MIRROR, MIRROR ON THE WALL…

MIRROR, MIRROR ON THE WALL…

Ng Kee ChuanScience Department

Gaya Teachers’ Training College

This is an action research on how to teach reflection among traineeteachers. It tells how I tried various ways to help increase the reflectiveabilities of my trainees. Among the methods I used were to teach thedifferent types of reflections explicitly especially the higher order type ofreflections, getting the trainees to consistently write reflections on theirlearning experiences and categorize their own reflections and givingspecific feedback to the trainees on their reflections. From their ownreflections and response to my probing questions, the trainees seem togain confidence and clarity on the task of reflection after having gonethrough the practice with me during the semester.

WHY IT ALL STARTED…

During my eight years as a lecturer I have had a tumultuousrelationship with reflection. It all started when I gavecourse work for trainee teachers that required them to writereflections on their experience of learning while preparingtheir portfolio. As I read reflection after reflection Isoon became weary and bored because most reflections writtenmerely dealt with generalities. I was not happy even thoughtime and time again I asked my trainees to be more specificin their writing of reflections.

My next encounter with reflections was when I supervisedtrainee teachers for their teaching practicum. They wererequired to write their reflections after each teachingsession and also to record additional reflections in theirjournals. Again I encountered the same problem. My traineeteachers merely reported their activities but never reallywent deeper to make reflections on their teachingexperiences.

Kajian Refleksi 2001 1

Then I started learning about qualitative research andaction research. When I did my first action research, I soondiscovered to my dismay that I too produced quite mediocreand haphazard kind of reflections. I then endeavored toimprove my own reflective skills. I read books to discoverhow others did it and tried it out in my subsequent actionresearch work.

SO THE PROBLEM IS…

In view of my experience both in observing others makereflections and in my own efforts in reflecting, I began torealize that making reflection does not come naturally buthas to be consciously and explicitly taught. It is with thishunch that I embarked on this action research to explore howI could teach the practice of reflection among my traineeteachers.


WHAT OTHERS HAVE TO SAY…

Donald Schon’s landmark book The Reflective Practitioner (1983)created an avalanche of interest in reflection. Even thoughthis book does not focus on the teaching professiondirectly, its interest spilled over into the pedagogicalpractice (Bengtsson, 1995:23). Emerging from this is thefocus on reflection in action as a particular form ofproblem-solving (Eraut, 1995:15) and reflection on action asa form of retrospection (Manen, 1995:34).

What is reflection actually? Wubbels and Korthagen (1990)gave this definition on reflection: reflection is the mentalprocess of structuring or restructuring an experience, aproblem or existing knowledge or insights. This seems toencompass everything that is of importance in theeducational context.

Hart et al.’s (1992) pragmatic definition says thatreflecting on their classroom experiences is a way to maketeachers aware of how they teach and how their students arethriving within the learning environment that has beenprovided. Even though this might seem a rather generaldefinition nevertheless it is helpful in that it points usto the two main factors in the classroom: the teacherteaching and the student learning.

The educational world of professional development realizesthat the practice of making reflections is an essential andcrucial piece in the effort to produce quality teachers. Forexample Stein and Smith (1998:268) points out that accordingto the Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM1991), a primary factor in teachers’ professional growth isthe extent to which they “reflect on learning and teachingindividually and with colleagues”.

Korthagen and Wubbels (1995:63-68) even reported thatreflective teachers have better interpersonal relationshipswith students than other teachers and develop a high degree


of job satisfaction. They also reported that studentteachers consider it important for their students to learnby investigating and structuring things themselves, havestrong feelings of personal security and self-efficacy andappear to talk or write relatively easily about theirexperiences.

But how sure are we about teaching reflection as a blanketpractice for all student teachers? Even Korthagen andWubbels pointed to the difficulty of determining therelationship between reflective practice and good teaching.The problem of course is agreeing to what constitutes goodteaching!

Another matter to consider is to what extent does teacherspractice reflection? This area is still rather unclear. InMalaysia, more often than not, teachers are so inundatedwith workload that they are either too distracted or tootired to make any extended or explicit reflection. Therecord books of teachers are just that – a record of thecontent taught. No reflection is required and the teacherwho does write some sort of reflection is a rare if notextinct species!

It is far easier to use the word reflection than to actuallypractice it regularly. Furthermore, what is the minimalstandard before we can categorize a thought as reflection?Perhaps I have raised more questions than I can answer inthis paper. But, it cannot be denied that reflection isexpected amongst student or pre-service teachers educationin teacher training colleges in Malaysia.

