"Minorities in Europe” Session 1: Introduction and definition of the focal problem. Does the European Union have a minority policy? Denis Gruber Faculty.

"Minorities in Europe”Session 1:

Introduction and definition of the focal problem.

Does the European Union have a minority policy?

Denis GruberFaculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State UniversityDAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

"Minorities in Europe”Session 1:

Introduction and definition of the focal problem.

Does the European Union have a minority policy?Overview:

1. Structure of the seminar

2. Discussing Minorities: Definition, Facts and Protection

3. Going in detail: Minorities in Europe

4. Stateless Persons. The Case of Estonia

5. Conclusion

Introduction and definition of the focal problem.Does the European Union have a minority policy?

LecturingSeminarDiscussion

Ethnic Minorities in Europe: The Basic Facts, Stefan Wolff (2002)

1.Tuesday 2 March

2.Wednesday 3 March

National and Ethnic Minorities in EuropeMinority Rights

Lecturing SeminarDiscussion

Minority Issues in and the OSCE High Commissioneron National Minorities,HANS-JOACHIM HEINTZE (2000)

Presentations:

High Commissioner on National Minorities

European Centre for Minority Issues

1. What is a minority? Ethnic and National Minorities in Europe

"Minorities in Europe”

2. Ethnicity, Ethnic Minorities, Minority Identities and Minority Languages

3.

Ethnicity, Ethnic Mobilization and Ethnic Violence

LecturingSeminar Discussion

Ethnic Mobilization and Ethnic Violence, James D. Fearon(2004)

Presentations:

Bascque ethnic violence

The Roma

The Gypsies

Thursday 4 March

4.

Cultural Identities and Ethnic Minorities in Europe

Lecturing Seminar Discussion

Europeas a mosaic of identitites: some reflections,Estanislao Arroyabe(2006)

Presentations:GruberCyprusGreekKosovo

Friday5 March

5.Tuesday9 March

Minority and Regional Languages in Europe.Language Minorities in Old and New Europe

Lecturing Seminar Discussion

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY ANDNEW MINORITIES IN Europe, Ingrid Gogolin (2002)

Presentations:European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages

Case Studies

"Minorities in Europe”

"Minorities in Europe”

Eastward Enlargement andNational Minorities

LecturingSeminarDiscussion

The forgotten issue? Eastward enlargement and national minoritiesRuth Ferrero1 (2005)

Presentations:e.g. Croatia, Ukraine

6.Wednesday 10 March

Ethnic Minorities in European Cities

LecturingSeminar Discussion

Immigrants and Ethnic Minorities in European Cities: Life-courses andQuality of Life in a World of Limitations (Schwarz-woelzl 2006)

Presentations:

Life-courses

quality of life

Ethnic Settlement (Centre-Suburbs)

7.Thursday 11 March

8.Friday12 March

Russian minority in abroad. The case of the Estonia

LecturingSeminar Discussion

New Identity of Russian Speaking Children in Estonian SocietyMare Leino, Marika Veisson,(2006)

Presentations:Gruber (Estonia)LatviaLithuania

9.Monday 15 March

People with Turkish Migration Background in Germany

LecturingSeminar Discussion

The Turkish Minority in : The Relationship between Politics and Education in the Integration of Parallel Communities Christine Difato (2006)

Presentations: The Case of Kreuzberg

From 1st – 3rd generation immigrants

Ethnic Minorities in South-Eastern and South-Western Europe

LecturingSeminar Discussion

Minority Nationalism in the Balkans:the Bulgarian CaseAndrey Ivanov (2006)

Presentations:e.g. Romania, Bulgaria10.

