Minority Children in Special and Gifted Education Issues in Identification and Referral Impressions and Recommendations.

Minority Children in Minority Children in Special and Gifted Special and Gifted

EducationEducation

Issues in Identification and ReferralIssues in Identification and Referral

Impressions and RecommendationsImpressions and Recommendations

OverviewIntroduction.Disproportionate numbers of minority children in special education programs.• Statistical trends in identification. • Important litigation.• Causes of disproportionate identification.• Recommendations for change.Gifted and talented underrepresentation.• What is giftedness?• Causes of limited identification for gifted

education.• Recommendations for improved identification.

IntroductionOver-identification, misidentification, and under-identification of minority children for special education intervention or gifted education leads to minority children being both underserved and mis-served.

Percentages of minority students assessed as eligible for supports in both categories are disproportionate in comparison to total enrollment figures and non-minority student populations.

Identification issues for minority students can lead to inappropriate educational placement and educational failure.

Representation of Representation of Minority Children in Minority Children in Special Education Special Education

Disproportionate Disproportionate IdentificationIdentification

Special Education by the Special Education by the Numbers:Numbers:

Approximately 5.4 Approximately 5.4 million school-aged (6-million school-aged (6-21) children identified 21) children identified with disabilities (under with disabilities (under IDEA).IDEA).

2,030,685 (38%) are 2,030,685 (38%) are minority children.minority children.

(Source: IDEA/OSERS)(Source: IDEA/OSERS)

1.5 million of these are 1.5 million of these are minority children minority children labeled MMR, ED or SLD.labeled MMR, ED or SLD.

876,000 of those--either 876,000 of those--either Native American or Native American or African American.African American.

(Source: Executive Summary, 2002)(Source: Executive Summary, 2002)

OVER-identification of Minority Children for Special Education

Primarily “soft” disabilities: MMR, ED, SLD.

English language learners: Speech and language,

LD.

Usually NOT in medically diagnosed categories: deafness blindness, Down’s Syndrome, etc.

Percentages of Minority Groups that make up Special Education

Totals

20% (15%) African Americans 14.5%(17.5%) Hispanic/Latino 2% (4%) Asian/Pacific Islanders 1.5% (1%) Native Americans

38% of special education population:

minority students. 37.5% of total school population:

minority students.

(Source: IDEA/OSERS, 2001)

Enrollment Comparisons

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

AfricanAmerican

Hispanic White NativeAmerican

Total Enrollment

Identified MentallyRetarded

Identified Gifted

(Source: Office for Civil Rights in Losen & Orfield, 2002)

Trends in Ethnic Demographics

Asian Americans: Generally underidentified for special education; overidentified

for gifted ed.

African American students: 3 times more likely--labeled mentally retarded. 2 times more likely--emotionally disturbed. Boys labeled MR 4 times more than non-minorities.

Ethnic Trends, con’t

Native American students: 2 times more likely to be labeled ED or learning disabled. Initially, 4 times more likely--speech or language impaired.

Hispanic students: More likely identified when attending schools with high numbers of

ELL students. Less likely eligible for services if attending schools with lower

numbers of ELL students.

According to Losen &Orfield (2002), “each minority group is at greater risk of being labeled mentally retarded as their percentage of the population increases.”

Examples of Geographic Trends

District of Columbia:67% of African Americans make up school

population; 91% identified eligible.

South Carolina, Mississippi:African Americans 4 times more likely to be

identified mentally retarded.

Alaska:Native Americans: 21% of school

population; over 40% of students with MR.

Hawaii:Asian/Pacific Islanders identified with

speech,language impairments 3 times more.

(Sources: Losen & Orfield, 2002; IDEA Data/OSERS, 2001)

In Arizona:

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Population

All Disabilties

MR

SLD

ED

Deaf-Blind

(Source: IDEA Data/OSERS, 2001)

Flagstaff Unified Schools:

1875 students identified for special education (17%** of total population).

867 are minority students (46% of special ed students).

Total population of minority students in the district: 42%.

(**Based on data received from FUSD 2/10/03; total school population: 10,860. 100-day count cited in Arizona Daily Sun, 2/12/03: 11,487.)

What Does the Data Tell What Does the Data Tell Us?Us?

Identification varies by:Identification varies by: disability.disability. geographic location.geographic location. ethnicity.ethnicity. gender.gender.

Nationally:Nationally: extreme disparities extreme disparities

between Hispanic and between Hispanic and African American African American identification rates.identification rates.

National trends:National trends: do not always mirror local do not always mirror local

trends in identification.trends in identification.

