance of appropriate PPE – as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and
disposal practices.
If carbamate or organophosphate-class pesticides are used
extensively, follow procedures for baseline testing for
cholinesterase inhibition, and establish a periodic
cholinesterase monitoring schedule when necessary.
Implement/observe core risk mitigation measures (PPE and
other precautions).
Where control is less complete, take all practicable measures to
support and promote implementation of these measures.
Whenever providing, supporting or recommending pesticides
for use, assure that appropriate PPE is available and, to the
degree possible, require its use.
Whenever directly using, procuring or supplying pesticides,
assure that quality application equipment is available and local
capacity for application is available and maintained.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 54
REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE
STATUS (IF NOT
KNOWN, SO INDICATE)
ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &
MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE
(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)
STATUS OF
COMPLIANCE
ACTIONS
Projects must follow safety restrictions and precautions for all target activities
People who are not wearing PPE should not enter pesticide
treated areas during Restricted Entry Intervals (REI) to perform
tasks that involve contact with pesticide treated surfaces. Each
pesticide label specifies a REI usually ranging from 12 to 72
hours.
Warning signs should be posted to warn people in advance
about pesticide application and REI.
Products that are suspected to have potential to cause harm to
unborn child will not be handled and applied by pregnant
women. Pregnant women should not enter treated areas
during application and REI.
Pre-harvest interval (PHI) is the time required between the last
application of pesticides and the safe harvesting of edible
crops for immediate consumption. Farmers will be trained
about the importance of adhering to the PHI stated on the
label to ensure no chemical residues are found on harvested
crops.
Projects must be systematic in their pesticide related record-keeping and monitoring.
Pesticide efficacy must be evaluated
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 55
REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE
STATUS (IF NOT
KNOWN, SO INDICATE)
ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &
MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE
(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)
STATUS OF
COMPLIANCE
ACTIONS
Any evidence of pesticide resistance development must be
tracked and reported.
Flow-down requirements
Prime contractors must write pesticide compliance
requirements as set out above into each grant or sub-contract
that will involve support for pesticide use.
Pesticide registration status in the DRC and US EPA must be updated yearly.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 56
ANNEX A: PESTS AND DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS AND AVAILABLE AND RECOMMENDED CONTROL
METHODS
This annex details the primary pests of all target crops on a crop-by-crop basis, available non-chemical control methods, and recommended chemical controls, where these are necessary. As such, this annex contains both information compiled as INPUT to the PER analysis (pests of target crops), and OUTPUTS of that analysis (available non-chemical controls, recommended chemical controls).
This information is intended to serve as the basis for the crop and pest-specific IPM Management Plans required by the SUAP.
This annex is intended to describe the IPM context in which the selected pesticides will be used. It does not purport to be a complete handbook of IPM techniques.
The PER analysis did not include artisanal pesticides and their ingredients, however in some cases this IPM suggests use of artisanal solutions that are already commonly used by farmers in DRC.
GRAINS
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
Weeds and Grasses
Annual and perennial
broadleaf weeds
Annual or perennial
grasses
Reduction in crop yield as weeds
compete with crops for water,
nutrients and light
Increased cost of cultivation
Reduced quality of produce
Transmitting pests and disease
Weeds block drainage and reduce
irrigation efficiency40
Land preparation to provide weed free environment for
small millet seed
Small millet seeds should be sown less deep than seeds
such as maize
Making sure all equipment used to plant millet is free of
weed seeds.
Chemical weed control
options are limited for
millet production.
Use Glyphosate products
40 http://oer.nios.ac.in/wiki/index.php/Damages_caused_by_Weeds
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 57
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
Help prevent weed seed from entering fields by
controlling weeds along ditchbanks, roadsides, and field
margins
Narrow row spacing, adapted variety selection, and crop
rotations, all practices that will provide a competitive edge
for the millet crop.
Hand weeding
Soil applied and foliage applied herbicides.41
Parasitic weed
Striga (Striga spp.)
Mostly in Bunia and
Kasai
Striga will parasitize millet plants and
prevent root development and
nutrient uptake. Severe attack
produces leaf wilting and chlorosis.
Infected plants may be stunted and
die before seed set.
In Striga affected fields, do not grow pearl millet
continuously and follow crop rotation with legumes
Post emergence use 2, 4-
D products
Millet head miner
(Heliocheilus
albipunctella)
Millet earhead
caterpillar also
Fly period of the adult moth
coincides with the peak of millet
panicle emergence and flowering.
Caterpillars eat and finish the larval
development inside panicles. During
this period, the seed head also grows
Plough deeply to expose residual larval populations and
pupae to natural enemies and desiccation.
Conserve natural enemies.
Augmentation (rearing and releases) of an effective
parasitic wasp (Habrobracon hebetor)
Deltamethrin
Imidacloprid
Dimethoate
Lambda-cyhalothrin
41 http://lubbock.tamu.edu/files/2011/10/Millet-Production.pdf
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 58
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
known as Millet
spike worm
(Rhaguva
albipunctella)
and develops, passing from
emergence through flowering to
grain-filling and maturity.
A two-week delay in planting of short cycle millet varieties
(75 days to maturity) to desynchronize the peak flight
period of the susceptible phenological stage of the crop
has been reported to be effective against this pest.
Head-bugs
Eurystylus oldi and
other spp.
Damage on panicle starts as soon as
it emerges from the boot leaf, the
nymphs and adults suck
the sap from the developing grain
and occasionally on tender parts
of the panicle
Use resistant cultivars
Use common cultural practices such as:
o Timely sowing
o Field sanitation, rogueing
o Destroy the alternate host plants
o Soil test based application of manures and fertilizers.
o Adoption of crop rotation.
o Avoid high plant populations
o Adopt ecological engineering by growing the
attractant, repellent, and trap crops around the field
bunds.
Where available use
Neem extract
Stem borers (Several
species of stem borers
attack millet including
the millet stem borer
(Coniesta ignefusalis),
the maize stalkborer
The damage starts from the seedling
stage and continues until maturity.
Early-sown millet is attacked by first-
generation larvae (caterpillars), which
damage young plants and cause
dead-hearts. Seedlings of late-sown
Post-harvest plowing and disposal of dead stalks to get
rid of larva and pupae in millet stubbles
Deep ploughing and soil solarisation to expose pupae and
propagules of soil borne pathogens
Cutting stems and laying on soil, or 5 cm below soil post-
harvest42
Use natural extracts of
neem and chili peppers.
Neem can be effective
against stem borers if
used early in the season
42 Youm, O. Coniesta ingefusialis (Hampson) The millet Stem Borer: A Handbook of Information. (Andhara Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 1999) http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnaby140.pdf
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 59
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
(Busseola fusca), the
spotted stalkborer
(Chilo partellus), and
the pink stalkborer
(Sesamia calamitis).
millet are exposed to larger
populations of second or third-
generation larvae which produce
extensive tunnels in the stems that
may kill the plant. On older plants,
stem tunneling may cause lodging
and panicle damage due to
disruption of the vascular system,
which prevents grain formation.
Timely sowing should be done.
Field sanitation, rogueing (removing plants with
undesirable characteristics from agricultural fields)
Destroy the alternate host plants
Soil test based application of manures and fertilizers.
Adoption of crop rotation.
Sowing of healthy, disease free and certified seeds
Uproot and burn infected plants early enough to avoid
spread of the disease.
Avoid high plant populations
Growing attractant, repellent, and trap crops around the
field bunds
Before rainfall apply aqueous neem extracts or neem
powder applied before rainfall
Harvest before development of third generation larvae
Use water-based pheromone trap for adults
Plant resistant varieties
before the larvae bore
into the stem of the plant
Sorghum shoot fly
(Atherigona soccata)
Females lay single cigar-shaped eggs
on the undersides of leaves at the 1-
to 7-leaf stage. The eggs hatch after
only a day or two of incubation, and
the larvae cut the growing point of
the leaf, resulting in wilting and
Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and several
species of spiders are important predators on eggs.
Collect and destroy crop residues after harvest to reduce
carry-over from one season to the other.
Neem extract where
available
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 60
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
drying. These leaves, known as
'deadhearts', are easily plucked.
When a "dead heart" is plucked, it
releases unpleasant odor. Larvae also
bore into the heart of the young
shoot of seedlings killing the growing
points.
Use shoot-fly resistant varieties, if available. Intercropping
with leguminous crops reduces damage
Grasshoppers
(Several species of
grasshoppers attack
millets Short-horned
grasshoppers include
Zonocerus spp,
Oedaleus
senegalensis,
Kraussaria angulifera,
Hieroglyphus
daganensis,
Diabolocantatops
axillaris among
others)
Grasshoppers defoliate and eat the
panicles. They are not of economic
importance when present in low
numbers. However, invasion by a
swarm of grasshoppers may result in
serious grain losses.
Locusts are the swarming phase of
certain species of short-horned
grasshoppers in the family Acrididae.
Under suitable conditions of drought
followed by rapid vegetation growth,
they become swarms causing great
economic damage.
Conserve natural enemies. Important natural enemies
include ants, larvae of blister beetles, parasitic flies,
assassin bugs, predatory wasps, birds, lizards, snakes,
frogs, and fungi. Robber flies are also major predator of
grasshoppers.
Domesticated poultry and wild birds are good for
keeping grasshopper populations in check. However,
enclose the birds in wire fencing along the perimeter to
avoid damage to the crop.
Ensure the ground is covered with crops, grass or mulch.
This is reported to reduce grasshopper numbers since
they prefer laying eggs on bare soil.
Dig or cultivate the land before planting to expose the
eggs to predators and to the weather.
Deltamethrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 61
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
Neem extracts act as antifeedant (grasshoppers stop
feeding when exposed to neem products) and affect
development of grasshoppers
IITA (the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture)
researchers and partners have developed an
environmental friendly biopesticide Metarhizium
anisopliae var. acridum "Green Muscle" for control of
grasshoppers and locusts (www.iita.org).
Ergot (Claviceps spp.)
Ergot or ergot fungi
refers to a group of
fungi of the genus
Claviceps.
Cream to pink sticky "honeydew"
droplets ooze out of infected florets
on panicles. Within 10 to 15 days, the
droplets dry and harden, and dark
brown to black sclerotia (fungal
fruiting bodies) develop in place of
seeds on the panicle. Sclerotia are
larger than seed and irregularly
shaped, and generally get mixed with
the grain during threshing.
The sclerotia falling on the soil or
planted with the seed germinate
Plant resistant varieties, where available.
Remove affected panicles.
Avoid planting seeds from infected panicles.
Plough deep.
Rotate with non-cereals preferably with pulses.
Practice good field sanitation
No chemical methods
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 62
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
when the plants are flowering. They
produce spores that are wind-borne
to the flowers, where they invade the
young kernels and replace the
kernels with fungal growth. The
fungal growth bears millions of tiny
spores in a sticky, sweet, honeydew
mass. These spores are carried by
insects or splashed by rain to infect
other kernels.
Downy mildew
(Sclerospora
graminicola,
Plasmopara penniseti)
Disease of the foliage
caused by a fungus-
like (Oomycete)
organism
Pale, chlorotic, broad streaks
extending from base to tip of leaves.
At the advancement of disease, the
leaf streaks turn brown and the
leaves become shredded
longitudinally. In severe infection, the
downy fungal growth can be seen on
the upper as well as lower surface of
the leaves. The rapid growth of
fungal pathogen is favored by rainy
and humid environment. The infected
plants fail to form ear but if formed,
they are malformed to green leafy
Use tolerant varieties available in country
Plant in a row of 15 inches to 24 inches. Seed may be
placed about 6 inches apart within the row.
The seed should be planted shallow, about half inch deep
at the rate of 2 Kg/acre
Maintain good fertility levels, apply adequate organic
manure
Use Metalaxyl treated
seed
Broadcast application for
some pathogens
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 63
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
structures. The complete ear can be
transformed into leafy structure. The
fungal pathogen transformed all
floral parts such as glumes, palea,
stamens and pistils into green linear
leafy structures of variable lengths.
As the disease advances, the
malformed floral structures of ears
become brown and dry.
Kernel smut
Fungal disease
(Ustilago crameri and
Sporisorium
neglectum)
Immature, green sori larger than the
seed develop on panicles during
grain filling stage.
A single sorus develops per floret.
As grain matures, sori change in color
from bright green to dark brown.
Sori are filled with dark teliospores.
Plant resistant varieties, if available.
Rotate with non-cereals.
Plough deep
Practice good field sanitation
Chemical control
measures are neither
economical nor feasible at
the farmers' level.
Birds
Culumbidae (several
species)
Birds peck away at the exposed seed
on the grain head and in large
enough numbers can eat the entire
crop
keeping pearl millet fields away from tree lines or woods
if possible
Family labor at the time of grain filling stay in field to
scare off birds
Use effigies and scarecrows in the field
Destroy nesting sites within the vicinity
No chemical control
recommended
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 64
TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN
NEEDED
Reflecting tape in the field
Bird repellant
MAIZE
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Striga (Purple witch
weed, Striga spp)
Tap the roots of maize
plant and draw water and
nutrients
Stunting of plants and
yield loss
Weeding regularly but is labor intensive
Rotate maize with trap crop
Intercrop maize with “Striga chaser” Celosia
Inter crop with legumes like cowpea and pigeon pea – can cause
suicidal germination of Striga seed
Intercrop with Desmodium to reduce seed bank of Striga in the soil
(push and pull)
Use resistant varieties
Boost plant health through manure/fertilizes application
2,4-D
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 65
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Use seeds that are free of Striga seeds (avoid using seeds from the
previous harvest if the crop was infested with Striga)
Grass and broad
leaf weeds
Compete for water and
nutrients
Post-emergent controls
Thorough land preparation
Hand hoe
Weeding
Post-emergent spray if previous crop was weedy
Nicosulfuron
Perennial weeds Compete for water and
nutrients
Pre-plant or pre-emergence spray
Herbicide post- emergence weed control
Glyphosate (most effective
if applied from time of
flowering when the plant's
energy system shifts to
developing roots)
Borers
Maize Stalk Borer
(aka African Stalk
Borer)
(Busseola fusca)
Pink Stem Borer
(Sesamia calamistis)
African sugarcane
borer
(E. saccharina)
Young plants have
pinholes in straight lines
across the newest leaves.
Borers tunnel stalks to
inhibit nutrient and water
flow. Their feeding causes
ears to break off
Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and predatory ants are
important in natural control of stemborers.
Destroy crop residues to kill pupae left in old stems and stubble and
prevent carry-over populations. This helps in limiting initial
establishment of stemborers on the following season's crops.
Intercrop maize with crops that are non-hosts for stemborers (e.g.
cassava and grain legumes)
Intercrop maize with a repellent plant such as Desmodium and plant
an attractive trap plant, such as Napier grass, as a border crop around
Apply Imidacloprid or
Thiamethoxam to seed or
growing plant, or apply
Acetamiprid to the plant
(but only when plants are
in vegetative state, not
when flowering due to risk
to pollinators and
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 66
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
this intercrop to protect maize from stemborers. This technology is
known as "push-pull".
Use neem products. Simple neem products are reported to be effective
for control of stemborers.
honeybee colony collapse
disorder).
Lambda-Cyhalothrin
Termites
(Microtermes spp.,
Macrotermes spp.,
Allodontermes spp.,
and Odontotermes
spp)
Attack roots and stems
of young seedlings
and mature plants
Deep plowing
Dig out queen and destroy
Grinding fish bones and placing dry meal underground to attract ants
that reduce termites
Use of dressed seed
Use bio-pesticides
Intercropping with legumes
Fipronil
Imidacloprid
African bollworm
(Helicoverpa
armigera) aka
Earworm and
Cornworm
Attack mainly the
developing cobs,
although they may
occasionally feed in the
leaf whorl or on tender
tassels. Eggs are laid on
the silks. Caterpillars
invade the cobs and feed
on developing grain.
Development of
Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps, ants and predatory bugs
are important in natural control of the African bollworm.