Tuesday16 March

3. Ethnic Minorities in Eastern, Central, South-Western and South-Eastern Europe

"Minorities in Europe”

Labour Market Positions of Ethnic Minorities in Europe

LecturingSeminar Discussion

Ethnic Discrimination in europe’s Labour Market: A Field Experiment,Leo Kaas / Christian Manger (2010)

Presentations:Infomal Sector

Self-Employment

11.Wednesday17 March

Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship

LecturingSeminar Discussion

Ethnic entrepreneurship: A theoretical framework, Thierry Volery, (2007)

Presentations:Small and medium-sized ethnic entrepreneursEthnic Business

12.Thursday18 March

4. Ethnic Minorities, Labour Markets and Minority Entrepreneurship

13.Friday19 March

Sexual Minorities in Europe

Lecturing Seminar Discussion

Who is afraid of sexual minorities? Homosexuals, moral panic and the exercise of social control, Iwona Zielinska (2005)

Presentations:Case Studies

5. Minorities, Demographics and Social Problems

Discussing Minorities term “minority” is still ambiguously defined in specialised

literature as well as in the political debate• definition of a minority group can vary, depending on specific

context

differentiate between:- traditional national or autochthonous minorities and new,

immigrant minorities- national and ethnic minorities- types of national, ethnic, religious, language, sexual, stateless,

economic, handicapped (disabled) age etc. minorities

… to avoid confusion, some authors prefer the terms "subordinate group" and "dominant group" rather than "minority" and "majority

Discussing Minorities … sociological a minority is not necessarily a numerical

minority — it may include any group that is subnormal with respect to a dominant group in terms of social status, education, employment, wealth and political power

the term "minority" typically refers to a socially subordination ethnic and / or national group (understood in terms of language, nationality, religion and / or culture)

Inside majorities and minorities• there is a mutual dependence between majorities and

minorities with positive and negative aspects• presence of ethnic minority is a challenge for the

recognition and protection of their fundamental rights• Europe has been the cradle of the ideology of the nation-

state• ethnically different majorities are facing the suspicion to be

a kind of "fifth brigade"of their respective "kin-state" or at least they are considered "nationally not enough reliable”

• minority question is a common problem for all Europeans

Discussing Minorities

- group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society- group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, follow strategies to single out from the others in the society - role of identities- inclusion, exclusion, self-exclusion- discrimination- historical development- socio-economic, socio-political, socio-cultural development- protest, resistance, violence

Defining Minorities

According to Capotorti's definition for the UN (Pan/Pfeil, 2003) "minority" means a community…

a) compactly or dispersedly settled on the territory of a state;b) which is smaller in number than the rest of the population

of a statec) whose members are citizens of that state (but: what is the

case for stateless persons?)d) which have ethnic, linguistic or cultural features different

from those of the rest of the population (but: what is with the self-perception of peoples without their own state like the Catalans, the Bretons, the Corsicans, the Romany, etc.)

e) whose members are guided by the will to safeguard these features

Ethnic Minority

“An ethnic group is characterized by some behavioural patterns, value orientations, and interests, often political, social and economic, which differ from those of other groups within society. An ethnic group is considered to be an ethnic group with several distinguishing characteristics in comparison to other ethnic groups.” (Jenkins 1997)

Who does belong to an ethnic minority?

• Ethnic groups can live in nation-states although they have no origin or tradition in these areas, e.g. migrant groups or refugees

• The relationships between majority groups and minority groups are the most popular researches in ethnic studies

• Here, is often argued that although both special groups, majority and minority, share a common culture, a historic tradition, and a sense of ‘peoplehood’

(Banks, 1997: 66)

• A national minority lives in another nation, but their ethnic group has got its own government in another national state, e.g. Danish people living in Germany, or Hungarians living in Romania.

but:

* What is the case for ethnic Russians living in Estonia or

Latvia without any citizenship?

* Are ethnic minorities also national minorities?

National Minority

- official language minority groups mostly have the right to be educated in their language, in their own schools, with their own elected school boards, where they exist in sufficient numbers

- they are neither an ethnic nor a national minority, but their first language is not the same as the mother tongue of the ethnic majority of the country they live in, e.g. the French speaking citizens of Switzerland

Language Minority

Facts about minorities in Europe• Apart from the mini-states all European states are

home to ethnic and national minorities

• 87 different minorities are living in Europe

• In 2003 (last census) the number of persons belonging to a national or ethnic minority in Europe accounts to 86,674 millions (11,45% of the population) divided on 329 national or ethnic groups

• just about 30 years ago the number of Europe's ethnic minorities has been estimated with 90 ethnic groups with a maximum of 38 millions of members

• About 80% of Europe's 329 national minorities have less then 300.000 members.

