Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants in Africa

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Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Insecurityand State Crises in Africa

Militias, rebels and Islamist militants: human insecurity and state crises in Africa explores how armednon-state groups have emerged as key players in African politics and armed conflicts since the 1990s.The book is a critical, multidisciplinary and comprehensive study of the threats that militias, rebelsand Islamist militants pose to human security and the state in Africa. Through case studies utilisingmultidisciplinary approaches and concepts, analytical frameworks and perspectives cutting across thesocial sciences and humanities, the book conceptualises armed non-state groups in Africa throughtheir links to the state. After contextualising these groups in history, culture, economics, politics, lawand other factors, a systematic effort is made to locate their roots in group identity, social deprivation,resource competition, elite manipulations, the youth problématique, economic decline, poor politicalleadership and governance crisis. Differentiating militias from insurgents, rebel groups and extremistreligious movements, the book illustrates how some of the groups have sustained themselves,undermining both human security and the state capacity to provide it. The responses to their threats bylocal communities, states, regional mechanisms and initiatives, and the international communities areanalysed. The findings provide a conceptual reference for scholars and practical recommendations forpolicymakers.Institute for Security Studies01 Nov 2010

Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants Human Insecurity

and State Crises in Africa

Edited by Wafula Okumu andAugustine Ikelegbe




Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv

About the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi

About the editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

About the contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xii

List of tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiv

List of maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv

List of acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvi

Chapter 1Introduction: towards conceptualisation and understanding of the threats of armed non-state groups to human security and the state in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Augustine Ikelegbe and Wafula Okumu

PART I: ISSUES AND DIMENSIONS

Chapter 2Historical and cultural dimensions of militia and rebel groups in Africa . . .45Anne Kubai

Chapter 3Mapping the phenomenon of militias and rebels in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69Bettina Engels

Chapter 4Armed non-state entities in international law: status and challenges of accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89Godfrey Musila

As a leading African human security research institution, the Institute forSecurity Studies (ISS) works towards a stable and peaceful Africa characterisedby sustainable development, human rights, the rule of law, democracy,collaborative security and gender mainstreaming. The ISS realises this vision by:

! Undertaking applied research, training and capacity building

! Working collaboratively with others

! Facilitating and supporting policy formulation

! Monitoring trends and policy implementation

! Collecting, interpreting and disseminating information

! Networking on national, regional and international levels

© 2010, Institute for Security Studies

Copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Institute for Security Studies, and no part may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission, in writing, of both the authors and the publishers.

The opinions expressed do not necessarily re!ect those of the Institute, its trustees, members of the Council or donors. Authors contribute to ISS publications in their personal capacity.

ISBN 978-1-920422-10-3

First published by the Institute for Security Studies,PO Box 1787, Brooklyn Square 0075Tshwane (Pretoria), South Africa

www.issafrica.org

Cover photographsSudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) soldiers. AP Photo/Jean-Marc Bouju.Hundreds of thousands of refugees stream out of Mugunga refugee camp and head toward the Rwanda border as Zairian rebels move in to occupy what was the largest refugee camp in the world. AP Photo/Enric Marti.

Production, typesetting and layout Image Design + 27 11 469 3029Cover design Janice KuhlerPrinting Remata iNathi

Chapter 5Crises of the state and governance and armed non-state groups in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119Augustine Ikelegbe

PART II: CASE STUDIES

Chapter 6Marginalisation and the rise of militia groups in Kenya: the Mungikiand the Sabaot Land Defence Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147Adams Oloo

Chapter 7Rebels and militias in resource conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183Phillip Kasaija

Chapter 8Militias, pirates and oil in the Niger Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219Ibaba Samuel Ibaba and Augustine Ikelegbe

Chapter 9Rebels, militias and governance in Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255Samson S Wassara

Chapter 10Regionalisation of rebel activities: the case of the Lord’s Resistance Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287Paul Omach

Chapter 11Militant Islamist groups in northern Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313Muhammed Kabir Isa

Chapter 12Armed Islamist groups in Egypt, Algeria and Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341Eric George and Aleksi Ylönen

Chapter 13From rebellion to opposition: UNITA in Angola and RENAMO inMozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365Justin Pearce

PART III: RESPONSES

Chapter 14Local communities, militias and rebel movements: the case of theRevolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389Krijn Peters

Chapter 15State, regional and international responses to militia and rebel activities in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417Macharia Munene

Chapter 16Confronting the threats of armed non-state groups to human security and the state in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .437Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524

Types of militia in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Types of rebel movements in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Comparisons of militias, Islamist militants and rebel movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Criminal gangs in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

Rebel groups in the eastern DRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

Natural resources in the DRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197