Monitor the crop regularly.
Use bio-pesticides. Plant extracts (e.g. neem, garlic, chili,) and Bt are
reportedly effective against the African bollworms. However, timing of
application is very important. Spraying when caterpillars are inside the
cob would be ineffective.
Handpick and destroy pod borers. This helps when their numbers are
low and in small fields.
Use neem where available
Bt
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 67
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
secondary infections is
common. Local outbreaks
of this pest are
sometimes severe.
Cutworms (Agrotis
spp. and other
species)
Sever seedlings,
defoliate and reduce
photosynthetic surface
area
Early planting
Deep plowing to expose worms
Conserve natural enemies
Apply insecticide poisoned bait when larvae first seen in economic
numbers
Neem
Leaf extracts of Lantana
All lantana should be
treated as poisonous to
livestock
Extract of Rumex
nepalensis
Grasshoppers and
locusts
Grasshoppers and locust
attack maize from the
mid-whorl stage to
maturity, and may
consume every part of the
plants. Attacks vary in
severity from location to
location.
Conserve natural enemies. Avoid destroying larvae of blister beetles,
since they feed on eggs of grasshoppers. Other natural enemies
include ants, parasitic flies, assassin bugs, predatory wasps, birds,
lizards, snakes, frogs, and fungi. Robber flies are a major predator of
grasshoppers.
Domesticated poultry (e.g. chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, geese, and
ducks) and wild birds are good for keeping grasshopper populations in
check. However, birds may damage the plants too. To avoid this,
enclose the birds in wire fencing along the perimeter so that they can
prey on visiting grasshoppers while staying out of the crop.
Ensure the ground is covered with crops, grass or mulch. This is
reported to reduce grasshopper numbers since they prefer laying eggs
on bare soil.
Deltamethrin
Lambda-Cyhalothrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 68
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Catch grasshoppers by hand or with a butterfly net. Catching them in
the early morning is easier, as they are less active in the mornings.
Dig or cultivate the land before planting to expose the eggs to
predators and to the sun.
Whenever necessary spray biopesticides. Neem extracts act as
antifeedant (grasshoppers stop feeding when exposed to neem
products) and affect development of grasshoppers.
Maize streak virus
(MSV)
White to yellowish
streaking on the leaves.
The streaks are very
narrow, more or less
broken and run parallel
along the leaves.
The virus is transmitted
by leafhoppers
(Cicadulina mbila and C.
bipunctella zeae). Maize
streak virus is a serious
constraint to maize
production in sub-
Saharan Africa. The
reduction in yields
Use of tolerant, resistant varieties if available.
Plant early in the season.
Eradicate grass weeds.
Eradicate control vectors such as leafhoppers
Pesticides such as
Imidacloprid and
Thiamethoxam can be
used for control of vectors,
but have been found not
to be economical for
control of disease
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 69
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
depends on the time of
infection. Plants infected
at early stage usually do
not produce any cobs.
Angoumois grain
moth (Sitotroga
cerealella)
The larvae of the
Angoumois grain moth
penetrate and feed inside
maize grain. This insect
may also infest the crop
in the field prior to
harvest. The moths are
small yellowish or straw-
colored. The larvae are
whitish. The larvae
prepare a round exit hole
for the moth, leaving the
outer seed wall only
partially cut as a flap over
the hole, resembling a
trap door. The adult
pushes its way out
through this "window"
leaving the trap door
Practice good warehousing hygiene. Ensure proper monitoring and
record keeping. All residual pockets of infestation should be cleaned
out at the end of the storage season. This is important to minimize re-
infestation of the new crop.
Store old and new lots separately.
Do not leave maize in the field after drying, this increases the chances
of infestation.
Whenever possible separate stores from fields. The grain moths are
good flyers and adults from infested stores often infest growing maize
in the field.
Keep the temperature and humidity as low as possible. There are
indications that storing grain in a dry place can reduce infestation.
Prevent pest entry by sealing the store (windows, doors, ventilation
facilities) with insect-proof gauze. Hermetic storage at low humidity
gives good levels of control. Periodically inspect and remove any
infested maize.
Insecticide treatments with
Pirimiphos-methyl
Fumigation with Aluminum
Phosphide
Professional fumigators
only can use these
pesticides.
Refer to
http://www.usaidgems.org
/fumigationpea.htm
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 70
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
hinged to the grain.
Infested grains can be
recognized by the
presence of these small
windows.
Lesser grain borer
(Rhizopertha
dominica), and
Larger grain borer
(Prostephanus
truncatus).
Both the adults and the
larvae (grubs) of these
beetles feed in the grains.
Adults come from
infested cobs in the field
or from an infested maize
store and lay eggs in the
grains. They attack maize
both in the field and after
harvest. Attacked maize
grains lose all their
contents and are not fit to
eat. These pests become
a serious problem in short
time if no control
measures are applied.
Maize is often left in the field until the moisture content of the grain
has fallen to 15-20%, though this can lead to attack by grain borers in
the covered cobs.
Practice good warehousing hygiene. Ensure proper monitoring and
record keeping. All residual pockets of infestation should be cleaned
out at the end of the storage season. This is important to minimize re-
infestation.
Store old and new lots separately.
Do not leave maize in the field after drying, this increases the chances
of infestation.
Whenever possible separate stores from fields. The grain moths are
good flyers and adults from infested stores often infest growing maize
in the field.
Keep the temperature and humidity as low as possible. There are
indications that storing grain in a dry place can reduce infestation.
Prevent pest entry by sealing the store (windows, doors, ventilation
facilities) with insect-proof gauze. Hermetic storage at low humidity
Professional fumigators
only can conduct standard
fumigation with Aluminum
Phosphide
Refer to
http://www.usaidgems.org
/fumigationpea.htm
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 71
TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
gives good levels of control. Periodically inspect and remove any
infested maize.
Maize weevil
(Sitophilus zeamais)
Both adults and larvae
feed on internally on
maize grains and an
infestation can start in the
field (when the cob is still
on the plant) but most
damage occurs in
storage.
Because the maize weevil larvae develop inside the grain it is difficult
to detect the pest by visual inspection unless its numbers are very high
The severity of a maize weevil infestation can be reduced by good
store hygiene: cleaning the store between harvests, removing and
burning infested residues, fumigating the store to eliminate residual
infestations and the selection of only uninfested material for storage.
Harvesting the maize as soon as possible after it has reached maturity
will reduce the chances of attack by maize weevil and other storage
pests. The use of resistant cultivars may also reduce the severity of an
infestation.
The removal of adult insects from the grain by sieving can reduce
populations but this is very labor-intensive. The addition of inert dusts
such as ash and clay to the grain can reduce insect numbers by
causing the insects to die from desiccation.
. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis can be used43.
Black pepper, bay leaves and cloves are reported to deter some weevil
spp.
If needed, can use
synthetic insecticide
powders or dusts
containing Pirimiphos-
methyl
Alluminum Phosphide can
be used only by trained
professional fumigators.
Refer to
http://www.usaidgems.org
/fumigationpea.htm
Diatomaceous earth
43 http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/maize_pests/key/maize_pests/Media/Html/Sitophilus_zeamais_Motschulsky_1855_-_Maize_Weevil.htm
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 72
RICE
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Weeds and Grasses
Wild rice, Oryza
barthii and O.
longistaminata, are
among the most
important weeds in
West Africa and Sahel
Common weeds
include grasses,
grass-like and
broadleaf weeds
Decrease yields by direct
competition for sunlight,
nutrients, and water
Increase production costs e.g.,
higher labour or input costs
Reduce grain quality and price,
for example, weed seeds in
grain can cause the buyer
price to be reduced.
Plowing destroys weeds and remaining stubble from the
previous crop. Weeds should be allowed to grow before the next
cultivation. In addition, a level field helps retain a constant water
level that controls weeds.
When used as mulches, crop residues can help conserve soil
moisture, improve soil fertility, and control weeds, especially in
direct seeded systems.
Weed control is critical after planting until the canopy closes.
Control methods vary depending on the rice ecosystem and
planting method: for transplanted, wet seeded and dry seeded
rice
Direct control of weeds can be done through (1) manual weeding
by hand and (2) mechanical weeding using implements such as
push weeder and inter-row cultivation weeders.44
Chemical weed control options
Type to use will depend
on the type of rice and
type of grasses
African gall midge
(Orseolia oryzivora)
Gall midges can cause serious
damage from the seedling
stage to panicle initiation.
Attacked tillers do not
Destroy alternative host plants such as rice ratoon crop,
volunteers and wild red rice or longstamen rice (Oryza
longistaminata).
Destroy stubble after harvest
In general, insecticide
treatment for rice gall
midge is ineffective.
44 http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/weed-management
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 73
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
produce panicles. Galled
plants may tiller profusely to
compensate for loss of
growing points. A serious
attack results in stunted plant
growth and poor yields. Gall
midges do not attack rice
plants that have matured
beyond tillering stage. These
midges spent some
generations on wild grasses
and then move to attack
young rice plants. They are
pests during the rainy season,
and are most serious on rain-
fed lowland and irrigated rice.
Plant resistant and early maturing varieties.
Avoid close spacing since it provides a suitable micro-
environment for the survival of this pest.
Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps (Aprostocetus procerae
and Platygaster diplosisae) are very important in the natural
control of the African rice gall midge. These wasps provided an
important check to pest populations, especially late in the
season. However, the wasp populations usually build up too late
to prevent heavy gall midge infestation.
Habitat manipulation such as dry-season cultivation to
encourage Paspalum grass (Paspalum scrobiculatum) abundance
early in the wet season is suggested as a way of improving the
natural biological control of the rice gall midge.
Rice-sucking bugs,
stink bugs (Aspavia
spp, Nezera viridula),
and Alydid bugs
(Mirperus spp.and
Riptortus spp.)
Both nymphs and adult bugs
feed sucking rice grains in the
milky stage. When grains have
ripened the bugs feed on
panicle stalks and pedicels.
Riptortus bugs also feed on
hard dough rice grains. Bug
If necessary, spray plant extracts. A number of plants ( garlic, ,
African marigold, blackjack, goat weed, wormseed, among
others) are reported as effective against various species of bugs
Can use Imidacloprid
products
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 74
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
feeding causes pecky rice that
is partially or wholly stained
due to infections with bacteria
and fungi. The glumes change
color first to light brown, then
darker and may turn grey in
severe cases. Damage grains
are shriveled and unfilled.
Severity of the damage
depends on the stage of grain
development and on the
number of punctures in the
grain.
Stemborers
Striped borer (Chilo
partellus, Chilo
zacconius, Chilo
orichalcociliellus)
White rice borer
(Maliarpha
separatella)
The caterpillars bore into the
stem of rice plants. Caterpillars
of the yellow borer bore into
the stem below the growing
point, destroying tillers. The
white borer and the pink
stemborer attack rice at full
tillering stage preventing
grains from filling up and
ripening. This damage results
Practice field sanitation. Burn or feed debris to livestock after
harvest.
Plough and flood after harvest. These practices destroy
diapausing stemborer caterpillars.
Use natural extracts of neem and chili peppers.
Practice early and synchronized planting. Synchronized planting
over a large area allows the most susceptible stage of rice to
escape from stemborer damage.
Practice proper water management.
Chemical control of stem
borers is generally not
recommended as stem
borers are quite difficult
to control with
insecticides
Can use available
Permethrin products
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 75
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Yellow borer
(Scirpophaga sp.)
Pink stemborer
(Sesamia calamistis).
in empty panicles known as
"whiteheads". The striped
borer feed on rice plants at all
stages. Young caterpillars
cause "dead hearts".
Conserve natural enemies. Wasps that parasitize eggs and
caterpillars, and predators such as ants, dragonflies, assassin
bugs, carabid beetles and spiders are important natural enemies
of stemborers.
Plant resistant varieties
Stalk-eyed shoot
flies (Diopsis spp.)
The whitish maggots that
hatch from the eggs penetrate
into the growing zone (heart)
of the plant. As a result of
maggot feeding the central
whorl does not open, but
dries-up and dies, producing
what is commonly known as
"dead heart".
Practise early and synchronised planting.
Proper plant spacing. There are indications that damage increase
with an increases in plant density (
Apply calcium silicate to strengthen stem tissues.
Avoid panicle harvesting (leaving tall stems) and destroy stubbles
after harvest.
Water management: keep basis of stems always under water.
Conserve natural enemies. Spiders are the main natural enemies
of these flies.
The cultivars "WAB 1159-2-12-11-6-9-1-2" has been reported in
Uganda to trap Diopsis thoracica larvae with their highly hairy
leaves (WARDA).
Cypermethrin,
Deltamethrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Insecticide use may not be
economical; yield loss
only occurs when damage
reaches more than
50%, which rarely occurs
Termites
(Microtermes spp.,
Ancistrotermes spp.,
Trinervitermes spp.,
Termites may cause serious
damage during dry periods.
They may also occur in
lowland areas in light texture
Plant resistant varieties whenever available. "
Use neem with detergent.
Imidacloprid is one of
non-repellents slow-
acting materials that allow
foragers to carry the
product back to the nest
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 76
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Macrotermes spp., and
Odontotermes spp.).
soils. They generally attack
plants in their later growth
stage by hollowing out their
root system and filling it with
soil resulting in the lodging of
the rice plants. The attacked
plants are then predisposed to
further damage by ground-
dwelling pests such as
rodents, ants, and secondary
infection by fungi and
bacteria. Damaged plants can
easily be pulled up by hand
because the roots are severed.
The application of red palm oil mixed with pawpaw is an
indigenous control practice.
and effectively control the
entire colony
Fipronil
The case worm
(Nymphula
depunctalis -
Paraponyx stagnalis)
The case worm is a common
pest on wetland rice. The
caterpillar attacks the food
plant only in the vegetative
stage, during the first 4 weeks
after transplanting. The
caterpillars climb onto a leaf
and begin feeding by
scrapping the leaf surface
Practice field sanitation (burning debris or feeding of debris to
livestock after harvest).
Practice early and synchronized planting.
Proper plant density.
Practice proper water management. Ensure good drainage for 3
days, since larvae cannot survive without water.
Hand pick and destroy rolled leaves in the nursery
Insecticides are not
commonly used
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 77
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
causing linear grazing of
leaves giving the leaf tissue a
ladder-like appearance. Later
caterpillars cut a piece of rice
leaf, roll it up into a case and
seal the edges with silk
material leaving the interior
end open. The cut near the tip
of a leaf is characteristic.
Hispid beetles
(Trichispa spp.,
Dicladispa
viridicyanea,
Dactylispa bayoni)
The beetles cause severe
defoliation and act as vectors
of the Rice Yellow Mottle
Virus. Hispid beetles attack the
crop in the early growth
stages. Larval feeding occurs
during the tillering stage. The
first attack in a field is highly
localized, but the infested area
spreads rapidly.
Feeding by adults on the
leaves causes characteristic
narrow white streaks or
Use close proper spacing.
Keep bunds and surroundings free of grass weeds.
Destroy stubbles and avoid ratooning.
Ensure balanced nutrition. Avoid excessive nitrogen application.
Lambda-Cyhalothrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 78
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
feeding scars that run along
the long axis of the leaf.
Mining by grubs within the
leaf shows as irregular pale
brown blister-like patches.
Feeding results in loss of
chlorophyll and the plants
wither and die. The most
serious damage occurs in
nurseries, which may be
completely destroyed. Severe
infestations sporadically occur
on transplanted rice and can
kill the plant. When the plants
survive, they usually
recuperate and produce some
grain. However, damaged
plants often mature late. They
are generally most abundant
during the rainy season.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 79
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Rice Yellow Mottle
Virus (RYMV)
Stunting of rice plants
Reduced tillers
Yellowing and mottling of
leaves
Infected plants easily attacked
by other diseases
Use resistant/tolerant varieties NERICA 4 and 6, NARIC 1 and 2
Rouging infected plants only when infestation is low
Do not ratoon crop to avoid disease carryover
Vector control
Can use synthetic
insecticides containing
pyrethroids like
Deltamethrin to control
the flea beetle vector.