MY QUESTIONS IN A NUTSHELL ARE…

My main aim in this action research is to formulate methodsof teaching reflection explicitly to others.

Some of the questions related to this quest are:


1. What are some effective ways to introduce reflection totrainee teachers?

2. What are helps that can be given to people to makereflections easier and more focused?

WHAT MY TOOLS ARE…

Sample:

My sample consisted of 37 trainee teachers from the MalayLanguage – Science option who are currently in their thirdsemester. Throughout the semester, we dealt with processskills in science and microteaching.

Instrument:

I relied on my own observations and journal writing. In myown journal and portfolio, I sought to collect all themethods and ways in which I tried to enhance the reflectivewriting skills of my trainees. Apart from that, I also readand gave feedback to the journals kept by each of my traineeteachers. From time to time I gave specific questions forthe trainee teachers to write about their practice ofreflection (see Appendix 3). My trainees wrote theirreflections and answers in the Malay language and I haveendeavored to retain their expressions in their originalform when used to elucidate my findings.

Analysis of data:

I analyzed all qualitative data by categorizing themaccording to their natural groups. A thorough reading andcategorization was done through out the duration of thisstudy. Analysis questions were given to trainees to find outthe effectiveness and suitability of methods used to enhancetheir reflective skills.


WHY THIS INVESTIGATION IMPORTANT…

This study will hopefully be beneficial to educators whoseek to help their students or trainees to carry outreflections upon their learning. It will also be suitablefor teachers who would like to improve their own reflectiveskills.

HERE’S WHAT HAPPENED…

How it all started…

The first day started by breaking them up into groups. Theywanted to choose their own groups so I consented. As theydid so, I noticed that some of them were rather passive andjust waited to be called into a group. Of course in suchsituations, some ended up without a group and I had tointervene to get them included. It suddenly occurred to methat this could be a good situation to introduce reflection.

I used this situation to illustrate the cyclic nature ofdoing reflections:

These were the questions I used to spark their reflections:

1. What did you notice just now? (Observation)2. Why were some not chosen? (Reflection)3. What should you do the next time to get included into a

group? (Action)


Observation

Reflection

Action

Results

Another situation in class also prompted me to introducereflection. As I was conducting the class, I noticed onetrainee who kept facing the window and did not look at me.So, I verbalized my observation by naming him and relatingmy thoughts as a teacher. I then proceeded to ask “why”questions.

The whole point of using these real life situations was tohelp my trainees realize that reflection is not justanswering “What” questions but also “Why” questions, that isto move from observation to more higher order reflections.As I did so, I noticed that they were now nodding theirheads and their facial expressions showed that some kind of‘enlightenment’ occurred. (Diary 1:10/1/01)

I then proceeded to get them to do some reflections byasking them to recall what happened last semester and why:

1. What was your experience like last semester when youdid your course work portfolio? What did you learn fromthat experience?

2. What is my reaction to this new course work portfolio?3. What did you learn today’s lesson?

Wading through their journals…

After two classes, I decided to collect their journals andread what had been written thus far. As I read 19 journalsin a row, two questions emerged as my most common responseto their writings:

1. What new thing did you learn or realize today?2. What change has occurred in your thinking today? When

and how did that happen?(Diary 4:31/1/01)

These questions came to me because many were still lockedinto describing what happened in class. I also noticed that


many struggled to find a focus when I did not provide promptquestions. I wrote:

“When it was left to them to write on their own, many resorted to relatingwhat happened in the class – a mere recording of events – and very littleor no commentary of their own.”

(Diary 4-5:31/1/01) Therefore, I find that in the beginning stages of teachingreflection they needed some prompt questions to help kickstart their reflection. Another thing that occurred to mewas that they needed to be taught more explicitly aboutreflections. So, I planned to do that the following week.

Teaching reflection explicitly

One of the main things I had sought to help them understandexplicitly was that there were different types ofreflection, that is:

On the level of description, there are two types: 1. Anecdotes: Describe an event that happened including

personal comments.2. Observation: Significant, surprising, shocking,

important or interesting matters.

On the level of interpretation, there are another two types:1. Theoretical notes: Suggestions forwarded to explain an

issue or problem. The aim is to interrelate andunderstand issues or problems.

2. Planning notes: Suggested action to be taken toovercome problems and improve the teaching and learningexperience.

According to 13 trainees reflection that was taughtexplicitly and consistently as the main factor that helpedthem to develop a better grasp of doing reflection.