Trend of conflicts in the Niger Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

Changes in the derivation component of revenue allocation . .236

Actors in Niger Delta conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238

Main rebel groups in Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263

Main Darfur rebel factions after the Darfur Peace Agreement . .271

Sample of militia groups according to the three regions ofSouthern Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

DRC's natural resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189

Natural resources in eastern DRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198

Map of natural resources and conflict areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

Niger Delta region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234

Oil exploration and conflict areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261

Rebel-controlled areas in south Sudan, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

LRA activities, December 2008 – April 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302

Nigerian map of states with Shariah laws and principles . . . . . . .321

Militias

Types of militia in Africa

Types Goals Cases

State Reserve army / Complement state National Guard (Nigeria)militias auxiliaries of militaries

national armies

Government- Counterinsurgency Popular Defence Force /supported/ Janjaweed (Sudan)-patronised Kamajor (Sierra Leone)

Fifth Brigade (Zimbabwe)Arrow Group (Uganda)Jeunes Patriotes (Côte d’Ivoire)

Non- Political militias Political objectives Mambas, Cobras and Ninjas (RoC)state/ Struggle forprivate political dominationmilitias

Community/ Identity rights Egbesu/Oduduwa People’sethnic militias Struggle for Congress (Nigeria)

inclusion, resources Mungiki (Kenya)and justice Militias under Southern Defence

Force (Sudan)Interahamwe (Rwanda)

Youth militias Identity Niger Delta Volunteer Force /Resource access Movement for the Emancipation ofInsurgency the Niger Delta (Nigeria)

Vigilante Security Bakassi Boys (Nigeria)militias Crime control

Warlord militias Struggle for power Armed bands and cult groups inand resources the Niger Delta (Nigeria)Commercial violence

Source: compiled by authors.

Rebel movements

Types of rebel movements in Africa

Liberationmovements

DecolonisationIndependence fromforeigngovernment

OppressionExploitative foreignrule

Popularmovements drivenby militantnationalistorganisations

Nationalist andliberation ideals

Militant nationalistleaders

Guerrilla warfarePitched battlesfrom controlledterritories

Mau Mau (Kenya) African Party for theIndependence ofGuinea and CapeVerde (Guinea-Bissau)African NationalCongress (SouthAfrica)

Insurgent rebelmovements

ResistanceReform strugglesOverthrow ofregimes/governments

MarginalisationExclusionEthnic and regionalhegemonyMisgovernance

Armed wing ofpolitical movement

Politicalprogrammes/arrangements ofinclusion/reform

Excludedpoliticians/youths/opposition

Guerrilla warfarePitched battles fromcontrolled territories

National RedemptionFront/Army (Sudan)Revolutionary UnitedFront (Sierra Leone) Lord’s ResistanceArmy (Uganda)

Separatist rebelmovements

AutonomySelf-existence

Ethnic/regionalmarginalisation

Ethnoregionalmovements

Militantethnoregionalleaders

Guerrilla warfarePitched battlesfrom controlledterritories

Rebel groups inSudan, Mali,Nigeria (1967–1970), Senegal,Ethiopia

Islamist rebelmovements

Islamic law/rule

UnbeliefCorruption ofIslamic practicesand rules ofgovernance

FundamentalistPuritanReform

Political Islam

Militant Islamicleaders

Bloody protestRiotsTerror attacksGuerrilla warfare

Armed religiousgroups inAlgeria, Somalia

Rebelmovements

Purpose

Grievancenarrative

Organisation

Ideology

Leadership

Dominant methods ofengagement

Examples

Source: Compiled by authors.

Militant Islamist groups

Comparisons of militias, Islamist militants and rebel movements

Militias Armed religious groups Rebel movements

Goals Limited sociopolitical Clear religious objectives Clear and larger socio-goals and more specific such as Islamic basis and political goals such aslocal/community/ethnic reform of the state/ change of governmentsissues government and secession

Motivation Identity-based socio- Religious and socio- Larger political grievancespolitical grievances and political grievances and struggles for powerchallenges with a mix of and access to resourcesopportunism

Scope and Small groups constructed Larger groups founded Larger groups size around commanders/ on Islamic leaderships constructed as fighting

leaders and cells that operate units that operate in orOperate in limited among the population seek extensive territorialgeographic space in controldispersed small enclavesGenerally do not hold territories

Methods Armed protests, violent Violent protests and Larger-scale organisedattacks and guerrilla attacks fighting through guerrillawarfare, but often may and conventional warfarenot hold territory from controlled territories

Engage- Low-intensity conflicts Violent attacks against Intensive conflicts againstments/ Engage security agents, civil population and the government/pro-targets rival militias and security agencies, government groups and

perceived enemies/ perceived infidels and military over extensiveenemy groups deviant religious groups territory

Full-scale war

Social base Community and ethnic Religious and youth Larger social basis, whichgroups and youths volunteers may comprise identity/Rarely spread beyond non-identity and youthsidentity territorial base May conscript childRarely conscript soldiers and women

Funding Local extortions/levies/ Tolls/levies/taxes Extensive toll collectionstolls Elite funding Imposed leviesLow-level resource External support Extensive resourceplundering exploitation/plundering/Local and ethnic elite tradingfunding

Source: compiled by authors.