A preventive seed
treatment with
Thiamethoxam
Rice blast –Leaf and
Neck blast
Pyricularia oryzae
Magnaporthe grisea
Most destructive
Removes photosynthetic
tissue from leaves, stems and
gains
Reduces yield by up to 50% or
more
Resistant varieties like Gold
Avoid excess nitrogen fertilizer
Fungicides may not be economic to use
Use application of
synthetic fungicides
containing
Mefenoxam, Mancozeb,
Difenoconozole where
cost effective.
Sheath Blight
Rhizoctonia solani (Teleomorph:
Reduced photosynthetic areas
Leaves die
Yield reducti on by 20-25%
No variety has a high level of resistance
Do not apply excessive nitrogen
Fungicides usually not economical and not recommended
Use available fungicides
such as Thiophanate-
methyl,
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 80
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Thanatephorus
cucumeris)
For this disease, recommendations should include 1) provide
wider plant spacing 2) drain fields relatively early
Brown spot
Helminthosporium
oryzae
Sexual stage:
Cochliobolus
miyabeanus
Reduced photosynthetic area
Reduced grain weight and
quality
Provide adequate fertilizer
Resistant varieties
Hot water treatment of seed
Seed treatment with
Thiram, spray Mancozeb
Leaf scald
Monographella
albescens
Reduced photosynthetic area
Lowers filled grain ratio and
grain quality
Avoid excess nitrogen fertilizer Use Mancozeb products
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/e
xpert_system/paddy/cpdis
brownspot.html
Sheath rot
Sarocladium oryzae
Loss of photosynthetic area on
the uppermost leaf sheaths
enclosing panicle
Panicle remains in sheath
No control known None available
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 81
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Associated with insect
injured plants and
viral infection
Lowers filled grain ratio and
grain quality
Bacterial panicle
blight
(Burkholderia glumae)
Seed transmitted
disease
Spikelet lose green color and
become white then brown
Lowers grain quality and
weight
No resistant variety
Use of fungicides not economical
Use certified disease free seed
No chemical control
agents are labeled to
control bacterial panicle
blight.
False smut
Claviceps virens also
Infects a few single grains in a
panicle
Leave out infected panicles during harvest
Dress seed with fungicide when appropriate
Fungicides are generally
not used for most smuts.
Birds
Qealea spp
Ploceus spp
Starlings
Swarm into crop at
Milky and grain filling stage
and remove grains
Family labor at the time of grain filling stay in field to scare off
birds
Use effigies and scarecrows in the field
Trap cropping with maize or
Sorghum
Destroy nesting sites within the vicinity
Reflecting tape in the field
Artisanal bird repellant
Resistant variety with awns (NERICA 10)
Chemicals not
recommended
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 82
TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED
PESTICIDES, WHEN
NEEDED
Field rats (Miridae
spp.)
Cut tillers and feed on grains Clear bushes around the fields
Destroy burrows
Preserve predators of rats e.g. mongooses, owls etc.
If mole rats, plant Tephrosia vogelii around the field (this plant is
toxic to fish)
Use traps set carefully in the field
Chemicals not
recommended
LEGUMES/PULSES – GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS
TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Aphids
(Aphis craccivora)
(Aphis fabae (bean
aphids))
(Aphis glycines)
The damage done by aphids is
due to a number of causes,
including loss of sap, clogging
of leaf surfaces with
honeydew, and growth of
molds and fungi on the
honeydew.
Aphids can transmit viruses
Many larger insects feed on aphids. Protect natural
enemies such as lady beetles, lacewings, bigeyed bugs,
damsel bugs, and syrphid flies where available, prevent
symbiotic ants
Use insect resistant varieties
Check plants regularly for aphids—at least twice a week
when plants are growing rapidly
Prune out infested crop and dispose of safely.
Wash off aphids with a strong stream of water with
insecticidal soap and garlic oil if plants are strong
Don’t over-fertilize, use slow release fertilizers
Use sprays: Acetamiprid,
Imidacloprid, Dimethoate
Cypermethrin
Insecticidal Soap,
Diatomaceous Earth, Neem
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 83
TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Grow plant under natural cover until they are strong
enough
Bruchid weevils
Callosobruchus
maculatus (Fabricius)
Damage in fields as well as dry
seed in storage
Producing tunneling injuries
Solarization (sun drying and heating) can be used to
control infestations without affecting seed germination
Treating seed at intake is effective in minimizing bruchid
damage in storage
Thorough pre-harvest cleaning of storage, transport and
harvesting equipment is critical for the management of
bruchids.
Thiamethoxam
Lambda-Cyhalothrin
Professional fumigators only
can fumigate with Aluminum
Phosphide
Refer to
http://www.usaidgems.org/f
umigationpea.htm
Maruca pod borer
Maruca vitrata
Pod borers
Maruca pod borer is a post
flowering pest that feeds on
every part of the cowpea plant
Cowpea cultivars resistant to stem damage have been
identified.
Removing leguminous weeds,
Trap cropping with Crotalaria spp., a genus of herbaceous
plants and woody shrubs in the Family Fabaceae
commonly known as rattlepods
Intercropping with sorghum, maize, pearl millet or finger
millet, mung beans reduced pod damage in main crop.
Pheromone traps were found effective in some locations
but not others
Neem Seed kernel extract
(NSKE), Neem Oil
Thrips
Megalurothrips
sjostedti
Premature dropping of flowers Field inspection during active growth
Use resistant varieties
Planting site sanitation
Field inspection during active growth
Cypermethrin
Dimethoate
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 84
TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Removal of infested residues after harvest
Selection of pest free seeds after threshing for storage, dry
seed inspection
Mosaic virus Transmitted by various beetles
with biting mouthparts
Use of resistant cultivars offers the best means of disease
control. Cowpea lines with resistance to multiple viruses
including CPMV have been developed at the International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA).
Because of the small plots used
for cowpea growing and the
extreme prevalence of the beetle
vector, the use of insecticides for
vector control is not practicable.
Fusarium dry rot
Fusarium solani f.
phaseoli
Dry root rot caused by the
fungus directly affects only the
roots of the plants; however,
the parts above ground are
stunted and may turn yellow,
wilt, and die before the plants
mature.
Pathogen is not seed-borne, but is a soil organism,
therefore correct disposal of the bean straw and long
rotations are recommended (at least 3 years)
Avoid injury to the root system including with herbicides
Remove crop debris immediately after harvest
Beans should be planted only on well-drained, well-
fertilized soil
Plant beans on raised beds
Avoiding stress caused by excess water, prolonged
drought, soil compaction
Avoid dense plant population
No cost-effective chemicals for
dry rot Fusarium control
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 85
TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Anthracnose
A number of related
fungi are responsible
for anthracnose. Most
anthracnose causing
fungi are fairly host
specific;
Seedlings grown from infected
seeds often have dark brown
to black sunken lesions on the
cotyledons and stems
Using anthracnose-free and certified seed
Since the fungus is disseminated in the presence of water,
fields should not be entered for cultivation or pesticide
applications when the plants are wet. Avoiding
unnecessary movement in infested fields will minimize the
spread of the disease.
Two-year crop rotation
Plow debris deep into the soil
Foliar fungicides are not
considered economical
Research also suggests
management of Anthracnose in
common bean by foliar sprays of
Potassium Silicate (KSi), and/or
Sodium Molybdate (NaMo), and
fungicide such as Mancozeb can
be effective.45
Cutworm
Larval noctuid moth
Loxagrotis albicosta
and others
Cutworms are the larvae
(caterpillars) of several species
of night-flying moths. The
larvae are called cutworms
because they cut down young
plants as they feed on stems at
or below the soil surface.
Regular inspections, control is more effective when the
larvae are small
Remove weeds and plant residue to help reduce egg-
laying sites and seedling weeds that nourish small
cutworms
Till before planting which helps expose and kill
overwintering larvae. Tilling also removes plant residue,
which helps to discourage egg laying.
Avoid using fresh manure, use compost instead
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Nematodes Nematode injury can involve
both aboveground and below
ground plant parts.
Plant resistant varieties
Crop rotation with plants that are poor host for
nematodes, sorghum is often recommended as a cover
crop to decrease population levels of root-knot
nematodes
Neem cake
45 (APS Journal; January 2014, Volume 98, Number 1, Pages 84-89)
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TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Foliar symptoms of nematode
infestation of roots generally
involve stunting, premature
wilting, and slow recovery to
improved soil moisture
conditions, leaf chlorosis
(yellowing) and other
symptoms characteristic of
nutrient deficiency.
Root damage can cause
infected plants to form a tight
mat of short roots swollen
appearance
Nematode management is primarily a pre-planting activity
Planting equipment and tools should be properly cleaned,
and in extreme cases could only be used for the same field
Only soil and planting material free of nematodes should
be used, because once nematodes are introduced into a
field they cannot be eradicated
After harvest infected plants should be destroyed to
prevent the build-up of nematodes on these crop residues
and therefore in the soil
Leaf - feeding
beetles and
caterpillars
Beetles most likely to be
Systates snout beetle which
cut semicircular holes in leaf
edges. Emerge about 6 weeks
after first soaking rains.
Unlikely to cause severe
damage.
Caterpillars likely to be semi-
loopers (Trichoplusia and
Chrysodeixis spp.) feeding on
leaves and bollworm,
Helicoverpa
armigera, feeding on buds/
flowers
Early detection and removal
Conservation of natural enemies, general predators
including birds, assassin bugs, lacewings, predaceous
ground beetles, and spiders
Beetles: Dimethoate
Caterpillar control: Bifenthrin
Permethrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 87
TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Termites
Macrotermes spp.
Mound and chimney
builders
Odontotermes spp.
Attack and invade growing
groundnut plants through the
roots and stem near ground
level, hollowing them out and
causing the plants to wilt and
die with a consequent
reduction in crop stand
allowing contamination of the
seed with soil fungi, such as
Aspergillus flavus, which
produce lethal "aflatoxins".
Macrotermes spp. – mound and chimney builders
Odontotermes spp. - subterranean termites which do not build
any above ground structure
Ancistrotermes latinotus and Microtermes spp.— these are the
most important termite pests of crops.
Remove residues of previous cereal crops (sorghum,
millet and maize). Plant residues left in the field serve
as food for termites, which may infest the new crop.
Termite infestation of 100% has been observed in
groundnut crops with high plant residues.
Planting should be carried out early enough to avoid
drought periods. Moisture deficiency may stress a
crop and lead to attack by termites due to low vigor.
Harvest promptly. Research has shown that termite
damage increases with delay in harvest. Furthermore,
most groundnut-producing areas in sub-Saharan
Africa experience drought and high temperatures
during the later part of the growing season, conditions
that favor termite infestation as well as fungus (A.
flavus) infection of pods leading to aflatoxin formation
in seeds.
The complete destruction of mounds and removal of
queen termites are effective control measures against
mound-building species (Macrotermes spp.). Partial
destruction of mounds is unlikely to solve the
Mound –drill hole into side and
pour in diluted Fipronil, then seal
with mud.
Chimney –pour diluted Fipronil
down chimney and seal with mud.
Incorporate Fipronil into the soil
before planting.
Imidacloprid as used for maize
may be effective
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 88
TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
problem, since replacement reproduction may
develop from the remaining termites.
It has been reported that close spacing in groundnut helps to
deter termite infestation, although the reason for this was not
given. However, high density sowing, followed by thinning of
surviving plants where necessary to reduce competition,
offsets anticipated losses due to termites.46
46
http://www.infonet-biovision.org/PlantHealth/Crops/Groundnut
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 89
TUBERS
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Cassava Green Mite
Mononychellus
tanajoa
Severely reduce yields by
reducing the leaves and
lowering the photosynthetic
activity of the plant
Using clean planting material, planting early in the rain season
and intercropping with pigeon pea, can reduce populations of
the pest.
Not recommended as may not
be effective or economic
Weevils
Cylas spp
Female weevils excavate
cavities and create egg-laying
punctures. The eggs are laid
below the surface of the roots
and are covered with dark
color.
Hatched larvae are tunneling
inside tubers. Mining of sweet
potato tubers by larvae is the
principal cause of sweet potato
damage. The tuber becomes
spongy in appearance, riddled
with cavities, and dark in color
Intercropping with maize, yam, cowpea, other crops
Crop rotation
Elimination of crop residues
Deter infestation by preventing soil cracking, irrigating
frequently or hilling a small area around the sweet potato
Mulching materials such as rice straw and plastic film reduce
the infestation of sweet potato weevils by spreading them
over the planting site
Reridging at tuber formation stage
Practice proper field sanitation
Using entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi
Pheromone traps and use of natural enemies where available
Neem extract47
Imidacloprid
47 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264560419_Laboratory_and_field_efficacy_of_entomopathogenic_fungi_for_the_management_of_the_sweetpotato_weevil_Cylas_formicarius_Coleoptera_Brentidae
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 90
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Write grub (larvae of
Scarab beetles)
White grub larvae gouge out
broad, shallow areas on the
root
Avoid planting in fields that follow pasture None Approved
Stemborers
Omphisa
anastomosalis
Larvae boring into the main
stem and sometimes
penetrates storage roots
Use treated planting materials
Crop rotation
Hilling-up to cover the holes that provide the adults with an
exit from the stem
Earwigs and ants may attack the larvae developing within
sweet potato vines. Undetermined hymenopteran species
(family Encyrtidae) have been observed attacking this pest
Use resistant varieties where available
Use of insecticides, is difficult
and costly because the insect
remains largely concealed
throughout its life
Thiamethoxam
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Cassava brown
streak disease
(CBSD)
Cassava brown streak
viruses
Cassava mosaic
disease (CMD)
Viruses
Specific virus diseases can
rarely be diagnosed on the
basis of visible symptoms
alone.
Symptoms may include mild to
moderate growth reduction,
mild chlorosis or mottling, pale
spots or veins and leaf
deformities.The leaf symptoms
are mild but a dry brownish rot
makes tubers unfit for eating
Effective management depends on developing
resistant varieties and making clean planting material available
Chemical vector control (white
flies Bemisia tabaci)
Insecticidal soaps and oils, neem
Once the virus is present in the
plant there is no way to control
the disease
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 91
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
and sale. CBSD occurs
alongside cassava mosaic
disease (CMD), another major
threat to production caused by
a different type of virus. Both
diseases are spread by
whiteflies and in infected
planting material.
Cassava bacterial
blight
Xanthomonas
axonopodis pv.
manihotis
The disease is introduced in
symptomless cuttings which
fail to grow. The bacteria are
then spread by rain splash and
physical contact.
Varieties with good tolerance to the disease are available
Once the disease is present, careful cleaning of tools will limit
spread to healthy plants while animal and human movement
within the crop should be restricted to prevent physical
transfer of bacteria.
The disease spreads less rapidly during dry periods.
Cutting out most of the above ground stems of infected plants
may limit losses in varieties with some resistance to the
disease, but success also depends on how long the plant has
been infected and the spread of the bacteria within the plant.
If only a few plants in a field show symptoms, speedy removal
and safe disposal of infected plants may reduce further spread.
There is no chemical treatment
for controlling the disease.
Rats and mole rats
of sweet potato
Both attack sweet potato, but
rats are the more serious pests. Control relies on community action and early intervention,
mostly include setting traps (snap, snare or live), although care
No chemical methods
recommended by this PERSUAP
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 92
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Mastomys, Arvicanthis
& Tachyoryctes
species
Rats feed on sweet potato
storage roots and can cause
serious damage by digging
through the mounds or ridges
to eat them,
or by attacking them when
they are exposed above
ground.
must be taken to protect livestock and children from being
hurt by them.
Placing owl nesting boxes around the village
Weeds should be removed from within and around sweet
potato fields
Some of the methods used in Africa:
• Planting the legume Tephrosia vogelii (commonly known as
fish bean) randomly throughout the field and along the
borders. This shrub contains rotenone, a fish poison and
insecticide, so be careful when disposing of it.