Facts about minorities in Europe

• No European country with more than one million inhabitants has no national minorities

• Even in Portugal, often retained a country without minorities, apart from the Romany, are living two Hispanic minorities

• The remaining countries are hosting between 3 and 45 minority groups each

• The major number of ethnic minorities obviously are living in the European part of Russia (45 groups), followed by the Ukraine (23 groups) and Romania (19 groups)

• The respective share of national minorities on the total national population of the single European states is moving between a few percent and more than 30% as in Latvia, Moldova, Macedonia, Estonia and Serbia-Montenegro

Facts about minorities in Europe

- German speaking groups (not as titular nation) in 22 states

- There are Romany groups in 28 states- Russians, after the collapse of the USSR, are a

minority in 9 European states- Ukraine alone is home to 11 millions of (at least)

ethnic Russians

EUROPEAN MINORITIES • Åland Islands• Albanians•

Alsace• Aosta Valley• Arabs• Aragon• Armenians• Aromanians• Asturias• Azores• Basque Country• Belarussians• Bosniacs• Brittany• Bulgarians• Bunjevci (Bunyevtsi) in Serbia• Canary Islands• Cashoubs• Catalonia• Cimbres

• Cornwall• Corsica• Crimea• Croats• Csángó• Czechs• Danes• Estonians• Faroe Islands• Finns• Flanders• Frisia• Friuli• Gagauzia• Galicia• Germans• Greeks• Grishun• Hungarians• Ingria•

Ireland (North)

EUROPEAN MINORITIES • Ireland (North)• Italians• Karelia

• Kashubians

• Kosovo (Albanians)• Kurdistan• Ladins• Latvians• Lipovians• Lithuanians• Livonians• Lorraine - Moselle• Low Germans• Ludians• Luxembourgers• Macedonians• Madeira• Man / Isle of Man• Mirandians• Montenegro• Moravia• Occitania• Poles

• Pomaks• Prussia• Romanians• Roms• Russians• Ruthenians• Sápmi (Lappland)• Sardinia• Savoy• Scania• Scotland• Serbs• Seto• Silesia• Slovaks• Slovenes• Sorbs• South Tyrol• Swedes• Tatars• Transdniestr / Transnistria

• Yenishes

• Yiddish

The Case of the Ludians

• Ladin (Ladino in Italian)• is a Rhaeto-Romance language spoken

in the Dolomite mountains in northern Italy

in the border regions of the provinces

Südtirol and Veneto• it is closely related to the Swiss Romansh• it is spoken in some municipalities of the Province of

Bolzano-Bozen, the Province of Trento, and the province of Belluno

• It is officially recognized in Italy and has some official rights in the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, while it does not have official status in the province of Belluno (Veneto region).

The Case of the Kashubians

• a West Slavic ethnic group in Pomerelia, north-central Poland• settlement area is referred to as Kashubia (Polish: Kaszuby, German:

Kaschubei, Kaschubien)• members speak Kashubian, classified either as a language or a Polish dialect• In analogy to the linguistic classification, Kashubians are considered either an

ethnic or a linguistic group• Among larger cities, Gdynai contains the largest proportion of people declaring

Kashubian origin• the biggest city of the Kashubia region is Gdansk, the capital of the Pomerian

Voivodeship and the traditional capital of Kashubia• traditional occupations of Kashubians were agriculture and fishing• today‘s occupation: service and hospitality industry, agrotourism• main organization that maintains the Kashubian identity is the Kashubian-

Pomerian Association

The Case of the Kashoubians

• over 300,000 people in Poland are of the Kashubian ethnicity

• In the Polish census of 2002, only 5,100 people declared Kashubian nationality

• 51,000 declared Kashubian as their native language• a „standard" Kashubian language does not exist despite

attempts to create one, rather a variety of dialects are spoken that differ significantly from each other