CRUCIAL:CRUCIAL: to look at what’s happening to look at what’s happening

in special education locally.in special education locally.

Problems with Statistical Problems with Statistical Information:Information:

Data collection, reporting procedures inconsistent (state Data collection, reporting procedures inconsistent (state to state, district to district, no federal oversight).to state, district to district, no federal oversight).

Discrepancies exist, state by state, between enrollment Discrepancies exist, state by state, between enrollment data and disability identification.data and disability identification.

About 400,000 children identified as disabled not About 400,000 children identified as disabled not identified with any ethnic group.identified with any ethnic group.

Numbers, percentage totals must be considered Numbers, percentage totals must be considered approximationsapproximations..

Numerical discrepancies exist between data collection Numerical discrepancies exist between data collection sources.sources.

Difficult to collect concise information in rural areas.Difficult to collect concise information in rural areas.

IDEA ’97 mandated data collection but no IDEA ’97 mandated data collection but no standardization.standardization.

Important Litigation: Minority Rights in Special Education Hobson vs. Hanson (1967)

Ability tracking denied equal education for minorities.

Diana vs. CA State Board Of Education (1970)

Non-discriminatory testing provision (i.e., testing done in native language).

Guadalupe vs. Tempe (1972) Upheld non-discriminatory testing.

Larry P. vs. Riles (1972, 1979, 1984) Barred use of IQ scores as sole determiner of

student placement.

Important Litigation, con’t. Lau vs. Nichols (1974)

Non-discriminatory testing; San Francisco LEP students.

PASE vs. Hannon (1980) Upheld the use of IQ test scores BUT other assessment measures used, too.

Lee vs. Macon (1967, Alabama) One of the longest active cases on record. 2000 decision, mandated “mechanisms to correct:”

African American overrepresentation in MR, ED. Underrepresentation in areas of LD, gifted.

(Source: Paolino, 2002)

Litigation Has Led Directly To: Protective legislation:

Public Law 93-112. Public Law 94-142 (EHA) which became-- IDEA and its reauthorizations. Generally occurs only after parent-initiated litigation.

Establishment of “Protection in Evaluation Procedures” requirements:

Comprehensive, individualized evaluations. Use of nondiscriminatory practices. Use of multiple assessments. Establishment of team process for referral, evaluation,

placement.

Purpose: Protection of students whose learning differences may be related to cultural and ethnic differences from being misidentified as disabled.

Factors in Identification Disparities of Minority Students o 30+ years of research

and documentation have found the following leading causes:

Test bias.Teacher bias.Poverty/environmental effects.Cultural and linguistic differences.

Current Research Focus:o Latest research:

Continued test bias, teacher bias, poverty/environmental effects, cultural/linguistic differences.Teacher/classroom characteristics.Parental involvement.Issues of subjectivity.Funding.Emerging responses to “high-stakes” testing.Continued “wait-to-fail” model prevalent in the United States (or, “wait-to-succeed”).

.

Test Bias/High Stakes Testing

Test bias in general:Echoes experiences of middle class children.Based on author’s cultural, linguistic, experiential background.Normative sample problems.Usually given by non-minority professionals.Often, still not written and/or administered in student’s native language.Continued reliance on IQ scores.

High-stakes tests:Contain many of the same built-in biases, problems.

Can validity be established?

Teacher pay, school performance tied to student achievement—may result in increased special ed referrals.

Increased pressure on minority student performance—result: increased failure.

Teacher Bias and Characteristics

Lowered behavioral, academic expectations. Expectations of failure.Teacher experience, training.Instructional quality.Classroom management (quiet vs. social??)Unconscious racial bias, lowered or stereotypical expectations.Quality of reciprocal relationships, interactions.Teacher ethnicity.

Poverty and the Environment

Considered to be related to racial bias.Insufficient nutrition, medical and/or prenatal carePoor living conditions.Toxins and pollutants.(e.g., lead exposure, etc.)Poor community supports.Geographic location.

Cultural and Linguistic Differences

Child’s life experiences, activities, etc., shaped by his/her culture.Cultural experiences influence a child’s strengths, needs. “A student’s cultural background may help determine which neurodevelopmental strengths get stronger and which ones don’t,” (Levine, 2001).

Cultural influences can affect learning modalities.

Historical cultural experiences, views may differ.

Vocabulary differences may hamper learning.

Parental InvolvementLack of support, involvement in child’s educational experience.Lack of knowledge of special ed rights, services, procedures, language, etc.Uncomfortable advocating “against” professionals.Acceptance, without question, of educators’ conclusions.