• Using a mixture of cow dung and pepper placed in the
burrows and burnt to smoke out the rodents.
• Pouring one-week old fermented cattle urine into the
burrows to chase away mole rats.
• Digging deep ditches around sweet potato plantings to stop
rodents from tunnelling straight into the field.
Use home remedy based on use of the legume shade tree,
Gliricidia sepium (it means ‘rat killer’).
Pound young leaves or bark, and mix with cooked rice, maize
or other bait, or boil the Giricidia with rice or other cereal
grains. Bacteria convert chemicals in the leaves to substances
similar to brodifacoum (an anti-coagulant used as a rat
poison). These are less toxic than brodifacoum, so larger
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 93
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
amounts must be eaten. Change the bait daily and protect
children and pets by placing it in bamboo sections or tins.
Potato Viruses
Potato leaf roll virus,
Potyviruses (potato
viruses A, V, and Y):
Potexviruses (Potato
virus X), and the
Carlaviruses (potato
viruses M and S).
The virus diseases cause
reductions in yield quality and
quantity
Buy seed potatoes that have been certified virus-free. Saving
potatoes from a field which was infected by virus will increase
the number of plants serving as sources of virus in the
following season.
Remove "volunteer" potatoes (potato plants coming up from
tubers left over from the previous season), as these may be
virus reservoirs.
Rogue (remove) symptomatic plants — these serve as
excellent sources for virus spread within the field. Do not leave
rogued plants in the field —remove and trash or burn them.
Proper composting may be effective to remove potatoes with
Potyviruses, Carlaviruses, or Potexviruses, but not those with
protozoan or nematode vectors.
Rogue weeds which may serve as reservoirs of viruses.
Plant early to avoid aphid-transmitted viruses,
Plant varieties which have reported tolerance or resistance to
viruses.
Sanitize all tools, planters, and cultivators frequently,
Avoid the spread of soil which could harbor the vectors of
some potato viruses between fields.
Transmitted by aphids therefore
pesticides are effective only for
vector control
Imidacloprid
Dimethoate
Potato aphid
Macrosiphum
euphorbiae
Distort leaves and stems, stunt
plants, and cause necrotic
spots on leaves. Aphids can
secrete a large amount of
Naturally occurring parasites and predators such as such as
lady beetles, lacewing larvae, and syrphid larvae
Avoid sprays that will disrupt these natural enemies
Introduce tolerant varieties
Dimethoate
Acetamiprid
Imidocloprid
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 94
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
honeydew that promotes
development of sooty mold on
foliage and fruit. Plants are
particularly susceptible to yield
losses from high infestations
during the period from 6 to 8
weeks before harvest. Yield
losses from equally high aphid
populations decline
substantially as harvest
approaches, unless aphid
densities are reducing leaf area
enough to permit sunburn.
Sprays of herbal oils (thyme oil, rosemary, peppermint) or
insecticidal soap
Monotoring and treating if 50 to 60% or more of the leaves
are infested.
Thiamethoxam
Bacterial wilt
(Ralstonia solanacearum/)
Pseudomonas
solanacearum)
Wilting, yellowing and some
stunting of the plants, which
finally die. In tubers, brownish-
grey areas are seen on the
outside, especially near the
point of attachment of the
stolon. Cut tubers may show
pockets of white to brown pus
or browning of the vascular
tissue which, if left standing,
may exude dirty white globules
of bacteria. As the disease
Use resistant strains where available
Organic amendments to soil have direct impacts on plant
health and crop productivity. They are advantageous because
they improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties
of soil, which can have positive effects on plant growth
Bacterial wilt is difficult to control (or eradicate) because of the
soil-borne nature of its causal organism.
Adopt rotations with pastures, cereals and non-solanaceous
crops for periods exceeding five years.
Use of certified seed from reliable sources.
Planting in areas where bacterial wilt has not occurred
previously. Control self-sown potatoes. Control weed hosts
Inorganic bacteriocides such as
calcium cyanamide (CC)
(fertilizer), ammonia water (AW),
and a mixture of ammonium
bicarbonate with lime (A+L)48
48 https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19037
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 95
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
progresses bubbly globules of
bacteria may exude through
the eyes; soil will often adhere
to the exuded bacteria, hence
the name 'sore eyes' or 'jammy
eyes'.
Avoid deep ploughing – the organisms survive in the deep,
cool layers of soil.
Irrigation water should never be allowed to run freely over or
below the soil surface.
Regular crop inspection for disease symptoms and
remove and destroy diseased plants, tubers and
immediate neighbours.
Use stock to clean up chats, discarded tubers and crop
debris, but do not allow the stock back onto clean
paddocks.
Do not return potato waste, e.g. oversized, misshapen
and diseased tubers to paddocks.
Minimize the spread through proper sanitation practices.
Late blight
(Phytophthora infestans)
Oomycete that
causes potato disease
Irregularly shaped water-
soaked lesions can be
observed on young leaves at
the top part of the plant.
Under humid conditions,
lesions become brown and
pathogen sporulation can be
seen.
Removing sources of the pathogen by eliminating cull
potatoes and volunteers and planting only healthy
seed tubers;
Using resistant cultivars when possible and as they
become available; scouting locations where late blight
might appear first;
Using a forecasting scheme to gain early warning of
weather that is favorable to disease and to adjust
frequency of fungicide application or the intensity of
scouting;
Using appropriate protectant or systemic fungicides.
After harvest, store potato tubers at cool temperatures
under conditions sufficiently dry that there is no free
moisture on tuber surfaces.
Copper based fungicides
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 96
TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Root-knot
nematodes
(Meloidogyne spp.)
Aboveground symptoms
include stunted, yellowed,
chlorotic, and/or dead plants.
Infected plants are likely to wilt
earlier under temperature or
moisture stress. Infestations
may occur without causing any
aboveground symptoms.
Feeding by root knot
nematode causes characteristic
swellings, called galls, on roots.
Using certified planting material;
Cleaning soil from equipment before moving between
fields
Keeping irrigation water in a holding pond so that any
nematodes present can settle out and pumping water
from near the surface of the pond
Preventing/ reducing animal movement from infested
to un-infested fields
Composting manure to kill any nematodes that might
be present before applying it to fields.
Crop rotation/some cover crops (e.g. mustard)
incorporated as green manure can be useful in
reducing nematode populations.
Fields that are left fallow but kept weed-free usually
have an 80 to 90% per year reduction in root knot
populations.
Destroy potato plants that emerge from tubers left
after harvest to restrict nematode reproduction.
Avoid storage of infected tubers
Neem cake
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 97
VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES)
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Thrips
Thrips tabaci,
Frankliniella
occidentalis)
Feed on young leaves in the
inner neck of plants and cause
reduced bulb size
Onion thrips can vector plant
viruses
Avoid planting onions adjacent to grain and fields with weeds
that can host thirps.
Plant younger fields upwind, relative to prevailing winds, from
older fields. This applies to fields planted with transplants as
well. Adult thrips in more mature fields will tend to fly
downwind to infest less mature fields.
Fertilize onions with adequate, but not excessive amounts of
nitrogen.
Straw or other mulch placed on the plant bed has been shown
to reduce thrips populations and improve onion growth.
Use trap crops that attract thirps, such as carrots that are not
as damaged by them or flowers that attract thirps.
Overhead sprinkler irrigation has been shown to reduce thrips
populations on onion plants.
Remove or destroy volunteer onion plants and debris. Onion
plant matter left on the soil can survive and spread the
following year.
Use onion varieties can tolerate effects of thrips feeding with
only mild yield loss
Pyrethrum extracts +
diatomaceous earth
Neem
Insecticidal soaps
Cypermethrin
Permethrin
Kaolin clay where available
Imidacloprid
Armyworm,
Spodoptera exigua
Profuse silk webbing may give
infested plants a shiny
appearance
Good soil preparation
Insecticidal soaps and oils, neem
Cypermethrin or other pyrethroid
Indoxacarb
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 98
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Downy mildew
(Peronospora
destructor)
Appearance of pale green
spotsas on the upper leaf
surface. These areas soon
become yellow and angular to
irregular in shape, bounded by
the leaf veins. As the disease
progresses, the lesions may
remain yellow or become
brown and necrotic.
Plastic mulch covering to avoid plant contact with soil and
minimize weeds that enhance microclimate conditions
favorable to disease dispersion.
Heat treatment of bulbs at 35 to 40 °C for 4 to 8h reduces the
disease significantly.
Eliminate crop residues, plant during dry season, avoid
irrigation during heat of the day.
Use crop rotation.
Use certified seed and good drainage.
Bulb dipping with a synthetic
fungicide containing Metalaxyl.
Use synthetic pesticide as soil
drench and spray applications
containing Thiophanate-methyl,
Metalaxyl + Mancozeb followed
by copper oxychloride.
Fusarium wilt in
tomatoes
Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. lycopersici
Plants infected with Fusarium
become yellow and wilt.
Sometimes only one branch or
one side of the plant is
affected, creating a yellow flag
effect. Infected plants usually
die. A dark brown vascular
discoloration extends far up
the stem. Symptoms often first
appear during fruit sizing.
Use resistant varieties
Long distance spread is by seed, transplants, and soil on farm
machinery. Use healthy seed and wash off equipment that may
have come in contact with infected soils.
Rotation out of tomatoes for several years reduces inoculum
level, although Fusarium is long-lived
Soil fumigation requires professional application
Sanitation (removal of diseased plants)
none
Early blight in
tomatoes
Alternaria solani
Plants infected with early
blight develop small black or
brown spots on leaves, stems,
and fruit.
Destroy infected plants
Proper crop rotation is important to ensure infected plant
debris decomposes
Mancozeb
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 99
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV) in
tomatoes
The symptoms in tomato vary
greatly in intensity depending
upon the variety, virus strain,
time of infection, light
intensity, and temperature
The most characteristic
symptom of the disease on
leaves is a light- and dark-
green mosaic pattern
Select resistant varieties
Avoid contact between halthy and infected leaves, as well as the
use of contaminated tools and hands.
Mostly spread by insects,
especially aphids and leafhoppers.
Use pesticides for vector control
Tomato fruit borers
Larvae of several
types of moth
The larvae of the moth
damage fruit as they feed on
flesh and seed
Hand picking of larvae
Trenching the field
Damaged fruits and crop residue should be burn to avoid
carryover of pest
Don’t over-irrigate, high moisture in field increases infestation
Use light traps
Use African Marigold (Tagitus Erecta) as a trap crop
Use species appropriatepheromone traps
Deep ploughing after picking
Establish bird perches in the field
Cypermethrin
Neem extract
Root knot
nematodes
Meloidogyne spp.
Cause galls on roots up to 1
inch in diameter. These galls
interfere with the flow of water
and nutrients to the plant;
Because root knot nematodes feed and multiply on many
weed species, weed control is an important aspect of their
management.
Neem cake
Soil fumigants not approved in
this PERSUAP
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 100
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
infected plants appear less
vigorous than healthy plants,
may be yellowed, are prone to
wilt in hot weather, and
respond poorly to fertilizer.
Damage areas usually appear
as irregular patches and are
frequently associated with
lighter-textured soils.
Use varieties resistant to nematodes, rotate with resistant
varieties
Soil solarization
Soil fumigation can be done only by certified professionals
White flies
Bemisia tabaci
Trialeurodes
vaporariorum
Trialeurodes
abutilonia
Whiteflies are found mostly on
the undersides of leaves.
Whitefly cause damage to
leaves by feeding, which
causes leaves to yellow and
curl, and by the production of
honeydew, which causes leaves
to appear shiny or blackened
(from sooty mold growing on
the honeydew).
Identify the damaging species as not all whiteflies species
cause damage in tomatoes.
Conserve natural enemies. Several wasps, including species in
the Encarsia and Eretmocerus genera, parasitize whiteflies.
Plant tomatoes at least one-half mile upwind from key whitefly
hosts
Destroy and remove all crop residues as soon as possible
Control weeds in non-crop areas including head rows
(headland areas) and fallow fields.
Routinely check field margins that are infected first for
whiteflies
Growing stage: Insecticidal soap
Neem
Rosemary oil + peppermint oil
At planting and transplanting
stage
Imidacloprid
Acetamiprid
Dimethoate
CABBAGE (OTHER CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES)
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 101
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Aphids
Brevicoryne brassicae
Aphids feed by sucking sap
from their host plants. They
produce a sugary waste
product called honeydew,
which is fed on by ants. In turn,
the ants provide the aphids
with protection from natural
enemies. Continued feeding by
aphids causes yellowing,
wilting and stunting of plants
Severely infested plants
become covered with a mass
of small sticky aphids (due to
honeydew secretions), which
can eventually lead to leaf
death and decay Cabbage
aphids feed on the underside
of the leaves and on the center
of the cabbage head
Fields should be scouted every week for signs of aphids
Plow immediately after harvest to prevent the spread of aphids
to other crops
rid the field and surrounding areas of any alternate host
Cruciferous plants or weeds
Destruction of plant debris at the end of the season
Planting a nectar plant to attract beneficial insects
Parasites and predators are important for regulating aphid
population
Insecticides should only be used
when aphid populations are high
(>50/plant) on very young
seedlings/transplants up to ~7
leaf stage
Insecticidal Soap
Neem Oil Extract
Pyrethrin
Acetamiprid
Permethrin
Bifenthrin
Whiteflies
Aleyrodes proletella
Small white winged and scale-
like insects on the underside of
leaves. Sooty moulds may
develop on the upper leaf
Inspect for adults and eggs
Plant oils
Deltamethrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Dimethoate
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 102
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
surface only when infestation
is heavy
Bagrada bug/Stink
bug
Bagrada hilaris (syn.
Bagrada
cruciferarum)
Damage plants by feeding on
young leaves. Both adults and
nymphs suck sap from leaves,
which may wilt and later dry.
Considerable damage is
caused to young plants, which
may die or have the growth
points severely damaged.
Significant damage may also
be caused to older plants
Regular monitoring of the crop is important to detect bagrada
bugs before they cause damage to the crop.
Crop hygiene, in particular removal of old crops and
destruction of weeds of the family Cruciferae prevents
population build-up.
Picking the bugs off plants by hand is only feasible if pest
populations are very low.
Pyramid traps and lures
Permethrin
Bifenthrin
Caterpillars
Larvae of several
species of adult
moths such as
Agrotis segetum
Agrotis ipsilon
Tuta absoluta
Cutworms chew through plant
stems at the base. They feed
on roots and foliage of young
plants. In most cases, entire
plants will be destroyed;
Cutworms sometimes crawl to
the tops of plants and do
damage there.
Before planting a new garden remove weeds and plant debris
that might feed and shelter developing larvae.
Turn the soil after fall clean up then give birds and other
predators a chance to pick off the expose larvae and pupae.
Remove grass as closely as possible to the edge of garden to
give cutworms less to feed on and less shelter near the plants.
A three-foot wide (or more) bare-soil strip between the grass
and garden plants makes it harder for larvae to reach plants. It
also gives allows to better spot them.
Wait as late as possible with planting to prevent feeding
cutworms.
Plant sunflowers along the edge of the garden to direct and
pick cutworms from sunflowers.
Acetamiprid
Permethrin
Bifenthrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 103
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Inspect plants in dusk and evening hours, when cutworms will
begin to feed
Handpicking
circle plants with diatomaceous earth
Use natural enemies where possible such as Beneficial
Nematodes (Steinernema feltiae) or Trichogramma wasps (T.
pretiosum, T. brassicae and T. minutum spp.)