The social bases of militias and rebel movements

The nature and character of ANSGs in Africa

s

Between grievances and opportunism

Identity crisis

The state and governance crises

The struggle for resources

Economic decline and social ferment

The youth problem

Elite construction

Religion, culture and traditions

Globalisation and arms proliferation

The struggles for power

Motivations and sustaining factors

The dialectics of violence

Between functionality and dysfunctionality

A regime of extortion and plundering

Regime of indiscriminate violence, crime and terror

Socio-economic disruptions and deepening poverty

Internal displacement, refugee and humanitarian crises

s

Impact and ramifications of ANSGs on regional and international dynamics

!

!

!

!

The relationship of armed non-state groups to the state and thegovernment

Coexist with monopoly on violence

Replace monopoly on violence

Support government

Overthrowgovernment

Locating non-state actors in international law

Crowding out the state? A variety of non-state actors

Militias

!

!

!

National liberation movements

General responses to rebels and militias by states and communities of states

Norm generation, legislation and enforcement action

Belligerents, insurgents and rebels

Enforcement action at international (UN), continental (AU) andnational levels

Establishing accountability for acts of rebels and militias

Sampling the wrongs: breaches of international law by rebels and militia

Political responses of international (UN) and continental (AU) actors

Accountability under international human rights law

Accountability under international criminal law

Accountability under international humanitarian law

Challenges to establishing accountability under internationalhumanitarian law

Measures of accountability under national lawChallenges related to applying international criminal law to rebels, militias and armed groups

Governance and development

The crisis of the state in Africa

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!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

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State weakness, fragility and collapse in Africa

!

!

The crisis of governance and development in Africa

Case analysis: state, governance, development and humansecurity crises in Nigeria

Responses of citizens and popular groups

The phenomenon of armed non-state groups

The state and governance as victims of ANSGs

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

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Criminal gangs in Kenya

Criminal gang Area(s) of operation

Amachuma Kisii/Nyamira/Gucha

Angola Musumbiji Western/Nairobi

Baghdad Boys Nyanza/Nairobi (Kibera)

Banyamulenge Nairobi

Charo Shutu Mombasa/Kwale

Chinkororo Kisii/Gucha/Transmara

Dallas Muslim Youth Nairobi

Ndombolo ya Yesu Nairobi (Kibera)

42 Brothers Nairobi (Kibera)

Jeshi la Embakasi Nairobi (Embakasi)

Jeshi la King’ole Machakos/Makueni/Kitui/Mwingi

Jeshi la Mzee Nairobi

Kalenjin Warrriors Rift Valley

Kamjesh Nairobi (Embakasi/Kasarani)

Kaya Bombo Youth Mombasa/Kwale

Kosovo Boys Nairobi

Kuzacha Boys Nairobi (Kibera)

Maasai Morans Rift Valley/Nairobi

Origin and composition

Mungiki Nairobi/Rift Valley/Central

Runyenjes Football Club Embu

Sabaot Land Defence Force Mount Elgon

Sakina Youth Mombasa

Sri Lanka Kuria/Transmara

Sungu Sungu Nairobi (Kibera/Kasarani)

Taleban Nairobi

Source: author’s compilation.

Religious roots

The quest for a living: tactics and strategies

The Mungiki and politics

State response to the Mungiki

Organisational form

Origin and composition

Source of funds

The SLDF and politics

The quest for land: tactics and strategies

State response to the SLDF

From independence to 1997

From King Léopold II to independence

Laurent Kabila to Joseph Kabila

DRC's natural resources

Sources: Jeune Afrique and United Nations.