Subjectivity, Funding Concerns

o Funding. Parrish (Losen & Orfield) believes some overidentification occurs so that poor schools can qualify for state, federal funding.

o Subjectivity. Permeates decision-making on every level--

referral, assessment, placement despite best intentions, team process, increased awareness.

Recommendations for Recommendations for Better IdentificationBetter Identification

In the classroom:In the classroom: High quality instruction for all High quality instruction for all

students (i.e., much improved students (i.e., much improved teacher training).teacher training).

General education classes General education classes geared toward success for all geared toward success for all students.students.

Improve early identification, Improve early identification, intervention programs.intervention programs.

Target monitoring, improving Target monitoring, improving reading skills.reading skills.

Recruit educators from diverse Recruit educators from diverse background, provide culturally background, provide culturally diverse instruction.diverse instruction.

Use pre-referral process before Use pre-referral process before special ed assessment referral.special ed assessment referral.

More More RecommendationsRecommendations

For support staffFor support staff:: Provide consistent Provide consistent

monitoring of all students monitoring of all students through primary grades.through primary grades.

Ensure appropriate special Ensure appropriate special education services education services provided.provided.

For parents:For parents: Educators—encourage Educators—encourage

parental involvement.parental involvement. Be encouraged to seek Be encouraged to seek

legal help, mediation, legal help, mediation, assistance.assistance.

Be provided with Be provided with information, supports to information, supports to better advocate.better advocate.

Recommendations, Recommendations, con’tcon’t

For districts, state and federal governments, For districts, state and federal governments, others:others:

Improve data collection, student population monitoring.Improve data collection, student population monitoring. Require school districts to report disparities in special ed Require school districts to report disparities in special ed

identification, placement identification, placement (Losen, Orfield, 2002).(Losen, Orfield, 2002). Improve federal and state oversight and enforcement.Improve federal and state oversight and enforcement. Guarantee that schools receive adequate funding.Guarantee that schools receive adequate funding. Increase referral, evaluation accuracy– use multiple Increase referral, evaluation accuracy– use multiple

assessments, teams w/cultural diversity, parental input.assessments, teams w/cultural diversity, parental input.

““The concern with the overrepresentation of minorities {in The concern with the overrepresentation of minorities {in special education placements} would be mitigated if the special education placements} would be mitigated if the

evidence suggested that minority children reaped the same evidence suggested that minority children reaped the same benefit from more frequent identification and isolation. benefit from more frequent identification and isolation.

But as government officials acknowledge and as data But as government officials acknowledge and as data demonstrate, this does not appear to be the case.” demonstrate, this does not appear to be the case.”

(Losen & Orfield, 2002)(Losen & Orfield, 2002)

Gifted & Talented Gifted & Talented Minority Students:Minority Students:

Underrepresented and Underrepresented and UnderservedUnderserved

The Need For Change

By 2040, 40% of the nation’s students will be students of color.

By 2050, the numbers of Hispanic students will increase to more than 18 million--27% of all school-aged children.

What is Giftedness?

The definition of giftedness has not been universally decided: Districts, states, and

some schools decide how to identify gifted students.

Gardner says there are multiple intelligences:

Knowledge Language Leadership Memory Reading Art Music Creativity

More about Giftedness

Giftedness is usually defined as success in academics.

U.S. Department of Education shows 3 groups consistently underrepresented: Native Americans Hispanics African Americans

Why are these groups so Why are these groups so underrepresented?underrepresented?

Teacher Teacher expectations/expectations/

perceptions.perceptions. Test bias.Test bias. Lack of universal Lack of universal

definition of definition of giftedness.giftedness.

Just what Just what isis giftedness?giftedness?

Parent awareness.Parent awareness. Administrative Administrative

issues.issues.

““Underrepresentation Underrepresentation of minority groups in of minority groups in

gifted programs is gifted programs is related to a related to a

breakdown in the breakdown in the referral process, the referral process, the assessment process, assessment process, or both.” or both.” ((Masten & Plata, 2000)Masten & Plata, 2000)

Teacher Expectations/Perceptions

Teachers’ perceptions are based on: Gender

Hispanic females nominated fewer times than any other group.

Social class Do not realize the

limitations of a low socioeconomic environment to stimulate and support the development of higher intellectual capacities.

(Source: Plata & Masten, 1997) Language proficiency.

Teacher Perceptions, con’t Race

Perceive Hispanic students behavior as less favorable than Anglo students.

Perceive Hispanic students as having lower academic potential.

Interact less affirmatively with Hispanic students than with Anglo students.