Caterpillars/
Cabbage worms
Larva of Cabbage
Moth
Plutella xylostella,
Cabbage Webworm
Hellula undalis,
African armyworm
Spodoptera exempta
Cabbage looper
Trichoplusia ni
Cabbage Cluster
Caterpillar
Crocidolomia
pavonana
Chew the leaves usually
leaving holes between the
veins. Leave large amounts of
frass (fecal matter) where they
have been feeding
Start checking for caterpillars soon after planting both sides of
the leaf
Destroy crop residue immediately after harvest to eliminate
potential overwintering sites for imported cabbageworms.
Eliminate weeds from the Brassicaceae family such as wild
mustard, peppergrass, and shepherd's purse, as they are
alternate hosts for these pests.
Handpicking the caterpillars, especially in smaller gardens, can
be an effective means of control. Drop the caterpillars into a
pail of soapy water to kill them.
Introduce natural predators such as Cotesia glomerata where
available
Insecticides are more effective on
small/young caterpillars.
Neem
Permethrin
Bifentrin
Lambda cyhalothrin
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TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Grasshopers Adults and nymphs cause
damage by feeding on foliage.
Most species overwinter as
eggs, which are laid in packets
in the soil
Control of grasshoppers is most effective when they are 1/2 to
3/4 inch long. Use a bait product with a grasshopper
pathogen while the grasshoppers are young
Use a garlic spray
Plant cilantro around crops
Dust plants with ordinary flower which gums up and blocks
the grasshopper’s mouth, which prevents it from eating
Permethrin
Bifenthrin
Snails/slugs Slugs eat leaves using a raspy
tongue with tough spots that
rub against the leaves. This
rasp makes the hole in the
cabbage leaves.
Where available, parasitic nematodes Phasmarhabditis
hermaphrodita mixed with water and applied to the soil
Garlic spray
Corn meal traps
Plant repellant plants around cabbage such as Ginger, garlic,
mint, chives, red lettuce, red cabbage, sage, sunflower, fennel,
foxglove, mint, chicory and endive
Lures and Traps such as stale beer trap
Spraying vinegar mixed with water
Chickens and ducks are natural predators
Use Iron Phosphate where
available
AMARANTH PALMER’S PIGWEED
Anthracnose fungus
Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides
Necrotic lesions on leaves;
dieback of leaves and branches
Avoid damaging plants and creating wounds for pathogen to
enter; plant resistant varieties
Mancozeb
Copper containing fungicides
Damping-off fungus
Pythium spp.
Poor germination; seedling
collapse; brown-black lesions
girdling stem close to soil line;
Avoid planting seeds too deeply; do not plant seeds too
thickly to promote air circulation around seedlings; do not
over-water plants
Metalaxyl
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TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
seedling fail to emerge from
soil
Wet rot fungus
(Choanephora rot)
Choanephora
cucurbitarum
Water-soaked lesions on
stems; lesions have hairy
appearance due to presence of
fungal spores; may cause loss
of leaves
Fungus mainly attacks plants that have been damaged by
insects or by mechanical means; spread by air currents and via
infected seed; disease emergence favors warm, moist
conditions. Plant varieties resistant to disease; only use
certified seed; do not plant crop densely;
Copper fungicides
MUSACEAE BANANAS AND PLAINTAIN49
Banana Weevil
(Cosmopolites
sordidus) is also
known as the banana
borer or banana root
borer
Weak or dying suckers. Yellow
floppy leaves. Small bunches.
Tunnels caused by grubs in
corms.
A combination of clean planting material, destruction of crop
residues and neem can be used to reduce weevil populations;
After trimming, the base of the suckers must be dipped into the insecticidal treatment. Hot water treatment is also a valid
alternative; however, movement of banana weevils from
neighboring farms can reduce the efficacy of any management
options.
Neem powder can be used to
control banana weevils. Apply 60-
100 grams/mat of neem seed
powder or neem cake around the
base of the plant. Apply at
planting and again every four
months.
Neem
Dimethoate
Imidacloprid
Black sigatoka Red-brown streaks at edge of
leaf blade. Dead areas either
side of leaf midrib.
Management is by using tolerant or resistant varieties. Some
plantains are little affected, and resistant dessert and/or
cooking varieties with Cavendish characteristics have been
bred. Fungicides – protectant and systemic – exist for
Mancozeb (in oil or oil/water
emulsion) when the disease is
relatively low.
49 http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/519-ASHC-manual-English.pdf
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TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
caused by the fungus
Mycosphaerella
fijiensis
commercial plantations, but expense, availability and strategies
to prevent fungal resistance, complicate their use by
smallholders.
Remove infected leaves, or parts of leaves.
If less than 30% infection, remove only part of the leaf; if more
than 40% remove the entire leaf. Take the leaves out of the
plantation and burn them.
Systemic fungicides e.g.
Difenoconazole
It is important to rotate the
fungicides in the different groups
to prevent the build-up of
resistant strains of the fungus.
No more than two applications of
the same systemic fungicide
should be made before changing
to another group. In drier times,
Mancozeb can be used alone.
Fusarium wilt
Yellowing of margins of older
leaves. Leaves turn brown, dry
and collapse
It is spread through movement of soil, on equipment and
especially on contaminated planting material. There are four
strains: three can be contained by cultural methods and
resistant varieties, but a recent variant (TR4) attacks dessert
bananas and plantains, putting both industry and smallholder
production at serious risk.
Copper oxychloride
Quaternary ammonium
Difenoconazole
Bunchy top Leaves small, crowded
together, erect not arching
outwards. Dark green streaks
on minor veins in leaves.
The plant does not fruit and
production is severely affected.
An aphid that is present in all
banana growing countries
helps to spread the disease
over short distances.
Viral disease that gets inside the plant and stays there.
Infected planting material appears healthy. All bananas are
susceptible and there is no chemical treatment. However,
careful selection of healthy planting material can prevent the
introduction of the disease to new countries and early
detection of symptoms enables its spread to be limited
There is no chemical control for
the virus, either as a preventative
or curative measure. Chemicals
can, however, be used against the
aphids which spread the disease:
infected plants can be sprayed,
particularly the underside of
leaves, forcefully with water or a
water-soap solution (about 2% by
volume) to kill the aphids and
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 107
TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
thus help to contain an early
outbreak. Insecticidal oils can also
be used, such as those containing
paraffin or neem extract (2% by
volume).
BXW Wilt
Xanthomonas
campestris pv.
musacearum
Premature ripening of fruit.
Young leaves go yellow, fold in
centre and collapse.
The main management option is sanitation: planting healthy
material, using clean cutting tools and removal of male buds
to limit infection by bacteria-carrying insects as they collect
nectar.
Once the plant is infected there is
no treatment to control the
disease.
TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO,
AVOCADO)
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
COFFEE
Coffee Leaf Rust
Hemileia vastatrix
Small, yellowish, oily spots on
the upper leaf surface that
expand into larger round
spots that turn bright orange
Shade-grown coffees, which are not grown as monocultures,
are somewhat less susceptible, as the agroforestry practice of
mixing tree crops greatly slows the spread of the disease.
Resistant varieties coffea canephora rubusta were developed
Copper oxychloride
Cuprous oxide
Copper hydroxide
Triadimefon
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TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
to red and finally brown with
a yellow border. The rust
pustules are powdery and
orange-yellow on the
underleaf surface. Later the
pustules turn black. Rusted
leaves drop so that affected
trees are virtually denuded;
such trees have significantly
lower coffee yields and
usually die within a few years.
but are considered lesser quality than susceptible c. Arabica.
Coffee Wilt Disease
Gibberella xylarioides
(Fusarium xylarioides)
Generalized chlorosis of the
leaves which became flaccid
and curled. Leaves dry up,
turn brown and very fragile,
and abscise. The crowns of
the dead trees are completely
defoliated. The branches may
turn black-brown or blackish,
and dry up. The bark on the
trunk is hypertrophied and
has numerous vertical or
spiral cracks which reveal
Use of resistan varieties
Frequent inspection of the crop
Uprooting and burning infected material
Replanting should not be done until 6 months after uprooting
infected trees to allow the viability of the soil inoculum to
decline
Reduction of wounding (when weeding) and use of mulches.
No cure, no chemical solution.
Spraying the localized space
where the roots were, with 2.5%
Copper (II) Sulfate will sanitize the
soil where the infected plants
were.
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TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
blue-black streaks in the
wood under the bark. In the
roots, the black rot becomes
moist. Infection may be
general or partial.
Coffee Berry Borer
Coffee Borer Beetle
Hypothenemus
hampei
Attacks immature and mature
coffee berries from about eight
weeks after flowering up to
harvest season. Females bore a
hole into the coffee berry and
then construct galleries in the
seeds (beans) where the eggs
are deposited, followed by
larval feeding on the coffee
seed Results in premature fall
of young berries and increased
vulnerability of infested ripe
berries to fungus or bacterial
infection.
Berry borer must be managed during every step of production,
pre-, during and post-harvest.
Field sanitation and stripping cherry at the end of the
harvest season
Infested plant material must be disposed of to prevent
re-infestation.
Proper methods of pruning must be established.
Fields should be monitored
Emphasize importance of efficient harvesting and removing all
ripe and dropped fruit. 50
Beauveria bassiana used in the US is not available or approved in
DRC.
Thiamethoxam
Coffee Anthracnose
Brown blight Infect immature or green
berries
Use resistant cultivars 50% copper formulations
Thiophanate-methyl
50 http://www.bioworksinc.com/products/shared/Recommendations-for-Coffee-Borer.pdf
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 110
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Collet otrichum
coffeanum
Active lesions are initially
evident as small dark sunken
spots which spread rapidly to
involve as much as all of the
berry. The pathogen sporulates
readily and is evidenced by a
pale pink crust on the lesion
surface. If infection occurs
early and climatic conditions
favor disease development,
berry development is arrested,
resulting in mummified berries
on the fruiting branch. When
the berry ripens and
anthracnose fully develops, the
bean can become infected and
seed borne.
Precautions should be taken to import seed free of disease
seed Importation of cultivars should occur only through
appropriate quarantine facilities.
Treat seed with fungicides
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 111
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
OIL PALM
Bacterial bud rot
Erwinia spp
Parts of spear leaf petiole or
rachi turning brown;
discoloration may be
associated with a wet rot;
spear leaf may be wilted
and/or chlorotic; leaves may
be collapsing and hanging
from the crown; infection of
the bud results in buds
becoming rotten and putrid,
leading to death of the palm
Plant oil palm varieties with resistance to the bacteria; rotting
tissue on spear leaves should be removed to prevent bacteria
spreading to buds;
Palm buds can be protected using
copper-based fungicides
Oil palm wilt
Fusarium oxysporum
Fungus infests palms through
the root system. Symptoms
vary with age of host; disease
can affect seedlings and
mature trees; seedlings exhibit
retarded growth, reduced leaf
size, chlorosis of older leaves
and tip necrosis; field palms
may exhibit a bright yellow
chlorosis of leaves in the mid-
canopy which starts at the tip
Dead or dying trees should be felled and burned to prevent
spread in plantations; if palms are replanted then new palm
should be planted a distance of 3.9 m from infested stump
Resistant cultivars are the only viable method of control for
this disease
Fungicides currently recorded in
the DRC may not be effective
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 112
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
pf the pinnae and moves
towards petioles before
affecting adjacent fronds and
spreading to older leaves in
the canopy; in older palms,
lower leaves wilt and dry out
and fronds break close to the
base of the trunk; new fronds
are chlorotic and stunted; the
palm shows decline on one
side and develops symptoms
in the lower canopy; infection
spreads rapidly upwards and
infects the bud, killing the
palm
COCOA
Black pod
(Phytophthora pod
rot)
Phytophthora
palmivora
Phytophthora
Translucent spots on pod
surface which develop into a
small, dark hard spots; entire
pod becomes black and
necrotic with 14 days of initial
symptoms; white to yellow
downy growth on black areas;
internal tissues become dry
Cocoa plants should be well spaced to allow good air
circulation through the plantation; mummified pods should be
removed and destroyed to reduce spread
Protective sprays of copper
containing fungicides in
combination with systemic
fungicides
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 113
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
megakarya
Phytophthora capsici
and shriveled resulting in
mummified pods
Cocoa mealybugs
Planococcus spp.
Pseudococus spp.
Flattened oval to round disc-
like insect covered in waxy
substance on tree branches;
insects attract ants which may
also be present; insect colony
may also be associated with
growth of sooty mold due to
fungal colonization of sugary
honeydew excreted by the
insect; symptoms of
directinsect damage not well
documented but trees may
exhibit symptoms of cocoa
swollen shoot
Mealybugs can potentially be controlled by natural enemies
such as lady beetles but are commonly controlled using
chemicals;
Neem oil suspension of 3 per cent
may be sprayed on pods and
foliage at the early state of
infestation
Dimethoate
Cocoa mirid
Distantiella
theobroma
Sahlbergella
singularis
Helopeltis spp.
Monalonion spp.
First symptoms appear as tiny
puncture wounds on young
stems and pods; these
punctures quickly turn
necrotic, creating black
patches which may develop
into cankers; discolored bark;
terminal leaves and branches
dying back; trees
unproductive; adult insect is a
Providing shade cover in the form of forest to cocoa trees can
be used as part of an integrated control method
Do not interplant with other hosts
Some species of ant, e.g black ants, can be used as a biological
control agent
Thiamethoxam
Imidacloprid
Bifenthrin
Deltamethrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 114
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
slender red or brown insect
with long legs and antennae;
adults are typically between 7
and 10 mm long
RUBBER TREE
Corynespora Rubber
Leaf Fall
Corynespora
cassiicola
Causing "fishbone"- or "railway
track"-shaped lesions on the
leaves
Being familiar with early detection
Conduct surveillance
Use resistant varieties where available
Mancozeb
CHINCHONA/ QUININE TREE
CINCHONA PUBESCENS
Stem Canker
Botryodiplodia
theobromae
Forms lesions on leaves, young
stems, and fruits Cankerous
growth in open wounds
Good cultural practice to promote tree health and vigour,
canopy aeration and crop hygiene. Pruning for good air
circulation and humidity control is essential.
Copper-based fungicides
Chinchona pink
disease
Corticium
salmonicolor
Appear on young branches as
an exudation of latex or gum
from the bark, generally at a
branch crotch. This is followed
by a growth of silky mycelial
threads over the surface of the
affected area. Bleeding open
longitudinal cracks follow
which develop pink pustules
(sterile mycelium) in the cracks.
Shaping of trees for optimum shade
The removal and destruction of infected branches, providing
that early diagnosis is achieved
Prophylactic treatment of the wound with fungicides
Copper based fungicides
Mancozeb
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 115
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
At this stage the disease is
readily identifiable.
Basidiospores are later formed
from pinkish white layers that
form in the underside of the
infected branch while the
conidial 'necator' stage
appears at about the same
time as orange red pustules on
the upper side. The whole
branch distal to the point of
infection usually dies but
whole trees are very rarely
killed. The disease can be
successfully transmitted only
by mycelial inoculum and
attempts to use basidiospores
and conidia for this have been
unsuccessful51
51 http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?TableKey=14682616000000063&Rec=14772&Fields=All
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 116
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
CITRUS
African citrus psyllid
Trioza erytreae
T. erytreae severely distorts
leaves, which become stunted
and galled, and appear dusted
with faecal pellets. Young
leaves, especially, may be
yellow. The presence of small
pit galls on young leaves can
indicate T. erytreae.
A vector of citrus greening
disease, Liberibacter africanum
that causes misshapen, bitter
fruit and ultimately kills the
tree Honeydew excreted by
psyllids coats the outside of
fruits and leaves and promotes
the growth of sooty mold
fungus that inhibits
photosynthesis, weakens the
plant, and makes fruit
unattractive.
Tamarixia radiata is an effective parasitoid of the citrus psylla Dimethoate
MANGO
Fruit flies in Mango
Ceratitis cosyra
Female fruit flies puncture the
fruit skin and lay eggs that
Continuous monitoring of fruit flies to determine when they
arrive in the orchard and to decide when treatment is needed.