Structure, agenda and functioning of the various groups

Rassemblement Congolais pour la Congolese, UgandaDémocratie – Kisangani (RCD-Kisangani) May 1999

Rassemblement Congolais pour la Congolese, UgandaDémocratie – Mouvement de Libération September 1999(RCD-ML)

Rassemblement Congolais pour la Congolese, UgandaDémocratie – Nationale (RCD-Nationale) June 2000

Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo Congolese, Uganda(Movement for the Liberation of Congo, October 1998MLC)

Union des Patriotes Congolais (Union of Congolese, Uganda, RwandaCongolese Patriots, UPC) June 2002

Parti pour l’Unité et la Sauvegarde de Congolese, Ugandal’Intégrité du Congo (Party for Unity and February 2003Safeguarding of the Integrity of Congo, PUSIC)

Front de Libération du Congo (Congolese Congolese, UgandaLiberation Front, FLC) January 2001

Mouvement des Patriotes Résistants Congolese, FDLRCongolais (Patriots in the Congolese Date not availableResistance, PARECO)

Congres National pour la Défense du Congolese, RwandaPeuple (National Congress for the December 2006Defence of the People, CNDP)

Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwandan, DRC, PARECORwanda – Forcés Combattantes 1999Abacunguzi (FDLR-FOCA): previously called Armée pour la Libération duRwanda (Army for the Liberation of Rwanda, ALiR)

Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) Ugandan, Sudan1988/89

National Army for the Liberation of Ugandan, Allegedly receives supportUganda (NALU) 1988 from the DRC government

Rebel groups in the eastern DRC

Rebel group Nationality, Alliancesfounding date

Alliance des Forces Démocratique pour Congolese, Uganda, Rwanda, Angolala Libération du Congo (AFDL) October 1996

Rassemblement Congolais pour la Congolese, Rwanda, UgandaDémocratie (Congolese Rally for August 1998Democracy, RCD)

Rassemblement Congolais pour la Congolese, RwandaDémocratie – Goma (RCD-Goma) August 1998

Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) Ugandan, Allegedly receives support 1998 from the DRC government

Mai-Mai Congolese, DRC government, FDLRDate not available

Alliances des Patriotes pour un Congo Congolese, FDLRLibre et Souverain (Patriotic Alliance for a Date not availableFree and Sovereign Congo, APCLS)

Ralliement pour l`Unite et la Démocratie Rwandan, Mai-Mai(Rally for Unity and Democracy – Urunana, Date not availableRUD-Urunana)

Front National de Libération (National Burundian, DRC governmentLiberation Front, FLN) Date not available

Forces Républicaines Fédéralistes (FRF) Congolese, DRC governmentDate not available

Front pour l’Intégration et la Paix en Ituri Congolese, Uganda(Front for Integration and Peace in Ituri, 2003FIPI)

Front Révolutionnaire pour l’Ituri Congolese, RCD-ML, DRC government(Revolutionary Front for Ituri, FRPI) Date not available

Front des Nationalistes et Intégrationnistes Congolese, Uganda(Nationalist and Integrationist Front, FNI) Date not available

Forces Populaires pour la Démocratie au Congolese, UgandaCongo (Popular Force for Democracy in Date not availableCongo, FPDC)

People’s Redemption Army (PRA) Ugandan, RwandaDate not available

Rassemblement Populaire Rwandaise Rwandan, RPR-Inkeragutabara(Popular Rwandese Assembly, RPR) Date not available

Rassemblement Populaire Rwandaise - Rwandan, RPRInkeragutabara (RPR- Inkeragutabara) Date not available

Congres National pour la Défense Rwandan, RPR-Inkeragutabara,(National Congress for Defence, CND) Date not available RPR; RUD

Source: compiled by the author from various sources. Note that some of these groups no longer exist.

Natural resource wealth: blessing or curse?

Natural resources in the DRC

Type of mineral Location (provinces)

Amethyst South Kivu

Cadmium Katanga

Cassiterite (tin) North and South Kivu, Katanga, Maniema

Coltan (columbite-tantalite) North and South Kivu, Maniema

Copper and cobalt Katanga

Diamonds Kasai, Orientale, Equator, Maniema, Bas-Congo

Gold South Kivu, Orientale, Katanga

Iron Equator, Katanga

Lead Katanga

Manganese Katanga

Pyrochlore North Kivu

Silver Katanga

Tourmaline South Kivu

Uranium Katanga

Wolframite North and South Kivu

Zinc Katanga

Sources: Global Witness, Same old story: a background study on natural resources inthe DRC, June 2004; Global Witness, ‘Faced with a gun, what can you do?’ War andthe militarisation of mining in eastern Congo, July 2009.

Collaboration between the DRC government and FDLR and PARECO

Natural resources in the eastern DRC

Source: Yamba Kantu/Institute for Environmental Security.

Map of natural resources and conflict areas

Source: Swisspeace.

Rwanda and the CNDP

Uganda–MLC collaboration

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!

!

!