Explanation of higher order reflection

One of the critical factors in doing reflection is thattrainees need to realize and be able to differentiate higherorder types of reflection from the lower order types ofreflections. Once they acquired this ability todifferentiate description (lower order) from interpretation(higher order), they gained greater confidence in doingreflection.

Pada semester yang sudah, keyakinan membuat refleksi memang ada.Sebab pada pemahaman saya, membuat refleksi adalah cara kitamengimbas kembali perkara-perkara atau masalah yang dihadapisemasa membuat sesuatu. Ini kerana pendedahan tentang cara-caramembuat refleksi tidak ditekankan. Tetapi dalam semester ini, setelah En.Ng menerangkan dengan terperinci panduan menulis refleksi danpengertiannya, barulah saya sedar cara penulisan refleksi saya semesterlalu adalah salah. Semuanya berkisar pada aspek pemerhatian sahaja.Saya rasa lebih yakin menulis refleksi di semester ini berbanding dengansemester lalu. Menulis refleksi mesti ada pemerhatian, refleksi, tindakansusulan dan hasil. (35:33, 25/4/01)

Penulisan refleksi secara jurnal pada semester ini adalah satu cara yangbaik bagi diri saya kerana ia dapat menilai hasil pembelajaran saya darisemasa ke semasa dan membantu saya mengingati kembalipembelajaran lalu dan mendorong saya untuk mengetahui apa yangtidak dan belum saya ketahui. Melalui pendedahan pensyarah bagaimana untuk menulis refleksi secara‘DESKRIPSI’ iaitu penulisan yang menceritakan apa yang berlaku di dalamkelas dan ‘INTERPRETASI’ iaitu penulisan yang menghubungkaitkan datadan memahaminya, telah menungkatkan kemahiran saya membuatrefleksi yang lebih bermakna. Berbanding dengan semester lalu, saya hanya menulis refleksi setakat‘deskripsi’ sahaja tetapi pada semester ini saya lebih yakin untukmembawa refleksi hingga kepada ‘interpretasi’ kerana saya sudah fahamuntuk mengaitkan aoa yang telah saya pelajari seterusnyamengaplikasikannya dalam pembelajaran. (35:33, 25/4/01)


Pada mulanya apabila didedahkan dengan deskripsi dan interpretasi…barulah saya faham, penulisan refleksi, jurnal ini serupalah sepertimenulis diari. Tetapi hanya isi utama yang ditekankan. Kepentinganpenulisan jurnal ini sebenarnya baik kerana saya bukan sahaja dapatmengingat apa yang sudah berlaku pada kuliah yang lalu tetapi sayadapat mengimbas kembali aktiviti dan pembelajaran yang lepas…Malahpendedahan deskripsi dan interpretasi telah memudahkan lagi penulisanjurnal sudah ke tahap/aras yang mana satu. Ini membantu kamimemperbaiki sebarang kekurangan dan kelemahan yang berlaku.(30:31,33, 15/4/01)

Notes which explained the types of reflection (see Appendix1) and examples of the four different types of reflection(see Appendix 2) were given to them and further explanationswere given. 11 trainees wrote in their reflection that thenotes helped them understand reflection better.

Melalui contoh-contoh refleksi dan penerangan yang diberikan olehpensyarah, saya telah dapat meningkatkan kemahiran membuat refleksi.Selain daripada itu, penulisan jurnal yang saya buat setiap selesainyasatu-satu pembelajaran dalam kelas dan seterusnya diberi ulasan olehpenysarah telah memberi input kepada saya untuk meningkatkankemahiran membuat refleksi. (4:24, 25/4/01)

Hasil daripada pengajaran dan penerangan yang telah diberi olehpensyarah saya lebih yakin membuat refleksi pada semester ini jikadibandingkan dengan semester lalu. Iin kerana pada semester ini kamitelah didedahkan bagaimana untuk membuat jurnal yang baik.Pensyarah juga banyak membantu dengan memberi panduan dan notaberkenaan dengan cara membuat refleksi. (16:30, 25/4/01)

Another important twist in teaching reflection was when Iasked them to read their own reflections and categorizedtheir writings according to the four types of reflection(Diary 10:26/2/01). During that time, some came to realizethat they were still writing on the level of description.This spurred them on to try and write interpretivereflections.