• The vocabulary is influenced by both German and Polish

• Most Kashubians declare Polish nationality and Kashubian ethnicity, and are considered both Polish and Kashubian

• but: on the 2002 census there was no option to declare one nationality and a different ethnicity, or more than one nationality

The Case of the Kashoubians

history:

• Kashubians are descendants of the Slavic Pomeranian tribes

• were at various times Polish and Danish vassals• While most Slavic Pomeranians were assimilated during

the medieval German settlement of Pomerania especially in Pomeralia some kept and developed their customs and became known as Kashubians

• since 1466 within Royal Prussia, since 1772 within West Prussia, since 1920 within the Polish Corridor of the Second Polish Republic, since 1939 within the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia of Nazi Germany, and since 1945 within the People's Republic of Poland

The Case of the Kashoubians

history:• During the Second World War, Kashubians were considered by the Nazis

as being either of "German stock" or "extraction", or "inclined toward Germanness" and "capable of Germanisation", and thus classified third category of Deutsche Volksliste (German ethnic classification list)

• However, Kashubians who were suspected to support the Polish cause, particularly those with higher education, were arrested and executed (12,000 were executed)

• When integrated into Poland, Kashubian autonomy faced a Communist regime striving for ethnic homogenity

• Kashubians were sent to Silesian mines, where they met Silesians facing similar problems

• Lech Badkowski from the Kashubian opposition became the first spokesperson of Solidarnosc

The Case of the Kashoubians

language

• Today, in some towns and villages in northern Poland, Kashubian is the second language spoken after Polish, and it is taught in regional schools.

• Since 2005 Kashubian enjoys legal protection in Poland as an official regional language

• It is the only tongue in Poland with this status; granted by an act of the Polish Parliament on January 6, 2005

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPENative people

(sharing its area with other communities)

• • Aromanians• Bunjevci (Bunyevtsi) in Serbia• Cimbres• Crimea• Csángó• Ingria• Lipovians• Livonians• Lorraine - Moselle• Low Germans• Ludians• Mirandians• Mócheno• Pomaks• Vepsia• Votes• Walser

The Case of the Pomaks

Ethnographic map

of European Turkey

from the late 19th. century,

showing the regions

largely populated by

Pomaks in brown

A Pomak bride from Ribnovo being made up for her ceremony

Pomak Men

Young Pomak women in traditional costume

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPENomadic or scattered people

• Roms• Yiddish

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPEArea with stong identity

• Aragon• Asturias• Azores• Canary Islands• Madeira• Moravia• Prussia• Savoy• Scania• Seto• Silesia• Võro

The Case of the Moravia

Moravia Czech: Morava; German: Mähren

The Case of the Moravia

• The Moravians are a Slavic ethnic group who speak various dialects of Czech

• Some Moravians regard themselves as an ethnically distinct group; others consider themselves to be ethnically Czech

• In the census of 1991, 1,362,000 (13.2%) of the Czech population described themselves as being of Moravian nationality

• In the census of 2001, this number had decreased to 380,000 (3.7% of the population)

• Moravia historically had a huge minority of ethnic Germans, although they were largely expelled after World War II

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE OF CONFLICT

Minority in search of autonomy • Alsace

• Asturias• Brittany• Friuli• Karelia• Sardinia• Savoy• Silesia

The Case of Friuli

Location of historical region within the administrative region.