Neem
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 117
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
C. rosa and C.
capitata
develop into maggots (larvae)
in the flesh of the fruit after
hatching. The larvae feed on
the fruit and cause it to drop
prematurely and destroy the
pulp of the fruit. Generally the
fruit falls to the ground as, or
just before, the maggots
pupate. In fruit for export, fruit
flies cause indirect losses
resulting from quarantine
restrictions that are imposed
by importing countries to
prevent introduction of fruit
flies. Nearly all fruit fly species
are quarantine pests. Fruit flies
attack soft, fleshy fruit of a
wide variety of fruit and
vegetables.
Orchard sanitation is important as poorly managed or
abandoned orchards can result in buildup of fruit fly
populations
Several natural enemies can contribute to the suppression of
fruit flies. Some flowering crops can attract the native enemies
populations and provide good habitats for them.
Biopesticides such as a spray pyrethrum solution is effective in
controlling fruit flies. Other plant extracts like neem, garlic,
chilli and tephrosia can also be used.
Bagging prevents fruit flies from laying eggs on the fruit, but
this practice requires a lot of labor.
Setting vinegar traps
Biological control by use of Metarhizium anisopliae is not
available in DRC
Pyrethrum52
Dimethoate
52 http://www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/Heres-how-to-curb-the-deadly-mango-fruit-fly/2301238-2710894-s5jd15/index.html
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 118
TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
AVOCADO
Cercospora spot
Pseudocercospora
purpurea
Fungal pathogen that causes a
leaf spot on avocado. The fruit
gets dark spots that may
produce a tumor-like growth
surrounded by a halo. These
will sink in and develop
necrosis. Early fruit that is
immature will drop.
Cercospora fungus in mature
fruits will dry up and become
tough.
Cleaning up dropped fruit
Destroy heavily infected crops in fall
Copper oxychloride (cuocl)
PLANTATION CROPS (COTTON, SUGAR CANE AND PYRETHRUM FLOWERS)
TABLE A.8. PLANTATION CROPS (COTTON, SUGAR CANE AND PYRETHRUM FLOWERS) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
SUGARCANE
African sugarcane
borer
Internal feeding on stems.
The larva makes an exit hole
Scouting the field Deltamethrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 119
TABLE A.8. PLANTATION CROPS (COTTON, SUGAR CANE AND PYRETHRUM FLOWERS) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Eldana saccharina in the stem prior to pupation
which often has a large
amount of frass hanging from
it.
Early harvesting can reduce the impact, however the economic
age of harvest often exceeds 12 months.
Reduce crop stress when possible. Stressed crops are more
liable to attack, and under extreme conditions such as drought,
damage can increase significantly.
Above-ground stalk material can harbour larvae, when
harvesting, it is important to ensure that stalks are cut at
ground level
Reduced application of nitrogen (N) fertilise (depending on
soil levels of plant available nitrogen)
Application of calcium silicate slag
COTTON
Bollworms/Budwor
ms
Old World Bullworm
(Helicoverpa
armigera)
Red Bollworm
(Diparopsis castanea)
Cotton bollworm larvae
damage bolls (protective
case, around the seeds of the
cotton plants) and squares
(flower buds). Larvae chew
holes into the base of bolls
and may hollow out locks.
Moist frass usually
accumulates around the base
of the boll. Larvae may also
chew shallow gouges in the
Natural enemies include parasitoids in the Braconid wasp
and Tachinid fly families and Trichogramma egg
parasitoids and Telemonus species.
Predators include damselflies, hoverflies, lacewings,
ladybird beetles and larvae, minute pirate bugs, praying
mantis and spiders.
Use resistant varieties.
Plow and harrow fields at least 2 times before sowing
seeds. This will expose pupae of corn earworm to chicken,
birds, ants and other predators. Corn earworm pupates in
the soil.
Monitor regularly, use pegboard tool to count pest
numbers.
Once bollworms are
inside the boll, there is
little chance of hitting
them with a contact
insecticide. Any spraying
of contact insecticides
must be done in concert
with careful monitoring to
see when small larvae are
present and have not yet
bored into the boll;
otherwise pesticide will be
wasted.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 120
TABLE A.8. PLANTATION CROPS (COTTON, SUGAR CANE AND PYRETHRUM FLOWERS) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Pink Bollowrm
(Pectinophora
gossypiella)
Cotton
Bollworm/Spiny
Caterpillar (Earias
vitella, Earias biplaga,
Earias insulana)
Tobacco budworm
(Heliothis virescens)
boll surface, which can
become infected with rot
organisms. Squares injured by
cotton bollworm usually have
a round hole near the base.
Fifth-instar larvae are the
most destructive; they not
only damage more fruit than
do earlier instars, but they
damage larger fruit that are
harder for the plant to replace
Do strip intercropping in this sequence: cotton,
leguminous crops, cereals, cotton.
Use pheromone and baited traps.
Practice crop rotation. Avoid planting crops successively
that are hosts to bollworms like hibiscus, okra, corn,
sorghum, tobacco, soybean, and tomato.
Remove weeds from field and field margins: Two weeks
before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy
earworm larvae and adults harboring in those weeds and
grasses.
Plant Marigold, Cosmos, sunflowers, alfalfa, pigeon pea as
trap crops around and in the field to lure caterpillars away
from cotton; once heavily infested, harvest the sunflower
seeds, plow these under or spray them.
Sanitation: After harvest, remove cotton stubble and
destroy by burning, feeding to cows or composting.
Rotate among different
classes of insecticides,
Cotton Bollworms have
developed resistance to
some carbamates,
organophosphates and
pyrethroids/pyrethrins.
There is known tobacco
budworm resistance to BT
toxin.
Use seed treated with
systemic insecticide
imidacloprid or
thiamethoxam.
Use organic natural
insecticides containing
local neem/azadirachtin
extract, and pyrethrum
extract.
Can rotate among rapid
knock-down insecticides
containing synthetic
pyrethroids Bbifenthrin,
Lambda-Cyhalothrin.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 121
LIVESTOCK
TABLE A.9. LIVESTOCK INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION
MEASURES
RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,
WHEN NEEDED
Mites and lice in
chickens
Infestation can reduce egg
laying
Early detection. Keeping the coops and bedding fresh and
clean, scrub coops with soap and water, inspect the flock
Orange peel extracts d-
Limonene product such as
Orange Guard
Dusting with Diatomaceous
Earth
Keds (ticks), lice,
sheep nose bot flies,
wool maggots
(fleece worms), and
sheep scab (mange)
and flies in sheep
and goats
Symptoms of these pests vary
from minor itching and
irritation to extreme
annoyance and fatigue,
malnutrition, and even death.
Pests also can transmit dis
eases and cause secondary
infections.
In addition to routine shearing, clipping, and cleaning, other
cultural controls include practices such as appropriate manure
management and stall sanitation. Chemical controls include
various sprays, dips, pourons, and dusts. Flies are often
targeted with sprays and baits/traps
Permethrin
Deltamethrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 122
ANNEX B. PESTICIDE TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILES
This annex provides both human and ecotoxicology for the pesticides evaluated in this PERSUAP.
TOXICITY TO HUMANS
Table B.3 summarizes the human toxicity profiles of all AIs examined by this PERSUAP, as well as their US EPA registration status. The following sections and tables B.1 and B.2 explain the toxicology terminology and classifications used.
ACUTE TOXICITY
Acute toxicity refers to the immediate effects (0-7 days) of exposure to a pesticide. Highly acutely toxic pesticides can be lethal at very low doses. Acute toxicity is estimated from the LD50, the dose (in milligrams of substance per kilogram of body weight) that kills 50% of the test animals in a standard assay. The toxicity of a substance may also depend on the route by which it enters the body: dermal (through the skin), inhalation (through the lungs) or oral (through the digestive tract). The LD50 may need to be determined experimentally for all these routes. For inhalation exposures, the LC50 is used--the concentration in air in mg per liter that kills 50% of the test animals.
Two systems are referred to in this document: the EPA system and the WHO system. EPA also requires that pesticides in categories I-III carry a signal word as in the table. The system used by EPA is based on an evaluation of the formulated product (Table B.1). Therefore, there may be more than one classification for an AI depending on concentration and inert ingredients. Where the EPA assessment of acute toxicity is given in the table as “no consensus”, there is too much variation between the registered products to give a single estimate. The system of WHO is based on the AI alone (Table B.2).
TABLE B.1. EPA SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF ACUTE TOXICITY
TOXICITY
CATEGORIES
CATEGORY I CATEGORY II CATEGORY III CATEGORY IV
Acute Oral Up to and
including 50
mg/kg
> 50 thru 500
mg/kg
> 500 thru 5000
mg/kg
> 5000 mg/kg
Acute Dermal Up to and
including 200
mg/kg
> 200 thru 2000
mg/kg
> 2000 thru 5000
mg/kg
> 5000 mg/kg
Acute
Inhalation1
Up to and
including 0.05
mg/liter
> 0.05 thru 0.5
mg/liter
> 0.5 thru 2
mg/liter
> 2 mg/liter
Primary
Eye Irritation
Corrosive
(irreversible
destruction of
ocular tissue) or
corneal
involvement or
irritation persisting
for more than 21
days
Corneal
involvement or
other eye
irritation clearing
in 8-21 days
Corneal
involvement or
other eye
irritation clearing
in 7 days or less
Minimal effects
clearing in less
than 24 hours
Primary
Skin Irritation
Corrosive (tissue
destruction into
the dermis and/or
scarring)
Severe irritation
at 72 hours
(severe erythema
or edema)
Moderate
irritation at 72
hours (moderate
erythema)
Mild or slight
irritation at 72
hours (no
irritation
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 123
Signal Word DANGER WARNING CAUTION None Required
TABLE B.2. WHO SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF ACUTE TOXICITY
WHO TOXICITY CLASSIFICATION RAT LD50 (MG OF CHEMICAL PER KG OF BODY WEIGHT)
CLASS DESCRIPTION SOLIDS
(ORAL)
LIQUIDS
(ORAL)
SOLIDS
(DERMAL)
LIQUIDS (DERMAL)
Ia Extremely hazardous ‹ 5 ‹ 20 ‹ 10 ‹ 40
Ib Highly hazardous 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400
II Moderately hazardous 50-500 200-2,000 100-1,000 400-4,000
III Slightly hazardous › 500 ›2,000 ›1000 › 4,000
Table 5 Unlikely to present acute
hazard in normal use
› 2,000 › 3,000 --- ---
Table 6 Not classified: believed
obsolete
Table 7 Fumigants not classified
by WHO
Source: http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard_2009.pdf
LONGER-TERM HUMAN TOXICITY
Pesticides may also cause long term hazards to human health. The hazards of the most concern are below.
Carcinogenicity. Exposure to some substances may cause the development of cancer.
Cholinesterase Inhibition. Cholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down the neuro-transmitter, acetyl-choline in the nervous system. This is a necessary process for controlling nerve transmission and some pesticides, especially, organo-phosphates, work by interfering with it.
Reproductive or Developmental Toxicity. Some pesticides are known to cause birth defects or interfere with normal development.
Endocrine Disruption. Many pesticides and industrial chemicals are capable of interfering with the proper functioning of oestrogen, androgen and thyroid hormones in humans and animals.
Assessment of the acute and long-term toxicity of the pesticides evaluated is summarised in Table B.3.
ECOTOXICOLOGY
With few exceptions, such as pheromones, pesticides are, by their very nature, toxic to some organisms. They may therefore harm organisms other than the pests at which they are directed. These may include directly beneficial organisms, such as honeybees and other pollinators, the natural enemies of pests, other useful organisms such as fish or rare and endangered organisms making an important contribution to biodiversity. This document provides information, when available on the toxicity of pesticides to important groups of organisms.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 124
TABLE B.3. ASSESSMENT OF THE ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICITY OF THE PESTICIDES
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT CHEMICAL CLASS
HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES
GROUND-
WATER
CONTAMINANT
ECOTOXICOLOGY
ACUTE TOXICITY
CLASS/CATEG.
CHRONIC
TOXICITY
TYPE OF
PESTICIDE
RUP WHO EPA FISH BEES BIRD
S
AMPHIBI
ANS
EARTH-
WORMS
(ANNELID
A)
MOLL
USKS
CRUSTAC
EANS
AQUAT
IC
INSECT
S
ZOOPLAN
KTON
2,4-D Chlorophenoxy acid
or ester
Som
e
II II, III PC P NT NT NT NT NT NT Herbicide
Abamectin Botanical,
Macrocyclic Lactone
Many Unclas
sified
IV, II RD, ED ST HT HT HT MT HT Insecticide
Acetamiprid
Neonicotinoide None II No
consen
sus
P MT HT HT Insecticide
Aluminum
Phosphide
Inorganic All Unclas
sified
I HT HT HT MT Fumigant
Amitraz Formamidine None II III ED, NT, RD MT ST MT MT MT NT HT ST Acaricide,
Insecticide
Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt)
Micro-organism
derived
None III III Insecticide
Bifenthrin Pyrethroid Many II II ED, NT,
RD, P
HT HT MT HT HT Insecticide
Acaricide
Bispyribac-sodium Pyrimidinyl(thio)ben
zoate
None III No
consen
sus
P MT LT LT MT MT ST Herbicide
Copper hydroxide Inorganic None II III HT MT MT MT HT NT MT Fungicide
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 125
TABLE B.3. ASSESSMENT OF THE ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICITY OF THE PESTICIDES
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT CHEMICAL CLASS
HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES
GROUND-
WATER
CONTAMINANT
ECOTOXICOLOGY
ACUTE TOXICITY
CLASS/CATEG.
CHRONIC
TOXICITY
TYPE OF
PESTICIDE
RUP WHO EPA FISH BEES BIRD
S
AMPHIBI
ANS
EARTH-
WORMS
(ANNELID
A)
MOLL
USKS
CRUSTAC
EANS
AQUAT
IC
INSECT
S
ZOOPLAN
KTON
Copper oxide Inorganic None II Not
listed
HT ST MT MT HT HT MT HT Fungicide
Copper
oxychloride
Inorganic None II III ED, RD ST MT MT HT MT HT Fungicide
Cypermethrin Pyrethroid Many II II PC, ED HT HT LT MT MT HT HT HT Insecticide
Deltamethrin Pyrethroid Many II II ED HT HT LT MT NT HT HT HT Insecticide
Difenoconazole Azole None II III PC, ED ST NT LT MT HT Fungicide
Dimethoate Organophosphate Som
e
II II PC, NT, ED,
RD
P ST HT HT ST NT MT MT MT MT Insecticide
EPTC Thiocarbamate None II III RD, NT P M M M M
Esfenvalerate Pyrethroid Som
e
II II ED HT HT ST HT ST HT Insecticide
Ethofenprox Pyrethroid None U IV PC, ED HT HT LT MT HT Insecticide
Fenitrothion Organophosphorus None II II NT, ED MT HT HT MT MT MT HT HT Insecticide
,
Fipronil Pyrazole Many II II NT, RD MT HT HT MT MT Insecticide
Fluazifop-p-butyl Aryloxyphenoxy
propionic acid
None III III RD MT ST LT MT MT Herbicide
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 126
TABLE B.3. ASSESSMENT OF THE ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICITY OF THE PESTICIDES
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT CHEMICAL CLASS
HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES
GROUND-
WATER
CONTAMINANT
ECOTOXICOLOGY
ACUTE TOXICITY
CLASS/CATEG.