Writing reflections consistently

Coupled with this was the requirement to write reflectionsafter every teaching-learning experience that I conductedwith them. During the second half of the semester, I thenswitched to them making reflections as they carried outmicroteaching or observed their peers conduct theirmicroteaching. This continuous practice of writingreflections after each class helped some of the trainees toimprove on their reflective writing skills. Furthermore,some questions were also given to help prompt their thinkingand reflection. (See Appendix 3)

The comments written by some of the trainees indicate thatthis weekly requirement to do reflection eventually helpedthem to gain confidence in making higher order reflections.

Cara membuat refleksi semester ini adalah berbeza sekali cara membuatrefleksi semester lalu. Ini disebabkan cara membuat refleksi lalu sekalisahaja iaitu refleksi KKB. Mungkin pada semester (ini) keyakinan untukmembuat refleksi ada kerana bimbingan yang telah diberikan telahbegitu banyak mengajar atau membimbing. Lebih-lebih lagi di semesterini setiap sesi pembelajaran ada sahaja refleksi. Mengapa inimenambahkan keyakinan? Ini disebabkan seakan-akan membuat refleksitelah dilatihtubi apa yang lebih penting mendapatkan nota teoretis danperancangan dalam sesi pembelajaran yang akan dicatat dalam refleksi.(15:22, 25/4/01)

Setelah menulis refleksi beberapa kali saya dapat menilai kemampuanpenulisan refleksi saya. (24:32, 25/4/01)

Penulisan jurnal yang kami lakukan juga banyak membantu saya dalammembuat refleksi kerana kerja ini adalah berterusan. Hasilnya daripadayang tidak saya ketahui kini saya telah mengetahui untuk membuatrefleksi. (16:30, 25/4/01)

I also collected their journals from time to time to markand give suggestions on their written reflections.


Pada semester lalu, kami telah membuat tugasan KKB secara individudan terlalu banyak yang perlu kami siapkan. Dalam membuat refleksi,saya tidak tahu apakah yang perlu saya catatlan dalam refleksi keranasaya hanya membuat KKB asal siap sahaja tanpa memahami aktivitipembelajarn saya. Tetapi berlainan dengan semester ini, kami dimintamenulis refleksi setiap kali pembelajaran berakhir. Kami juga banyakdiberi dorongan dan nota tentang bagaimana menulis jurnal denganmengenalpasti bahagian deskripsi dan interpretasi. Kami juga dimintamenghantar kepada pensyarah untuk bimbingan dari masa ke semasa.(27:23, 25/4/01)

In summary…

It was a roller coaster ride for me this semester as Isought to inculcate the habit of doing reflections amongstmy teacher trainees. It was a joy to see my trainees gainconfidence not only in making reflections but also inevaluating their own reflections.

If I were to put the approach I used in a step-by-stepprocess, it would be somewhat like the flow chart below:



Appendix 1 and 2

Start

Illustrate reflections

using everyday situations

Explicitly teach different types of reflection by giving

actual examplesEmphasize higher order reflections and contrast with

lower order reflections

Types of reflection understood?

Trainees write regular

reflections

Lecturer gives specific feedback

to trainees’ written reflections

Trainees categorize their own reflections

Yes

No

Metacognitive questions on reflection

End

Journal

Appendix 3

The first step is to illustrate reflections using everydayand relevant situations. This step is to encourage traineesto make reflections by showing them its benefits. They willalso see that making reflections is a very natural part ofthe process of learning. Nevertheless, they need to realizethat it is only too easy to forego making reflectionsbecause it does take time and effort.

The second and critical step is to explicitly teach thedifferent types of reflection. At this stage they need boththe theoretical and practical aspect of reflection. Thismeans they need to know the descriptive and interpretivetypes and levels of reflection. They will also need actualexamples to help them see the different types and levels ofreflection.

The next step is to help them concretize their understandingof the difference between low-level reflections (anecdotesand observation) and high-level reflections (theoreticalnotes and planning notes). Emphasis needs to be placed onhigh-level reflections.

When all these have been understood, then get them to writereflections regularly. This consistent practice ofreflecting in action and reflecting on action needs to becarried out consistently because practice makes perfect.

It is also helpful from time to time to give specificfeedback to their writings. What I usually do is that I givefeedback in the form of questions to help stimulate furtherand deeper reflections.

What is more, we could also get them to categorize their ownreflections so that they realize at what level of reflectionthey are operating. It will also encourage them if we pickout good examples of high-level reflections and read it outto the class.