Friulian coat of arms

The Case of Friuli

• In 1815, the Congress of Vienna enacted the definitive union of Veneto and Friuli with Austrian Lombardy, to constitute the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia

• In 1866 central Friuli (today's province of Udine) and western Friuli (today's province of Pordenone) were joined Italy with Veneto after the Third Italian War of Independence

• While standard Italian is the primary official language of the region, several other regional languages and dialects are spoken in Friuli

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE OF CONFLICT

Minority in search of more recognition

• Aromanians• Cornwall• Grishun• Ladins• Lorraine - Moselle• Low Germans• Mirandians• Moravia• Occitania• Roms• Scania• Sorbs• Wallonia• Walser

The Case of the Sorbs

National costume of Lusatian Sorbs as traditionally worn in the northern part of Lusatia

Bilingual names of streets in Cottbus

The Case of Sorbs

• ca. 40,000 Upper Sorbs, 20,000 Lower Sorbs

• In 1018, on the strength of peace in Bautzen, Lusatia became a part of Poland; however, before 1031 it was returned to Germany

• At the beginning of the 16th century the whole Sorbian area, with the exception of Lusatia, underwent Germanization

• The Thirty Years War and the Black Death caused terrible devastation in Lusatia: almost half the Sorbs died

• In 1667 the Prince of Brandenburg, Frederick Wilhelm, ordered the immediate destruction of all Sorbian printed materials and banned saying masses in this language

• The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, gave part of Upper Lusatia to Saxony, but most of Lusatia to Prussia

The Case of the Sorbs

• From 1871 the whole of Lusatia became a part of united Germany and was divided between three parts: Silesia, Prussia and Saxony

• From 1871 the industrialization of the region and German immigration began; official Germanization intensified

• Although the Weimar Republic (1919) guaranteed constitutional minority rights, it did not practice them

• Throughout The Third Reich, Sorbian costume, culture, customs and even the language was said to be no indication of a non-German origin

• Young Sorbs enlisted in the Wehrmacht and were sent to the front

The Case of the Sorbs

• The defeat of Nazi Germany changed the Sorbs’ situation considerably: those to the east of Neisse and Oder were expelled or assimilated by Poland

• regions in the German Democratic Republic) faced a large influx of expelled Germans and heavy industrialisation, which both forced Germanization

• East German authorities tried to counteract this development by creating a broad range of Sorbian institutions

• Sorbs were officially recognized as an ethnic minority, more than 100 Sorbian schools and several academic institutions were founded

The Case of the Sorbs• Sorbian Slovians caused the communist government of

the GDR plenty of trouble, mainly because of the high levels of religious observance and resistance to the nationalisation of agriculture

• After the unification of Germany in 1990, Lusatians made efforts to create an autonomous administrative unit; however Helmut Kohl’s government did not agree to it

• Although Germany supports national minorities, Sorbs claim that their aspirations are not sufficiently fulfilled

• desire to unite Lusatia into one country has not been taken into consideration because Upper Lusatia still belongs to Saxony and Lower Lusatia to Brandenburg

The Case of the Sorbs

• an annual state grant of 15.6 million Euro by the Federal and the Saxon governments is fixed

• Liquidations of Sorbian schools under the pretext of financial difficulties take place

• Sorbs also called on Poland and Polish President Lech Kaczynski for protection and to represent them in talks with German state as unlike for example Danes have no state to help them against German authorities

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPE OF CONFLICT

Minority in search of strong autonomy

• Aosta Valley• Canary Islands• Crimea• Frisia• Galicia• Man / Isle of Man• Sápmi (Lappland)• Wales

SEARCH FOR A MINORITY BY TYPEStateless Nation

• Alsace• Aosta Valley• Basque Country• Brittany• Cashoubs• Catalonia• Cornwall• Corsica• Faroe Islands• Flanders• Frisia• Friuli• Gagauzia• Galicia• Grishun

• Karelia• Kosovo (Albanians)• Kurdistan• Ladins• Man / Isle of Man• Occitania• Ruthenians• Sápmi (Lappland)• Sardinia• Scotland• Sorbs• Transdniestr / Transnistria• Wales• Wallonia

The Case of Occitania

The Case of Occitania• area is situated in the southern half of France, includes

Monaco, spans parts of Italy and Spain• Occitania has been recognized as a cultural concept

since the Middle Ages• it has never been a legal nor a political entity under this

name, although the territory was united in Roman times until the French conquest started in the 1200s

• Presently, about 3 million people out of 14 million in the area have a proficient knowledge of Occitan

• The Aran Valley of Spain is the only area where an Occitan dialect is an official language (along with Spanish and Catalan).