CHRONIC
TOXICITY
TYPE OF
PESTICIDE
RUP WHO EPA FISH BEES BIRD
S
AMPHIBI
ANS
EARTH-
WORMS
(ANNELID
A)
MOLL
USKS
CRUSTAC
EANS
AQUAT
IC
INSECT
S
ZOOPLAN
KTON
Fluroxypyr Pyridinecarboxylic
acid
None U No
concen
sus
RD, NT ST LT LT LT LT ST Herbicide
Glyphosate Phosphonoglycine None III III PC P ST MT LT ST MT ST Herbicide
Imidacloprid Neonicotinoid Som
e
II II RD, NT P ST HT HT ST HT MT ST Insecticide
Indoxacarb Oxadiazine None II III MT HT HT NT MT
Lambda-
cyhalothrin
Pyrethroid Many II II ED HT LT HT LT HT Insecticide
Mancozeb Carbamate None U IV PC, RD, ED P MT LT LT HT HT ST Fungicide
Mefenoxam
(Metlalxyl M)
Phenylamide Som
e
NL No
consen
sus
P ST ST MT MT LT ST Fungicide
Metalaxyl Phenylamide Few II No
concen
sus
P ST LT MT LT ST Fungicide
Metsulfuron-
methyl
Sulfonylurea None NL III P ST Herbicide
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TABLE B.3. ASSESSMENT OF THE ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICITY OF THE PESTICIDES
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT CHEMICAL CLASS
HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES
GROUND-
WATER
CONTAMINANT
ECOTOXICOLOGY
ACUTE TOXICITY
CLASS/CATEG.
CHRONIC
TOXICITY
TYPE OF
PESTICIDE
RUP WHO EPA FISH BEES BIRD
S
AMPHIBI
ANS
EARTH-
WORMS
(ANNELID
A)
MOLL
USKS
CRUSTAC
EANS
AQUAT
IC
INSECT
S
ZOOPLAN
KTON
Nicosulfuron Sulfonylurea Som
e
U IV P ST MT LT LT ST Herbicide
Oxadiazon Oxidiazole None U IV PC, DR MT LT MT ST HT Herbicide
Penoxsulam Triazopyrimidine None U No
concen
sus
PC P LT ST LT LT MT MT Herbicide
Permethrin Pyrethroid Som
e
II II,III PC, ED MT HT MT ST HT HT Insecticide
Pirimiphos-methyl Organophosphate Som
e
II III NT MT HT MT MT MT HT Insecticide
Profenofos Organophosphate Many II No
concen
sus
NT P HT HT HT HT HT MT Insecticide
Sulfur Inorganic None III IV ST LT ST ST Insecticide
, miticide
Thiamethoxam Neonicotinoid None NL No
consen
sus
P LT HT MT LT Insecticide
Thiophanate-
methyl
Benzimidazole
precursor
None U IV PC, RD P ST ST LT NT NT ST Fungicide
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TABLE B.3. ASSESSMENT OF THE ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICITY OF THE PESTICIDES
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT CHEMICAL CLASS
HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES
GROUND-
WATER
CONTAMINANT
ECOTOXICOLOGY
ACUTE TOXICITY
CLASS/CATEG.
CHRONIC
TOXICITY
TYPE OF
PESTICIDE
RUP WHO EPA FISH BEES BIRD
S
AMPHIBI
ANS
EARTH-
WORMS
(ANNELID
A)
MOLL
USKS
CRUSTAC
EANS
AQUAT
IC
INSECT
S
ZOOPLAN
KTON
Thiram
Dithiocarbamate None II III RD, ED HT LT MT HT HT NT HT Fungicide
Triadimefon
(parent of
Triadimenol)
Azole None II III PC, RD, ED P ST ST LT ST MT NT Fungicide
Triadimenol Azole breakdown None II III PC, ED,
RD, NT
P ST LT LT MT Fungicide
Triclopyr Chloropyridinyl Som
e
II III RD ST ST MT NT MT NT Fungicide
Herbicide
WHO Acute Toxicity:
Class O = Obsolete Pesticide; Class Ia = Extremely Hazardous, Class Ib = Highly Hazardous; Class II = Moderately Hazardous; Class III = Slightly Hazardous, Class U = Unlikely to Present Acute Hazard in Normal Use
EPA Acute Toxicity: Category I = Extremely Toxic, II = Highly Toxic, III = Moderately Toxic, IV = Slightly Toxic
Chronic Toxicity:
KC = Known/Likely Carcinogen; PC = Possible Carcinogen; ED = Potential Endocrine Disruptor; RD = Potential Reproductive or Developmental Toxin; NT = Cholinesterase inhibitors that are Potential Parkinson’s Disease Risk Factor and other neurological toxins
Acute Ecotoxicity: HT = Highly Toxic; MT = Moderately Toxic; ST = Slightly Toxic; NT = Not Toxic
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 129
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 130
ANNEX C. MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF TRAINING AND PESTICIDE SAFER
USE
C.1 TRAINING IN SAFER USE
By far the most important mitigating measure for pesticides is to ensure that those who use them understand them and are competent in handling and using them. It is essential that training to a uniform high standard is available across USAID/DRC projects.
All project beneficiaries who are expected to use USAID resources for pesticides must receive training. Information materials, such as leaflets and posters, in French, should be prepared and made available for those projects, such as those providing finance, who lack the relevant technical capacity.
Basic pesticide safer use training must address the following minimum elements.
Definition of pesticides.
Pesticide risks and the understanding that pesticides are bio-poisons.
Concepts of AIs vs. formulated products.
Classes of pesticides and the concept that specific pesticides are effective only against a certain class of organism.
Concept of proper application rates and pesticide resistance and techniques for avoiding misapplication.
Proper sprayer operation and maintenance.
Practice-focused training in the core elements of Safe Pesticide Use: a) IPM (see C.2, below) b) Reading and interpreting pesticide labels -- particularly to understand PPE requirements
and other precautions, dosage rates, and to identify AIs and expiration dates. (see C.3, below)
c) PPE use and treatment (see C.4, below) d) Safe Purchase, Transport, Storage, Mixing, e) Safe application (see C.5, below), Reentry and Pre-harvest intervals f) Pesticide first aid and spill response. (see C.6, below) g) Clean-up and Disposal (see C.7, below) h) Record keeping and monitoring. (see C.8, below)
All training should include a pre- and post- course evaluation of the participants. Participants will only be accepted as “trained” if their evaluation is satisfactory.
C.2 TRAINING IN IPM
IPM is an integral part of safe pesticide use and supporting the use of pesticides only within an IPM
framework is a core requirement of this PERSUAP. Therefore, pesticide safe use training must build an
understanding of IPM fundamentals.
The heart of IPM is an understanding of the relationship between pest injury, damage, yield loss, and
economic loss. IPM was developed within the discipline of economic entomology. Farmers who are not
trained in IPM may spray a crop upon seeing a single insect in a field or a few brown spots of a disease on
a leaf. Pesticides are expensive and should only be used as a last resort and only when economically
justified.
Threshold determination. Extension workers and farmers first need to understand the relationship
between increasing injury levels and crop yield of each pest which is known as the damage function. A
small amount of injury in fact can cause yield gain called overcompensation. In most cases, significant
yield loss does not occur until a certain pest density occurs in the field because the crop can compensate
for this level of damage. Then there is normally a linear decline in yield with increasing pest density. From
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 131
this relationship, the economic injury level, economic threshold, or action threshold can be defined in the
case of insect pests. Other methods to assess the threat of weeds and crop diseases will need to be
developed based on field experience. Certain guidelines can be developed based on experience in
neighboring countries.
IPM involves several tiers of integration. First there is the integration between control methods which
must be harmonious. A non-harmonious example is the negative effect of pesticides on biocontrol
agents. Biocontrol, which is the action of natural enemies against the pest, is free to the farmer so it
behooves him not to upset this delicate balance unless absolutely necessary. The next tier
of integration occurs between the different pest control disciplines. When one sprays an
insecticide, herbivorous insects feeding on weeds are killed. Some fungicides also kill
insect pests. Removing weeds forces army worms to feed on the crop. The third tier is
integration with the cropping system and farming system. Crops that are well nourished
can tolerate more damage. Many crop husbandry practices also affect pests, either positively or negatively.
Application of nitrogen fertilizer is an example. On the one hand it can stimulate plant diseases, but on
the other nitrogen fertilizer can provide strength of the crop to tolerate insect pest damage.
Pests do not occur in isolation; thus the crop has to deal with multiple pests as well as multiple stresses. A
crop that is weak from zinc deficiency or water stress cannot tolerate as much pest damage as a healthier
crop. In fact, some sucking insect pests explode in abundance on a drought-stressed crop, further
exacerbating the problem. The relationship between multiple pests and multiple stresses can be additive
(1 + 1 = 2), antagonistic (1 + 1 = 1), or synergistic (1 + 1 = 3). This can occur in terms of yield loss from
adding more pests or stresses, or can occur in terms of yield gain when one or more stresses are removed
due to an effective curative control effort.
IPM training should provide examples of the different pest control methods beginning with
preventative ones, which start with quarantine and cultural crop husbandry methods based on good
agronomic practices, which increase the crop’s tolerance for pest injury. Many of these methods fall under
the rubric of cultural control. Host plant resistance is another good example of prevention. Other pest
control methods can be physical (e.g., a fence to keep out animals), mechanical (e.g., using nets), or
biological (e.g., parasitoids, predators, pathogens). Biological methods include natural control and man-
induced methods, such as purchasing and releasing natural enemies or using selective pesticides. As a last
resort there is chemical control.
Farmers will need to be trained to recognize pests in the field and to be able to assess their densities as
well as know several methods of control for each. Training manuals with high-quality, color photos will
be essential in the training process. Government-approved, recommended practices need to be published
and updated annually in guides given to extension officers.
C.3 UNDERSTANDING PESTICIDE LABELS AND MATERIAL SAFETY DATA
SHEETS
The label of a pesticide container must have all the information about risks as well as information needed
for safe and effective use. Additional important details about risks of pesticide products and instructions
about safe use can be found in the manufacturer’s MSDS. Labels and MSDS for some pesticides are
available online at http://www.cdms.net and http://www.greenbook.net.
The label on a pesticide container has to provide the following information::
Product risks and how to minimize these risks including through proper handling and use of PPE
Intended use.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 132
How to handle, use, and store the pesticide safely.
To tell the user how and when to apply the pesticide for the best effect.
Pesticide lables must identify health, eco-system and physical hazards that can be associated with each
chemical used. It is important to know the hazard classification of each chemical used in order to
determine many different aspects of safely handling that chemical.
The Hazard Communication Standard (29CFR 1910.1200) requires all manufacturers or distributors of
any products containing chemicals to evaluate the chemical hazards of the product. The evaluation is
performed by classifying each chemical based on published toxicological or other data to determine its
physical and health hazards.
By US law, pesticide labels must contain:
The name of the product.
Level of toxicity.
Active ingredients.
Other ingredients-co-formulants.
The pests which the product will control.
The rate of application of the product (how much of it to use).
The time and method of application.
Directions for handling the product safely.
First aid procedures in case of an accident.
Any special instructions or warnings about its use, transport, storage, or disposal.
The net contents (weight when packed) of the container.
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The Globally Harmonized System (GHS) was developed by the United Nations for international standardization of hazard classification and communication that provides hazard rating. The pesticide pictogram provides information about risks and safety measures required.
An example of an item that may be considered supplementary is the personal protective equipment (PPE) pictogram indicating what workers handling the chemical may need to wear to protect themselves.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 134
C.4 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Pesticide safety training must address the types of personal protective equipment (PPE), when they
should be worn and why, as shown in Table C.1 below.
TABLE C.1. HANDLER PPE FOR WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD PRODUCTS
ROUTE OF
EXPOSURE
TOXICITY CLASSIFICATION BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE OF END-USE PRODUCT
I
DANGER
II
WARNING
III
CAUTION
IV
CAUTION
Dermal
Toxicity
or Skin
Irritation
Potential1/
Coveralls worn over
long-sleeved shirt
and long pants
Coveralls worn
over long-
sleeved shirt and
long pants
Long-sleeved
shirt and long
pants
Long-sleeved
shirt and long
pants
Socks Socks Socks Socks
Chemical-resistant
footwear
Chemical-
resistant
footwear
Rubber boots or
shoes
Rubber boots or
shoes
Chemical-resistant
Gloves2
Chemical-
resistant
gloves2
Chemical-
resistant
Gloves2
No minimum4
Inhalation
Toxicity Respiratory
protection device3
Respiratory
protection
device3
No minimum4 No minimum4
Eye Irritation
Potential
Goggles5 Goggles5 No minimum4 No minimum4
1 If dermal t1/Toxicity and skin irritation toxicity categories are different, PPE shall be determined by the more severe toxicity
classification of the two. If dermal toxicity or skin irritation is category I or II, refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine if
additional PPE is required. 2 Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of chemical-resistant glove. 3 Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of respiratory protection. 4 Although no minimum PPE is required for these toxicity categories and routes of exposure, some specific products may require
PPE. Read pesticide label/MSDS. 5 “Protective eyewear” is used instead of “goggles” and/or “face shield” and/or “shielded safety glasses” and similar terms to
describe eye protection. Eye glasses and sunglasses are not sufficient eye protection.
Note: Where necessary, farmers can make their own PPE. For example, a plastic or water repellent apron
from the waist to ankle length, can be fashioned from a large piece of plastic purchased in the local
market (important if walking through the spray path).
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 135
C.5 PROPER SPRAY TECHNIQUE: PROTECTING AGAINST PESTICIDE
SPRAY DRIFT
Many farmers apply pesticides with a knapsack sprayer, which means that delivery of pesticides is either in
front of the person spraying or to the side, not to the back as is the case with tractor-drawn sprayers.
Inevitably pesticide drift will be carried by the wind and potentially settle on sensitive ecosystems such as
national parks if they are nearby. Herbicides pose the greatest risk for environmental damage, especially
when their drift lands on a neighbors crops and kills or severely damages them.
The potential for drift to travel long distances has been shown with highly residual chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides, such as DDT, which have moved through the atmosphere and been found in
measurable quantities at both poles on earth. Pesticides that can be transported to the earth’s distant poles
are bound tightly to dust particles carried high into the atmosphere and transported by jet streams. Their
presence only represents a very small percentage of the drift. Spray drift is a mostly local phenomenon,
whereby spray droplets move to areas near the field.
There are a number of ways in which pesticide drift can be minimized:
Increase spray droplet size. Fog-sized droplets can travel three miles (4.8 km) while coarse droplets
typically travel less than 10 feet (3 meters). To increase droplet size, the farmer can reduce spray pressure
(e.g., 30 to 50 pounds per square inch [2-3.5 kg/cm2] with 5 to 20 gallons [19 to 76 liters] of water per
acre [.4 ha]), increase nozzle orifice size, use special drift reduction nozzles, and purchase additives that
increase spray viscosity.
Distance between nozzle and target. Reduce the distance between the nozzle and the target crop.
Temperature and relative humidity. As pesticides vaporize under high temperature, low relative humidity
and/or high temperature will cause more rapid evaporation of spray droplets between the spray nozzle
and the target. Evaporation also reduces droplet size, which in turn increases the potential drift of spray
droplets. It is best not to spray in the heat of the day to avoid drift problems.
Avoid spraying when the wind speed > 10 mph (16 km/h). As drift occurs as droplets suspended in the
air, it is best to minimize applications during windy days. If spraying has to be done, however, the farmer
should spray away from sensitive areas. Local terrain can influence wind patterns, thus every applicator
should be familiar with local wind patterns and how they affect spray drift.
Do not spray when the air is completely calm or when a temperature inversion exists. When the air is
completely still, small spray droplets become suspended in the warm air near the soil surface and will be
readily carried aloft and away from susceptible plants by vertical air movement. Temperature inversion
occurs when air near the soil surface is cooler than the higher air. Temperature inversions restrict vertical
air mixing, which causes small suspended droplets to remain in a concentrated cloud and impact plants
two miles or more downwind. This cloud can move in unpredictable directions due to the light, variable
winds common during inversions.
Application height. Making applications at the lowest height reduces exposure of droplets to evaporation
and wind.
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C.6 PESTICIDE TRANSPORT AND STORAGE
Where IPs or beneficiary groups will be transporting pesticides, training must address the fundamentals
of safe transport of pesticides. (Some of the largest accidents involving pesticides have occurred during
transportation.) Drivers should be trained on how to deal with and contain spills, and not to transport
pesticides with food. Many of the agro-dealers are small and ship their stock individually in relatively small
quantities. Agro-dealers should be sensitized about minimizing potential risks during transportation.