At the later stage of their reflective endeavor, it will beappropriate to give them metacognitive questions to helpthem think about their reflection. Questions that help themconsider how they have changed in their practice ofreflection, the advancement they have made and what helpedthem most in making those steps forward could be given tohelp them consolidate their learning experience.

Closing words…

Nevertheless, I feel that I have only touched the tip of theiceberg with regards to teaching reflection. Perhaps afurther research endeavor is to find out how reflectionactually affects practice. What are the changes thatreflection brings about in group exercises and teamwork? Howdoes reflection contribute to the teaching-learningexperience in schools amongst students? That is anotherstory…

PENULISAN JOURNAL

PETUNJUK

1. PERIBADI: Gunakan bahasa, cara, format dan gaya yang andaselesa.

2. SERING: Tulis secara berterusan. Anda mungkin tetapkan satu masa setiap minggu, sebaik sahaja sesuatu berlaku yang anda fikir signifikan, atau selepas setiap masa pengajaran dan pembelajaran.

3. MARGIN: Sediakan margin yang cukup besar atau beli buku catatan yang tersedia dengan margin ini. Margin ini akan berguna terutama apabila membuat analisa.


Appendix 1

4. INFORMASI: Tarikh, masa, tempat, peserta, fokus, dan lain-lain informasi yang berkaitan dan relevan.

5. BENTUK: Tulis dalam bentuk perenggan dan masukkan tajuk, sub-tajuk dan perkataan yang digariskan.

6. ISI KANDUNGAN: Sediakan isi kandungan yang berterusan, muka muka surat dan menomborkan perenggan untuk menyenangkan rujukan.

7. ANALISA RINTIS: Penganalisaan rintis dari semasa ke semasa akan menyenangkan dan membantu anda membuat refleksi yang lebih bernas.

JENIS KEMASUKAN JOURNAL

DESKRIPSI

1. ANEKDOT: Cerita tentang peristiwa yang berlaku termasuk komen sendiri.

2. PEMERHATIAN: Perkara signifikan, menghairankan, menakjubkan, penting atau yang menarik.

INTERPRETASI

1. NOTA TEORETIS: Cadangan yang diusulkan untuk menerangkan isu atau masalah kajian. Tujuannya ialah untuk menghubungkaitkan data dan memahaminya.

2. NOTA PERANCANGAN: Candangan tindakan yang akan diambil untuk mengatasi masalah atau mempertingkatkan P&P.


CONTOH REFLEKSI UNTUK JOURNAL

1. DESKRIPSI

“Saya juga membuat keputusan untuk memberi setiap kumpulan satu aspek tentang cahaya untuk dirancang eksperimen dengan sendiri dan menunjukkan serta menerangkan kepada kelas.

Setelah itu saya membiarkan mereka berbincang. Setelah setengah jam, saya perhatikan mereka agak tidak tertumpu. Mungkin sudah puas hati dengan perancangan. Saya pun menyemak setiap kumpulan bermula dengan perbincangan gambar kelmarin – bagaimana seorang dapat melihat jam di dinding. Mereka dapat terangkan tetapi apabila saya minta keterangan yang lebih lanjut., saya dapati mereka tersekat. Mereka dapat menerangkan secara kasar dengan menggunakan istiilah-istilah sains seperti “memantul”, “memancar”, “mencapah”, “membias”. Contohnya, “Cahaya dipancar dari tingkap ke jam dan dipantulkan ke mata orang.” Tetapi apabila saya mempersoalkan bagaimana mereka tahu demikian mereka tidak dapat berbuat demikian, Soalan yang saya tanya:

Adakah semua benda memantul cahaya? Jika satu alur cahaya dipantulkan kepada orang di A,

bagaimana orang di B dapat melihat jam itu?Bagaimana anda dapat buktikan cahaya dipantulkan dari jam kemata?”(Journal:11-12 – 2/3/2000 10.50-12.50 a.m.)


B A

ANEKDOT: Cerita tentang peristiwa yang berlaku termasuk komen sendiri.

Appendix 2

“Ada beberapa keraguan yang saya dapat dengar daripada keterangan mereka kepada soalan saya: Cahaya dibiaskan daripada lantai ke atas kerana melebihi

sudut genting. Ada cermin di muka jam. Cahaya itu satu alur sahaja dari tingkap ke jam dan

dipantulkan.”(Journal:12 – 2/3/2000 10.50-12.50 a.m.)