Anglo students nominated more than any others.

Teacher Perceptions, con’t

Teachers identify giftedness based on academic performance only.

Expectations of the mainstream culture have biased the process of identification of gifted children.

There exists a persistent attitude that giftedness simply cannot be found in some groups.

Teacher Perceptions

Intelligence Leadership Academic Achievement

Creativity

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Anglos Yes

Hispanics Yes

Anglos No

Hispanics No

Teacher perceptions affect nominations of Hispanic and Anglo students for gifted programs:

(Source: Plata, Marsten & Trusty, 1999.)

Test Bias Historically, gifted and talented

programs are filled by White, middle and upper middle class students.

Test makers are of the same class, so they tend to favor students from same background.

Test are not given in the native tongue of ELL students.

Test Bias, con’t Intelligence tests: strongly biased

against culturally disadvantaged students because they emphasize:– Rapid response.– Verbal comprehension.– Answers that are acquired in the

dominant middle class culture.

Test Bias, con’t Objective tests items:

– Biased because they are based on:

o Differences in values:

Urban ghettoexperience comparedto surburban and

other lifepatterns.

o Differences in racial and cultural experiences.

o Differences in language usage common to the cultural group.

What is Giftedness?????

Academic performance Creativity Language Leadership Memory Reading Art Music skills

What??? con’t No universal definition of

giftedness.

Most definitions are defined by academic achievement.

Different cultural perceptions of giftedness:

Anglo Culture Focus on high

standardized test scores. Competitive. Superior academic skills. Standing out in a group. Assertive.

What???? con’t Navajo Culture

Quietness. Noncompetitive. Non assertive. Does not show leadership qualities

in public. Hispanic Culture

Follows orders. Does not lead. Obeys, cooperates, submissive. Doesn’t meddle in adult affairs. Doesn’t judge or criticize others. Opposing cultural values will put

student at odds with significant others (family, culture, etc...).

Parent Awareness Study by Bracey

Hispanic parents are less aware of their children’s giftedness.

Parents are not involved in nomination process.

Parents not aware of nomination processes or existence of gifted programs.

Awareness, con’t Hispanic parents

are more reserved and less likely to nominate their children.

Parents are not aware of what definition of giftedness is.

Parents not included in assessment process.

Administrative Issues

Administrators do not train teachers to recognize characteristics of gifted ELL learners.

Psychologists not always aware of limitations of teacher rating scales.

Parents generally not included on evaluation committee.

Administrators do not usually inform community of gifted characteristics or assessment process.

““. . . . {Y}outh are the most . . {Y}outh are the most important natural resource of a important natural resource of a

great nation. Gifted programs can great nation. Gifted programs can help prepare youth of all cultures help prepare youth of all cultures

and languages to become and languages to become productive citizens and critical productive citizens and critical

thinkers, ensuring that the future thinkers, ensuring that the future of the country is in good hands.”of the country is in good hands.”

Recommendations Gifted & Special

Education Use of ethnographic

assessment procedures:

Student is observed in multiple contexts over time.

Use of dynamic assessment:

Student is given opportunity to transfer newly acquired skills to novel situations.

Portfolio assessment. Use of tests written in

native language of ELL students.

Recommendations, con’t

Use of test scores from several instruments: Progressive Matrices,

Standard. SOI Screening Form for Gifted. System of Multicultural

Pluralistic Assessment. Culture Fair Intelligence Test,

Scale 1. Include people from diverse cultural backgrounds in the assessment process.

Recommendations, con’t

Education of teachers on gifted characteristics of different cultures. Explicit information such

as: The experiences and

abilities of Hispanic children.

How those experiences enhance skills, talents, traits and/or values attached to giftedness.

Knowledge of how acculturation influences teacher’s ratings.

Recommendations, con’t.

Training of assessment personel as to bias in behavior rating scales.

Encourage parents to be a part of the process of evaluation.

Recruitment of teachers of color.

Parent education about the process and characteristics of gifted children.

What Educators Must Do

Interact with ALL students as consistently, compassionately, and culturally informed as possible.

Make intelligent, individualized (not stereotypical) assessments of student strengths and needs.

Continue professional growth and development in cultural diversity, special education, and differing learning modalities.

Remember that a quality educator can be the single most positive influence on any child’s educational experience. Quality = success.

““Education is not a Education is not a productproduct….it is ….it is a process….a never-ending one.”a process….a never-ending one.”

Bel Kaufman, 1967Bel Kaufman, 1967

All images: Microsoft PowerPoint Clips or Google Images.