The Case of Occitania

• According to the 1999 census, there are 610,000 native speakers and another million persons with some exposure to the language

• Native speakers of Occitan are to be found mostly in the older generations

• in France, Occitan is still not recognized as an official language, as the status of French has been constitutionally protected since 1992

• Occitan activists want the French government to adopt Occitan as the second official language for seven regions representing the South of France

Europe – Stateless Nations

Stateless people in Europe

• A stateless person is someone with no citizenship or nationality

- the state that gave their previous nationality has ceased to exist and there is no successor state or their nationality has been repudiated by their own state

effectively making them refugees (e.g. ethnic Russians in Estonia and Latvia)

Stateless Person

• People may be stateless also if they are members of a group which is denied citizen status in the country on whose territory they are born

• if they are born in disputed territories• if they are born in an area ruled by an entity whose

independence is not internationally recognized• or if they are born on territory over which no modern

state claims sovereignty

At home in Estonia? The Social Integration of ethnic Russians in the European Union‘s North-

Eastern Border Region

Denis Gruber, Dissertation, Institute of Sociology, Otto-von-Guericke University MagdeburgScholarship by the Friedrich-Ebert-Foundation

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

„„Zuhause in Estland? Eine Untersuchung zur Zuhause in Estland? Eine Untersuchung zur

sozialen Integration von ethnischen Russen in Estland.“sozialen Integration von ethnischen Russen in Estland.“

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Research Region• particular socio-cultural region in Estonia as well as the

European Union Internal migration flows“ of the USSR result in the highest

amount of non-titular ethnic population in the whole Europe pedominant Russian-speaking area moreover: most urbanized region in Estonia (89 per cent) In 2007: 172,775 inhabitants:- 34,314 (19,7 Prozent) of inhabitants are ethnic Estonians- 122,482 persons are ethnic Russians 75,000 (40,3 %) are citizens of Estonia 34, 577 (19,9 %) are citizens of the Russian Federation 61,921 (35,6 %) with undertermined citizenship 4,000 are citizens of other nation-states

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Ethnische Besonderheiten Estlands

EthnischeHerkunft

1922 1959 1989 2000 2007

Esten969.976 87,6 %

892.653 74,6 %

963.281 61,5 %

935.884 68,2 %

921.908 68,6 %

Russen91.109 8,2 %

240.227 20,1 %

474834 30,3 %

354.660 25,8 %

345.168 25,7 %

Gesamt 1.107.059 1.196.791 1.565.662 1.372.071 1.344.684

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Staatsbürgerschaftliche Besonderheiten Estlands

ethnische Russen im Jahr 2007:

39,5 % estnische Staatsbürgerschaft

19,4 % russische Staatsbürgerschaft

37,6 % keine Staatsbürgerschaft

3,5 % andere Staatsbürgerschaft

Narva

Narva

Ethnic Russian Minority in Estonia

term is used for those who:have an ethnic Russian migration

background (even descendants of migrations; migrants of the 2nd or 3rd generation)

have citizenship of Estonia, Russia or are stateless (in Estonian legislation called „Aliens“)

are using the Russian language in everyday life as primary language

The question of citizenship • members of the Russian group have been

divided in two sub-groups:

1.Those who have been already lived in the First Estonian Republic (1918-1940) and their descendants)

2.those who were comming to ESSR as labourforce in the course of the industrialisation process

• last group has been classified by conservative Estonian Politicians as a threat for the achieved national souveranity and where called from now on „Aliens“

Alien

• Term „Alien „(Estonian „muulane“) is used for a „person of another nationalitaty („Alien Law” by July 1992)

• “An alien is a person who is not an Estonian citizen and aliens staying in Estonia are guaranteed rights and freedoms equal to those of Estonian citizens unless the constitution, this Act, other Acts or international agreements of Estonia provide otherwise. Aliens are guaranteed the rights and freedoms arising from the generally recognised rules of international law and international custom. Aliens staying in Estonia are required to observe the constitutional order and legislation of Estonia.”