2. INTERPRETASI

“Saya pelajari bahawa mereka yang telah pelajari sains dapatmenggunakan istilah sains untuk menyembunyikan ketidakfahaman mereka. Inilah bahayanya apabila kita tidak mengajar konsep asas sains tetapi mengajar teori secara umum. Menghafal fakrif dan keterangan dari buku bukan bernaksud kefahaman mereka boleh digunakan untuk menerangkansituasi yang spesifik.”(Journal:12 – 2/3/2000 10.50-12.50 a.m.)

“Mungkin adalah perlu untuk memberi situasi harian semasa dan selepas mengajar konsep-konsep sains.


KeteranganKonsep

NOTA TEORETIS: Cadangan yang diusulkan untuk menerangkan isu atau masalah kajian. Tujuannya ialah untuk

NOTA PERANCANGAN: Candangan tindakan yang akan diambil untuk mengatasi masalah atau mempertingkatkan P&P.

PEMERHATIAN: Perkara signifikan, menghairankan, menakjubkan, penting atau yang menarik.

(Journal:13 – 2/3/2000 10.50-12.50 a.m.)


dipela

Pelajar

terjemah

Situasiharianasas

Peneranganselaras?

SOALAN-SOALAN PERANGSANG UNTUK PELATIH

(17/1/2001)

1. Bagaimanakah pengalaman saya membuat KKB semester lalu?Apakah pembelajaran hasil daripada pengalaman itu?

2. Apakah reaksi saya selepas menerima KKB baru ini?3. Apakah yang anda dapati daripada pembelajaran kuliah

hari ini?

(31/1/2001)

1. Apakah pendapat anda tentang kelas hari ini?

(21/2/2001)

1. Apakah pendapat anda mengenai pembelajaran kuliah hari ini?

(28/2/2001)

1. Apakah anda rasa kemahiran membuat refleksi anda sudah berkembang?

2. Jika ya, bagaimana?Apakah yang telah membantu anda mengembangkan kemahiran ini?

3. Apakah yang anda dapati daripada membuat refleksi secara menulis dalam Jurnal?

(7/3/2001)

1. Apakah yag anda dapati daripada pembelajaran kuliah hari ini?

(21/3/01)

1. Apakah yang anda dapati hasil daripada pembelajaran hari ini?


Appendix 3

(7/4/01)

1. Apakah yang anda dapati daripada pengaajaran mikro hari ini?

(25/4/01)

1. Apakah aktiviti pembelajaran yang telah membantu anda memahami dan menguasai KPS? Terangkan mengapa?

2. Bagaimanakah pengenalan 3 fasa penyiasatan sains (iaituperancangan, pelaksanaan dan membuat kesimpulan) membantu memahami KPS? Banding dengan pendedahan kepadaKPS pada semester yang sudah?

3. KPS mana (jika ada) yang anda masih kurang jelas? Mengapa?

4. Apakah aktiviti pembelajaran yang telah membantu anda meningkatkan kemahiran membuat refleksi anda? Bagaimanadan mengapa?

5. Berbanding dengan semester yang sudah, adakah anda lebih yakin membuat refleksi? Mengapa?

6. Apakah pembelajaran utama secara spesifik yang anda perolehi semada anda membuat refleksi? Terangkan.


BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bengtsson, J. (1995) “What is reflection? On reflection inthe teaching profession and teacher education.” Teachersand Teaching: theory and practice. 1(1):23-32.

Eraut, M. (1995) “Schon Shock: a case for reframingreflection-in-action?” Teachers and Teaching: theory andpractice. 1(1):9-22.

Hart, L. C., Schultz, K., Najee-ullah, D. and Nash, L.(1992) “Implementing the Professional Standards forTeaching Mathematics: The role of reflection inteaching.” Arithmetic Teacher 40: 40-42.

Korthagen, F.A. & Wubbels, T. (1995) “Characteristics ofreflective practitioners: towards an operationalizationof the concept of reflection.” Teachers and Teaching: theoryand practice. 1(1):51-72

Manen, M.V. (1995) “On the epistemology of reflectivepractice.” Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice. 1(1):33-50.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1991)Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics. Reston, Va.:NCTM.

Schon, D.A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think inaction. (new York, Basic Books).

Stein, M.K. and Smith, M.S. (1998) “Mathematical tasks as aframework for reflection: From research to practice.”Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. 3(4): 268-275.

Wubbels, T. & Korthagen, F.A.J. (1990) The effects ofpreservice teacher education program for thepreparation of reflective teachers. Journal of Education forTeaching. 16(1):29-43.


MIRROR, MIRROR ON THE WALL…

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