Regional responses

International responses

United Nations Security Council, MONUC and sanctions

The Kimberley Process

The International Criminal Court

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Resources and conflict: the dilemma between greed and grievance

Violence and crisis in the Niger Delta

Mapping the Niger Delta conflict: from agitation to resistance

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Militias, pirates and cults in the Niger Delta

Trend of conflics in the Niger Delta

Phase Period Agitation

1 1950–1965 ! Civil agitation for special developmental attention because of unique ecological difficulties and for separate regions because ofmarginalisation by ethnic majority groups

2 23 February ! Militant insurgent engagement by Adaka Boro and the Niger Deltato 6 March Volunteer Service (NDVS)1966 ! Separation or autonomy as the goal of engagement

3 1970–1982 ! Agitations by host communities against transnational oil companies

! Demands for basic social infrastructure and amenities, and payment of compensation for damages to land and property

4 1983–1990 ! Conflict between host communities and transnational oil companies over payment of adequate compensation for damagesto land, water and property, and for development projects

! Litigation and peaceful obstructions and protests as the instruments of engagement

5 1990–1996 ! Emergence of civil, community, ethnic and regional groups in response to state and transnational oil companies’ insensitivity andrepression

! Peaceful demonstrations by host communities and occupation of oil production facilities, demanding adequate compensation fordamages and development attention

6 1997–2009 ! Militant and militia actions against transnational oil companies! Demand for resource ownership and control by civil, political and

militia groups! Violent confrontations and low-intensity war between militia

groups and the military

Sources: compiled from L Owugah, Local resistance and the state, Paper presented at the OilWatch African General Assembly, Port Harcourt, 9–14 February 1999, 5–8; and A Ikelegbe, Beyondthe threshold of civil struggle: youth militancy and the militiaisation of the resource conflict in theNiger Delta region of Nigeria, African Study Monographs 27(3) (2006), 87–122, 104–106.

!

!

Militias and military engagements

The genesis of militias and pirates

The militarisation of politics

!

The militias, opportunism and crime

Inter- and intra-community struggles over oil resources

!

!

Inter-ethnic struggles and antagonisms

Niger Delta region

Source: Yiruo Zhao (http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2009/world/war-on-water/).

Oil politics and the criminalisation of insurgency

Changes in the derivation component of revenue allocation

Period Share of derivation

1960–1970 50 per cent

1970–1975 45 per cent

1975–1980 20 per cent

1980–1983 2 per cent

1984–1992 1,5 per cent

1992–2000 3 per cent

2000 to date 13 per cent

The youth movement

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!

!

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!

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Sources: Compiled from A M Jega, Democracy,good governance and development in Nigeria,Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 2007, 203–245; S IIbaba, Understanding the Niger Delta crisis, PortHarcourt: Amethyst and Colleagues, 2005,98–99; G I Mbanefoh and F O Egwaikhide,Revenue allocation in Nigeria: derivationprinciple revisited, in A Kunle, R Suberu, AAgbaje and G Herault (eds), Federalism andpolitical restructuring in Nigeria, Ibadan:Spectrum Books, 1998, 213–231.

!

Actors in the conflict

Type ofconflict

Intra-communityconflict

Source of conflict

Struggles betweengroups, localgovernance organs/sub-structures andlocal elite for accessto and distribution ofoil-based resources

Actors in conflict

Communityfactions:! Urban elites

versus localelites

! Youths versus elites

Instruments/mode

Urban elites: Hijacking ofcommunity resources, disregardfor local elitesLocal elites: Inciting youths andchiefs against the urban elites

Youths: Destruction of propertyowned by the elites, harassmentof their relativesElites: Fractionalisation of youthbodies through partisan supportand patronage, attacks on rivalgroups

Actors in Niger Delta conflicts

Inter-communityconflicts

Communityversustransnationaloilcompanies

Communityversus state

Inter-communitystruggles for locationand ownership of oil-based resources, accessto oil resources andstruggles for favoureddistribution

Community strugglesfor transnational oilcompany attention,communitydevelopment projects,compensation for oilspillages andmemorandum ofunderstanding withtransnational oilcompanies

Struggles againstrepression, inequitableshare of benefits fromoil

! Youths versus youths

! Youths versuscommunity

! Claims agentsversus community

! Youths versuschiefs

Youths, chiefs and elites of the communities

Youths, chiefs,elites, transnational oil companiessecurity operatives and communities

Communityyouths andsecurityoperatives

Youths: Overthrow of communityleadership and usurpation ofpowerCommunity: Inequitabledistribution of resources that short-changes the youths

Claims agents: Short-changing ofcommunity membersCommunity: Refusal to pay agreedfees, rejection of double dealings

Youths: Dethronement of chiefs,attacks on chiefsChiefs: Fractionalisation of youthbodies through partisan supportand patronage, kidnapping,encroachment on land and fishinggrounds, attack of communitymember(s)