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Systemintegration und die vier Dimensionen der Sozialintegration

Quelle: Esser (2001), S. 16

Integration requires to distinguish between „systemic integration“

and „social integration“ of migrants and/or members of ethnic groups

because: a common understanding of „integration“ and „inclusion“ would mean that the individual integration process in the „Lebenswelt“ is similarily to the inclusion of the subsystems in the Estonian titular society (special rights, occupying of certain positions, appropriation of important societal ressources)

Is succesful if ethic minority actors as well as the members of the titular society are similarly placed in the different positions of the labour market

solution: integration approach of German scholar Hartmut Esser (1999, 2001)who differs between social and systemic integration

Systemic Integration

• takes place independently (anonymiously) from the motives and relationships of individual actors

• refers to the means integration in a social system like integration in the world-market, nation-state, international concerns, corporative actors or supra-national entities like the EU

• refers to particular mechanisms of the market, institutioanl laws of the nation-state and particular media resources (not mass media, but money)

• focuses on motives, orientations, and purposes of individual actors,

• refers to the „embedding process“ of individual actors in a social system

• is associated with the grant of laws, learning of the titular population‘s language, embedding in the education system and the national employment market, interethnic friendships and identification with the nation-state

• Esser (2001): succesful „social integration“ of ethnic minorities can not be evaluated by their embedding in the „Lebenswelt“, but also by their inclusion in the sub-systems of the social system of the titular society and possibilities to control important resources in state and society

Social Integration

Dimensions of social integration

Placement• societal position of migrants and/or ethnic minorities

in a social system: employment market positions (politics, administration, etc.)

• important for pursuing ressources• bounded to certain laws, like citizenship, election

laws

Culturation• process of „adaption“• necessary knowledge and qualifications for the

interaction in the titular society, like language• often results in „acculturation“: semi or partial

culturation

Dimensions of social integration

Interactions

• helpful for minority actors to „come in contact“ with the members of the titular society

Identification

• emotional/identificative orientation of actors with the titular society as well as the society of origin

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Forschungsfragen

•Platzierung: strukturelle Dimension

Wie stellt sich die Platzierung ethnischer Russen in das politische und ökonomische System der estnischen Gesellschaft dar? Welche Faktoren fördern bzw. hemmen diese Form der Sozialintegration?

•Kulturation: kognitive Dimension

Welche Aussagen können zur Akkulturationsbereitschaft ethnischer Russen getroffen werden? Wie vollzieht sich ihre sprachliche Assimilation?

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Forschungsfragen

•Interaktion: soziale Dimension

Wie stellt sich die Interaktion der ethnisch-russischen Minderheitengruppe mit der estnischen Mehrheitsbevölkerung dar? Welche regionalen Besonderheiten müssen beachtet werden?

•Identifikation: identifikative (emotionale) Dimension

Über welche identifikativen Bezüge verfügen ethnische Russen mit der estnischen Aufnahmegesellschaft, der russischen Herkunftsgesellschaft und den Angehörigen der eigenen ethnischen Gruppe in Estland und Russland?

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Platzierung

• Fremdexklusion und Selbstexklusion von Bedeutung• Staatsbürgerschaft als „soziale Schließung“ • Bedeutung der Sprachenpolitik für Inklusion und Exklusion• Staatsbürgerschaft als Ressource• Staatenlosigkeit als Resultat von Fremd- und

Selbstexklusion• Problematik der „politischen Inklusion“ und „demokratischen

Inklusion“ moderner Nationalstaaten

Self-ExclusionMotivs:• - „trader’s dilemma“ (Evers&Schrader, 1995):

ethnic minorities look for cultural distance with regard to the majority population and / or they do not assimilate because cultural distanciation is a strategy for solving problems