Storing pesticides properly protects human and animal health, safeguards wells and surface waters, and
prevents unauthorized access to hazardous chemicals. The pesticide label is the best guide to storage
requirements for every product. The MSDS provides additional information on normal appearance and
odor as well as flash point, fire control recommendations, boiling point, and solubility.
Further, if IP-run pesticide stores exist in an area with fire or emergency services, local first responders
must receive training on how to deal with pesticide fires. The smoke from such a fire is highly hazardous
and effluent from water spray can do great harm to the environment. If fire fighters use water to put out
a fire in a pesticide storage shed, the runoff will be highly toxic.
Minimum elements of safe transport are:
Keep pesticides away from passengers, livestock and foodstuffs;
Do not carry pesticides in driver’s compartment;
Containers must be in good condition;
Do not transport packages with any leakage; and,
Transport under cover and protected from rain, and direct sunlight.
Preventative measures are required in pesticide warehouses in order to reduce cases of
pilferage, exposure through leakages, theft, and expiration of pesticides. Where IPs or
beneficiaries, including agro-dealers, will be maintaining pesticide stores, training must
address these practices, as per the best management practices for pesticide storage
highlighted in FAO storage manual and summarized below:
All primary pesticide storage facilities will be double-padlocked and guarded on a 24-
hour basis.
All the storage facilities will be located away from water sources, domestic wells,
markets, schools, hospitals, etc. Wastewater from pesticide storage facilities must not
be drained directly into public drains but should be pretreated on site.
Soap and clean water will be available at all times in all the facilities.
A trained storekeeper will be hired to manage each facility.
Pesticides will be stacked as specified in the FAO Storage and Stock Control Manual.
Inventory management will include recording expiration dates of all pesticides and
maintaining a “first-in first-out” stocking system.
All the warehouses will have at least two exit access routes in case of a fire outbreak.
A non-water-based fire extinguisher will be available in the storage facilities, and all
workers will be trained on how to use this device, and how to respond to fire (see
below).
Warning notices will be placed outside of the store in the local language(s) with a skull
and crossbones sign to caution against unauthorized entry.
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C.7 FIRST AID FOR PESTICIDE POISONING
It is important to provide training on recognition of the symptoms of a pesticide poisoning so the victim
will receive timely treatment. Contact information of the closest medical facility must be known and
available if someone can be possibly poisoned with a pesticide. Quick action could save the victim's life.
Farmers must be trained to make sure to take the label and if possible the MSDS on the chemical to the
hospital. This will enable the medical professionals to treat the victim properly and promptly.
Training must include the basic elements of pesticide first aid, as per Table C.2 below. Wherever possible,
personnel at local health facilities should participate in/receive such training.
TABLE C.2. PESTICIDE POISONING FIRST AID
General Read the first aid instructions on the pesticide label, if possible, and follow them. Do
not become exposed to poisoning yourself while you are trying to help. Take the
pesticide container (or the label) to the physician.
Poison on
skin
Act quickly.
Remove contaminated clothing and drench skin with water.
Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly with detergent and water.
Dry victim and wrap in blanket.
Chemical
burn on skin
Wash with large quantities of running water.
Remove contaminated clothing.
Cover burned area immediately with loose, clean, soft cloth.
Do not apply ointments, greases, powders, or other drugs in first aid treatment of
burns.
Poison in
eye
Wash eye quickly but gently.
Hold eyelid open and wash with gentle stream of clean running water.
Wash for 15 minutes or more.
Do not use chemicals or drugs in the wash water; they may increase the extent of
injury.
Inhaled
poison
Carry victim to fresh air immediately.
Open all doors and windows so no one else will be poisoned.
Loosen tight clothing.
Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or if the victim’s skin is blue. If
victim is in an enclosed area, do not enter without proper protective clothing and
equipment. If proper protection is not available, call for emergency equipment from
your fire department (if available).
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 138
TABLE C.2. PESTICIDE POISONING FIRST AID
Poison in
mouth or
swallowed
Rinse mouth with plenty of water.
Give victim large amounts (up to 1 quart) of milk or water to drink.
Induce vomiting only if instructions to do so are on the label.
Procedure
for inducing
vomiting
Position victim face down or kneeling forward. Do not allow victim to lie on his back,
because the vomit could enter the lungs and do additional damage.
Put finger or the blunt end of a spoon at the back of victim’s throat or give syrup of
ipecac.
Collect some of the vomit for the physician if you do not know what the poison is.
Do not use salt solutions to induce vomiting.
When not to
induce
vomiting
If the victim is unconscious or is having convulsions.
If the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison. A corrosive poison is a strong acid or
alkali. It will burn the throat and mouth as severely coming up as it did going down.
It may get into the lungs and burn there also.
If the victim has swallowed an emulsifiable concentrate or oil solution. Emulsifiable
concentrates and oil solutions may cause severe damage to the lungs if inhaled
during vomiting.
C.8 PROPER PESTICIDE CONTAINER DISPOSAL
Once pesticides have been used, the empty containers need to be properly disposed of. Training must
address proper disposal. Table C.3 gives a summary of the best practices for doing so.
TABLE C.3. PROPER METHODS TO DISPOSE OF PESTICIDES AND THEIR EMPTY CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPE DISPOSAL STATEMENTS
Metal Containers (non-aerosol) Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or
reconditioning, or puncture and bury.
Paper and Plastic Bags Completely empty bag into application
equipment. Then bury empty bag.
Glass Containers Triple rinse. Then bury.
Plastic Containers Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or
reconditioning, or puncture and bury.
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C.9 MONITORING AND DATA RECORD KEEPING
DRC small-scale farmers do not keep records of information on crops grown, production, pest attack,
pesticides used, whether the pesticides worked well or not, pest resistance development and pre-harvest
intervals to reduce pesticide residues. Certified large-scale commercial and estate farms, on the other
hand, generally keep detailed records.
Interviewed shop operators indicated that they received some feed-back from growers regarding pesticide
effectiveness and development of resistance. For example, during the course of year 2015, commonly
used pesticides such as cypermethrin was reported less effective. Farmers claimed that they have to apply
more and more powerful pesticides. Poor pesticide management practices contribute to resistance
development. While anecdotal evidence exists, projects must conduct training programs on monitoring
and data record-keeping techniques for pest control and pesticide needs and/or effectiveness to combat
development of resistance.
An example of monitoring and record keeping chart is included below. Suggestions for development of
simple charts for monitoring and record keeping can be found at http://www.hobbyfarms.com/crops-
and-gardening/crop-record-keeping-charts.aspx.
TABLE C.4. EXAMPLE OF MONITORING AND RECORD KEEPING CHART
Crop Plot
Location
Plot
Size
Planted
Date
Pests
Observed
Infestation
Severity
Management
Technique
Date/Time
of
Application
Notes (Rate
of
Application,
Weather,
Etc.)
Harvested
Date
Results
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ANNEX D: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Although chemical pesticide use is historically low throughout most of Sub-Saharan Africa compared to other parts of the developing world, some increase in pesticide use is occurring as income levels rise. While there are no data for pesticide use in the DRC for specific crops, donor-funded programs sometimes support pesticide use. 53 New agricultural practices and technologies such as low-till agriculture and improved crop varieties are being increasingly introduced to farmers. However, DRC has very limited capacity for regulation and management of pesticides by national and local governments, lack of awareness regarding pesticide risks to people and the environment among farmers and very limited ability to address these risks.
In DRC, where pesticide use is still relatively low, introduction of pesticides without the complex systems required to regulate and manage pesticides presents a significant risk to individuals, society and ecosystems and possibly a lost opportunity for development of organic agriculture.
Because pesticides are toxic, in order to regulate and manage pesticides and minimize risks, a complex and interrelated system is put in place in developed countries. For the purposes of simplicity, components of this system are presented below as a list rather as an inter-related scheme.54
Pesticide regulatory and risk management systems
International pesticide regulations affecting cross-boundary trade ---- International Organizations and Institutions
Trade agreements
Conventions
Partnerships and memberships in international organizations
National regulations/government policies --- Government agencies and institutions, public funded universities and schools, private sector, NGOs, multilateral institutions
Legislation of production, importation, exportation, marketing and sales
Registration of AIs and products
Establishing risk reduction requirements
Residue limits
Label requirements
Use guidelines and restrictions (application, transport, storage, disposal)
Establishing/funding and maintaining/funding controls
Enforcement of pesticide regulations
Registration, certification, accreditation, permits and licensing of production,
importation, exportation, marketing and sales
Controlling borders including product and phytosanitary control
Implementing/funding research and monitoring
Testing pesticide products effectiveness
Testing product authenticity and quality
R&D developing alternatives (IPM measures e.g. bio-pesticides, natural enemies)
Environmental pollution monitoring
Establishing medical response and reporting requirements
53 USAID Climate risk screening for food security Democratic Republic of Congo, Climate Change Adaptation, Thought Leadership and Assessments (ATLAS) Task Order No. AID-OAA-I-14-00013 54 https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7932.pdf
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 141
Pesticide-related illness and injury surveillance and testing
Establishing pest monitoring and outbreak alert systems
Establishing pesticide use monitoring and reporting systems
Implementing/funding education and extension systems
Degree and certification programs, vocational programs
Extension service providing farmer technical services and advice
Pesticide risks and safety education and awareness programs
Implementing/funding infrastructure development
Disposal of obsolete, expired, counterfeit products
Disposal and recycling of pesticide contaminated waste including containers and
packaging
Pesticide markets --- Private sector and supporting institutions
Manufacture, formulate and export
Manufacture, maintain inventory, store and distribute in accordance with regulations
Conduct R&D
Register products (AIs and inert ingredients)
Provide toxicological profiles
Provide complete product label
Inform product use, storage and shelf life conditions
Provide MSDS
Provide instructions for cleanup of spills
Import, wholesale and sell retail
Obtain regulatory permits, registrations and certifications
Maintain inventory, store and distribute in accordance with regulations
Maintain a list of products offered
Pesticide users –Sectors: agriculture, livestock production, poultry, aquaculture, turfs and
gardens, commodity storage, public health, right of way clearing, structural control – individuals,
organizations and companies
Purchasing, transporting, applying, storing
Properly disposing of pesticides and pesticide containers
Obtaining training and certification where available/required
Following pesticide labels and MSDS instructions
Procuring and using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Monitoring pest occurrence and reporting unusual occurrence and outbreaks to extension
Monitoring and reporting pesticide use and reporting to extension
Responsible use and safeguarding people and environment
In countries where farmers have low level of education and literacy mostly highly toxic broad spectrum
products are currently being used without the necessary safety measures. Before introducing pesticides
into low pesticide use, poorly developed countries, it is important to ensure that regulatory, management
and systems are in place to handle increased pesticide availability and use. Supporting development of
pest control profession, developing infrastructure and regulatory frameworks capable of handling
introduction of pesticides and resulting waste that is being generated at increasing rates is essential for
moving pesticides out of hands of illiterate and untrained individuals and protecting the people and the
environment.
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 142
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
US EPA chemical search:
http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=CHEMICALSEARCH:1:0
Inert ingredients search
http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=INERTFINDER:1:0::NO:1::
Inert Ingredients Eligible for FIFRA 25(b) Pesticide Products
http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-01/documents/section25b_inerts.pdf
US EPA product label search:
http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=PPLS:1
US product search:
http://ppis.ceris.purdue.edu/
National Pesticide Information Center:
http://npic.orst.edu/npicfact.htm
WHO Recommended Classification
http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard_2009.pdf?ua=1
Pesticides approved in EU:
http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/atoz.htm
http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/bpdb/atoz.htm
http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/vsdb/atoz.htm
Restricted Use Pesticides (RUP):
https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report Hazard
Communication Standard: Labels and Pictograms
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3636.pdf
Chemical Hazard Classification
https://www.drs.illinois.edu/SafetyLibrary/ChemicalHazardClassification
NFPA Hazard Rating Information for Common Chemicals:
http://safety.nmsu.edu/programs/chem_safety/NFPA-ratingJ-R.htm
http://www.ehs.neu.edu/laboratory_safety/general_information/nfpa_hazard_rating/
Pesticides and Cancer
http://pesticide.umd.edu/products/leaflet_series/leaflets/PIL33.pdf
Pesticide adjuvants
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 143
http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/gen-peapp-adjuvants.aspx
Codex alimentarius (pesticide residues in food and feed):
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/pestres/data/pesticides/search.html
Guidelines for Training
http://pesticidestewardship.org/Pages/default.aspx
http://www.croplifeafrica.org/
Pesticide Applicator Core Training Manual
http://www.stewartfarm.org/phragmites/pdf/coremanual.pdf
IPM
www.infonet-biovision.org
www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/GENERAL/whatisipm.html
www.birc.org/products.pdf
www.ipm,ncsu.edu/agchem/1-toc.pdf
http://ipm.ncsu.edu/vegetables/pests_vegetables.html
http://ipm.tamu.edu/about/glossary/economic-thresholds/
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/
https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/plants/fruit-and-vegetables/a-z-list-of-horticultural-insect-pests
http://www.organic-africa.net/fileadmin/documents-africamanual/training-manual/chapter-
09/Africa_Manual_M09-8.pdf
http://www.plantwise.org/
Lists the species recorded in the Compendium for DRC region
http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108615
Preventing development of pest resistance
IRAC http://www.irac-online.org/documents/moa-classification/?ext=pdf
FRAC http://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/frac-code-list/frac-code-list-2017-final.pdf?sfvrsn=fab94a9a
IPM insect and disease control
http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/habersham/anr/documents/Organic.pdf
Pesticide regulations
http://epi.yale.edu/files/pops_final.pdf
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 144
http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/compliance/22cfr216
Effects of Modern Agriculture
http://mjcetenvsci.blogspot.co.il/2013/10/effects-of-modern-agriculture.html
Hazardous pesticides and health impacts in Africa
http://www.pan-uk.org/attachments/101_Hazardous_pesticides_and_health_impacts_in_Africa.pdf
Insect Damage, Postharvest Operations
http://www.fao.org/3/a-av013e.pdf
LSUAG Center
http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops_livestock/crops/
Insect pests of rice
http://books.irri.org/9712200280_content.pdf
Insects as pests
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text18/pestintro.html
Potential groundwater contamination from intentional and nonintentional storm water infiltration
https://books.google.com/books?id=kIzoGxF9GvUC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=fungicides+potential+
groundwater+pollutants&source=bl&ots=mcyfhV5R2v&sig=vARUKmI3kXUbKpElLwErHGp-
Ytk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAWoVChMI3Ljf-
6TyyAIVhTUmCh0G_ANN#v=onepage&q=fungicides%20potential%20groundwater%20pollutants&f
=false
An introduction to insecticides
http://ipmworld.umn.edu/ware-intro-insecticides
Fungal diseases of pearl millet
http://www.tifton.uga.edu/fat/fungaldiseasesPM.htm
Pest monitoring
http://pesticidestewardship.org/ipm/Pages/Monitoring.aspx
Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisoning
http://npic.orst.edu/RMPP/rmpp_main2a.pdf
Organic Africa Net
http://www.organic-africa.net/fileadmin/documents-africamanual/training-manual/chapter-
09/Africa_Manual_M09-22-low-res.pdf
Crops pests and diseases
http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/519-ASHC-manual-English.pdf
2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 145
Minimizing vegetable disease
http://plantclinic.cornell.edu/factsheets/minimizeveggiediseases.pdf
Vegetable diseases
http://vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu/cropindex.htm
US National Pesicide Information Center
http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/mfgrdata.htm
Wilt disease
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4356456/
http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/plant-diseases/vegetable/potato-diseases/potatoes-bacterial-wilt
Chinchona diseases
https://archive.org/stream/reviewofliteratu09lomb/reviewofliteratu09lomb_djvu.txt