Community: Attacks on rivalcommunity members andproperty

Transnational oil companies:Fractionalisation of communityleaders, refusal to paycompensation, breach ofmemorandum of understanding,payment of inadequatecompensationCommunity: Attacks on oilinstallations, disruption ofproduction, seizure of equipment,kidnapping of personnel

Community: Disruption of oilproduction, attack on securityoperativesState: Militarisation/militaryoccupation, attacks, arrests

Militias in government

Militias as pseudo-government

Inter-ethnic

Intra-militia/cult/confraternitygroups

Struggles for greateraccess and favouredallocation of oil-basedresources

Leadership successioncrises, conflicts overresources, methods andtargets of engagement,struggles for territory,influence and access tooil resources,transnational oilcompany paymentsand patronage

Youths, elitesand chiefs

Youths versusyouths

Encroachment on land and waterresources, attacks on communities

Violent engagements,encroachment on area of control oroil theft zone

Sources: S I Ibaba, The environment and sustainable development in the Niger Delta: the BayelsaState experience, Unpublished PhD thesis, Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt, 2004,194–199; K Okoko, The Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) – Host communityrelations survey, Unpublished report submitted to the SPDC Western Operations, Warri, Nigeria,1998, 14.

Militias and interfaces with civil society, politics and governance

Impact of militia activities and the conflicts

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Militias as members of civil society

Responses to the militias and conflicts by the Nigerian state and transnational oil companies

Response of the federal government

Resource conflicts and the human security crisis in the Niger Delta

Resource conflicts and regional and international interventions

Oil company responses

NOTES

Historical grievances

The quest for cultural and ideological domination

Economic and social exclusion

Power and political rivalry

Oil exploration and exploitation

Oil exploration and conflict areas

Source: http://www.rightsmaps.com/.

Rebelmovement

ToritMutineers

Anyanya

Anyanya II

SudanPeople’sLiberationArmy

Yearlaunched

1955

1963

1977

1983

Estimatedstrength*

NA

15 000

NA

125 000*

Leadership

Emidio Tafengand Paul AliGbutala

EmidioTafeng,1963–1969

Joseph Lagu,1970–1972

Samuel GaiTut; AkuotAtem to1975–1983;WilliamAbdallaChoul;GordonKoang

Dr JohnGarang,1983–2005

Comments/notes

Some disappeared into thecountryside and others resettled inCongo-Léopoldville (Kinshasa) wherethey regrouped to launch theAnyanya I armed movement

Operations concentrated along theborder areas of Congo (now theDRC), Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia.Disbanded in 1972 with the signingof the Addis Ababa Agreement

Remnants of the Akobo Mutiny in1975 who escaped into Ethiopia.Leaders killed by the SPLA; dispersedand became government militia inUpper Nile. Choul and Koangreplaced the murdered leaders

Launched in 1983 and supported bythe Ethiopian Derg. Operated in thewhole Southern Sudan, parts of theNuba Mountains, Blue Nile andeastern Sudan. Transformed into anarmy in 2005 after the CPA

Main rebel groups in Sudan

Eastern Front

SudanLiberationArmy

Justice andEqualityMovement(JEM)

2005

2003

2003

6 000 to7 000

8 000 to9 000

5 000

MusaMohamedAhmed andMabruk SalimMubarak

Abdel Wahidel-Nur (2003to date)

Minni Minawi(2006 to date)

Khalil Ibrahim

An amalgam of rebel groups thatoperated under the umbrella of theDemocratic National Allianceestablished in 1989. They signed theEastern Sudan Peace Agreement in2007

Operates in the three states of Darfurwith a concentration around JebelMarra Mountain. The SLA AbdelWahid faction continues to wage anarmed struggle to liberate Darfur

Joined the government of Sudanafter signing the DPA in 2006.Operated in Darfur like a pro-government militia group

Operates in Darfur, but attackedOmdurman in May 2008. Signed aframework peace agreement withthe government in Qatar in February2010

* Excluding joint integration units, police, prisons and wildlife services.

Sources: constructed by the author from sources such as Mohamed Omer Beshir, The SouthernSudan: from conflict to peace, Khartoum: Khartoum Bookshop, 1975, 68; Gérard Prunier, Armedmovements in Sudan, Chad, CAR, Somalia, Eritrea and Ethiopia, Analyse 02/08, Berlin: Centre forInternational Peace Operations, 2008, 3–4; ICG, Sudan: saving peace in the east, Africa Report 102(5 January 2006), 6; Sudan Issue Brief 15, December 2009, 8, htpp://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org (accessed 15 March 2010).

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Rebel-controlled areas in south Sudan, 2001

Source: http://www.rightsmaps.com/.

The Sudan Liberation Movement/Army

!

!

!

!