• broaden cope of action, status, and attention• increasing cohesion and internal resources• circumvent a political wanted assimilation (also

citizenship)• but: total exclusion is almost impossible

Selbstexklusion I: warum Sprachtestprüfung nach dem erstmaligen Nichtbestehen

nicht wiederholen wird: • „Why? It is not my duty and task. Either we are citizens or not. For me

it is protest. And they are threating me with penalties. But I am living here more than 25 years and 15 years within this state Estonia. I know that they are crushing me, but I have already learned to live under these circumstances. When I have failed the exam they told me: okay, you have tried it, that is why we do not punish you. According to the law I shall repeat the language exam after three month, but preparation and test will cost a lot of money again.“ (Interview 33)

I: Pressure / crushing?: • „They do not ask if I am able to do a job, but they ask if I am able to

speak the Estonian language. Noone asks which experiences I have in my daily life, in occupation, only the knowledge of Estonian language is important for them. They always asked me if I have the certification for beginner level; and I answered that I do not have one. They told me that I am a good person, that I have a gooa career but I can not find a job in a higher position because I do not have a valid certificaton of Estonian knowledge. I do not know if someone knows about it in Europe wht is going on here. These are restrictions and limitations of personal freedom and rights. It is discrimination against Russians in Estonia.“ (Interview 33)

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Akkulturation

• Unterschiede zwischen beiden ethnischen Gruppen

liegen in kultureller, vor allem sprachlicher

Einbettung• Nordostregion nahezu ethnisch geschlossen• staatlicherseits erwarteter Sprachassimilation steht

schwache Bereitschaft zur Sprachassimilation gegenüber• Kommunikation in der Muttersprache• „Überlegenheitsgefühle“• Einfluss russischsprachiger Massenmedien

Migration-Story• I have worked here since 33 years. And I worked as Director for

Quality Services. I came here during the Soviet period and you know that all the Russians here were brought in from all parts of the Soviet Union, that’s why we are a Russian-speaking community in this part of Estonia. I came from the Eastern part of the Soviet Union. I was born in the 1940s. My hometown is more than 8,000 kilometers far away from Narva. My father worked as an engineer in a mine and he worked in a mine for gold production. I came to Narva in 1974. I have married my wife. I was Ukrainian, but I was born in Russia. I came here after finishing education in a special institute. My wife is mixed by nationality. Her father is Estonian and her mother is Russian. She was also born in Russia, near the city of Orenburg. Her father was mechanic and has worked in a building company. And her family has migrated to this part of Estonia because they have found workplaces here. And I have married here and I have one son and one daughter. They both have already finished their studies at the Tartu University. My daughter is Philologist and lives in Tallinn and works for a Russian-speaking newspaper. So, she works as a Journalist. My son works now in Kohtla-Järve in a big American company. He is Chemist. After finishing University he worked here in Narva at our Regional Environment Department, but this Department has moved from Narva to Jöhvi, the capital of Ida-Virumaa.

• „No one needs this language. With whom you shall speak in Estonian, especially in Narva. I have 60 programs in my home cable-TV, but there are only three programs in Estonian language and most of programs are in Russian language. And also the Estonian language is a very underdeveloped language. Still now they do not have technical words and it has to do with the agricultural past of the Estonian people. It is a problem for Estonians. And after the independence I took part in a special governmental commission and I could see when they have translated their laws and texts from Russian or English language in Estonian language that they had to take English synonyms or English words because they do not have technical words in Estonian. It is a big difference to the Russian language and the Russian-speakers because they are able to find Russian words for the new equipment and technical things, like mobilnik for mobile phones.” (Interview 39)

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität MagdeburgFakultät für Geistes-, Sozial- und ErziehungswissenschaftenInstitut für Soziologie

Identifikation

• divergierende Identifikationsmuster• Problematik der mentalen und psychischen „Anwesenheit“ in zwei Gesellschaften• „zu Hause in Estland“ ? oder ! • divergierende Identifikationsmuster• Individuell differenzierte Identifikationsmuster vs. kohärenter gruppenspezifischer Identifikationen• „Sicherheitsgefühle“ in Estland und Verbundenheit zur Herkunftsgesellschaft aufgrund grenzüberschreitender Kontakte und globaler Entwicklungen