Main Darfur rebel factions after the Darfur Peace Agreement

Rebelgroups /estimatedmilitarystrength

SLM8 000 –9 000

Faction/year ofestablishment

SLM Mainstream2003

SLMGovernment2006

Factional leadership

Abdel Wahid

Mini Minawi

Comments

The largest rebel group, whichrejected the DPA and enjoys broadsupport in Darfur. The leader is ratherisolated from his supporters

Signed a peace deal with thegovernment in May 2006. Weak afterthe signing of the DPA and many fieldcommanders deserted the group

Sources: Gérard Prunier, Armed movements in Sudan, Chad, CAR, Somalia, Eritrea and Ethiopia,Analyse 02/08, Berlin: Centre for International Peace Operations, 2008, 3–4; Johan Brosché, Darfur: dimensions and dilemmas of a complex situation, Uppsala: Department of Peace andConflict Research, Uppsala University, 2008, 24–38; Sudan Issue Brief Number 15, December 2009.

JEM5 000

Other rebelgroups500

SLM Masalit2006

SLM/Classic2006

SLM Free Will2006

Group of 192005

SLM/Unity2006

JEM Mainstream2003

JEM FieldRevolutionaryCommand 2005

JEM CollectiveLeadership2007

NationalMovement forReform andDevelopment2004

DarfurIndependenceFront/Army 2007

Khamis Abdalla

Ahmed Abdel Shafie

Abdel Rahman Musa

Suleiman Marajan

Khalil Ibrahim

Mohamed SalehHarba

Abdallah Banda andBahar Abu Garda

Jibril Abdel Karim Bari

Mohamed Idris Azrag

Tribal in composition. Operated in Dar Masalit in west Darfur

The group is led by a foundingmember of the SLM. The factionrejected the DPA

Composed exclusively of Tunjurnationals. The leader was politicallymanipulated and the group became a pro-government faction

Umbrella organisation under theleadership of the Maidob group inNorth Darfur

Showed the highest military presencein Darfur in 2007 and Kordofan afterdefectors of Minnawi rallied aroundthis faction

The best organised and supported by both Chad and Eritrea. Itsprogramme is Islamic and negotiatedwith the government in Qatar (Doha)

Considered to be the militant Islamicwing of JEM, but merged with theSLM in late 2007

Dormant since its establishment. It isone of the factions created withindirect support of the government to weaken the JEM mainstream

Supported by the Chadian military

The only faction that has called forsecession of Darfur from Sudan

The Southern Sudan Defence Force and tribal militiagroups in Southern Sudan

The Janjaweed in DarfurSample of militia groups according to the three regions of

Southern Sudan

Militia group

South SudanUnityMovement

Fangak Forces

Pibor DefenceForces

Mundari Forces

EquatoriaDefence Force

Commander/leader

Major-General PaulinoMatip

Major-General GabrielTangyan

Major-General IsmaelKonyi

Major-General ClementWani

Brigadier FabianoOdongi

Areas of operation before the JubaDeclaration

Bentiu, Rubkona, Mayom, Makien Wankay,Nhialdiu, Heglig and Kharasana

Bashlakon, Fangak, Deil, Kwerkan, Kwerdaf,Faguer, Fag, Kaldak and Dor

Pibor, Akobo Road, Likuangole, Juba and Bor

Terekaka, Juba road, Tali, Rejaf East, Kaltok,Gemeiza and Jebel Lado

Torit, Juba, Torit Road and mountains aroundTorit

National PeaceForces (Fertit)

Peace andReconstructionBrigade

Major-General EltomElnur Daldoum

Sultan Abdel Bagi Ayii

Bazia, Geitano, Taban, Bussere, Halima, Bagare,Mboro, Khor Gana, Deim Zubeir, Sopo, Raja andTumsah

El Miram, Bahr el Arab, Agok, Malual, Tadama, Um Driesi and Bringi

Source: John Young, The south Sudan defence forces in the wake of the Juba Declaration, Geneva:Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International Studies, 2006, 42–48, also available athttp://www.googlesyndicatedsearch.com/u/SmallArmsSurvey?q=John+Young%2C+The+south+Sudan+defence+forces+in+the+wake+of+th&sa=go%C2%A0 (accessed 18 December 2009).

Responses of local communities

Militarist responses of the government

Responses of actors and stakeholders

LRA activities, December 2008 – April 2010

Source: Amelie Desgroppes, IFRA/ICG.

!

!

!

!

Nigerian map of states with Shariah laws and principles

The 12 northern states, in green, that have adopted Shariah laws and principles areBorno, Yobe, Gombe, Bauchi, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Kaduna, Zamfara, Sokoto,Kebbi and Niger. The northern states that have not adopted Shariah are Adamawa,Taraba, Benue, Plateau, Nasarawa, Kogi and Kwara.

Early militant Islamic movements of northern Nigeria

Recent militant Islamist movement in northern Nigeria:the Maitastine and Shiite movements

!

!

!

!

The emergence of neo-militant Islamist movements innorthern Nigeria: the Nigerian Taleban or Boko Haramphenomenon, 2001–2009

Global and regional response to militant Islamic groups in Nigeria and Africa

Islamism, political Islam and Salafi jihadism

After ideology: external factors in the evolution of armed Islamist groups

Egypt

Internal factors and general recruitment trends

Algeria

Morocco

The global war on terror and armed Islamist groups in Egypt, Algeria and Morocco

The global war on terror and regime response to armed Islamist groups

Armed Islamist groups and the Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative

Guerrilla warfare against the MPLA

Identity politics

The peace process and renewed war

A parallel state?

From military collapse to political defeat

Political engagement in wartime

Peace settlement

Waning support

Electoral gains

!

!

!

!

Preamble: the making of the Revolutionary United Front

Phase I (1991–1993): Conventional warfare; from the RUF incursion to its near defeat

Phase II (1994–1996): Bush camps, from theestablishment of isolated RUF jungle bases to theirdestruction

Phase III (1997–1999): Collaboration, from joining the military junta to the Lomé Peace Accord

Phase IV (1999–2002): Stalemate, from territorialoccupation to demobilisation

!

!

!

!

!

Variables for the fighting force

!

!

!

!

!

!

Variables for the community

!

!

The Mano River cluster

The Great Lakes cluster

The Southern Africa cluster

The Horn of Africa cluster

State governance2

Youth factor

Political elite manipulation

Controlling borders and border areas

Local responses

State responses

Transforming ANSGs into civil actors: cases and challenges

Regional responses

International responses

!

!

Legal approaches for addressing the ANSG phenomenon in Africa

Country Name of group Abbreviation Time period and further notes

Angola Frente de Libertação do FLEC Established 1963, aiming atEstado de Cabinda independence of the enclave of

Cabinda. Dissolved in 1976, re-appeared in June 1991

Angola Frente Nacional da FNLA Established 1954Libertação de Angola

Angola Movimento Popular de MPLA Established 1956Libertação de Angola

Angola União Nacional para UNITA Established 1966, supported by USIndepêndencia Total de during the Cold WarAngola

Burundi Force pour la Défense de FDD Established 1994, Hutu-Guerrillala Démocratie

Burundi Parti pour la Libération PALIPEHUTU -du Peuple Hutu – Forces FNLNationales de Libération

Cameroon Union des Populations UPC Established in 1948; led by Rubendu Cameroun Um Nyobé; anti-colonial

movement

Central Mouvement Patriotique MPRC Established 2005African pour la Restauration de laRepublic République Centrafricaine

Central Union des Forces UFDR Established 2006, umbrella groupAfrican Démocratiques pour le (Groupe d’Action PatriotiqueRepublic Rassemblement pour la Libération de Centrafrique

+ Mouvement des Libérateurs Centrafricains pour la Justice + Front Démocratique Centrafricain)

Chad Mouvement pour la Paix, MPRDla Réconstruction et leDéveloppement

Chad Mouvement pour la MDDDémocratie et leDéveloppement

Chad Rassemblement des RFCForces pour le Changement

Chad Socle pour le SCUD Established 2005, eastern ChadChangement, l’Unité et la Démocratie

Chad Union des Forces pour la UFDDDémocratie et le Développement

Congo (RC) Ninjas Established 2002, ceasefire 2003

Congo (RC) Cobras Second half of the 1990s

Congo (DRC) Alliance de Forces AFDL Established October 1996Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo

Congo (DRC) Congrès National pour CNDP Established 2006, North Kivula Défense du Peuple

Congo (DRC) Conseil National de CNL/APL 1964–1966Libération / Armée Populaire de Libération

Congo (DRC) Conféderation des Conakat 1960–1963Associations Tribales de Katanga

Congo (DRC) Forces Démocratique FDLR Estimated 9 000 fighters; formerpour la Libération du Rwandan militaries and militiasRwanda participating in the 1994 genocide

Congo (DRC Front de Libération FLNC Established 1968 by former armyNationale Congolais officer Nathaniel Mbumba;

military defeat 1978

Congo (DRC) Front Nationalistes et FNI Agreed to disarm in August Integrationistes 2007

Congo (DRC) Forces de Résistance FRPI Established November 2002Patriotique d’Ituri

Central Armée Populaire pour la APRD Established 2005African Restauration de laRepublic République et la

Démocratie

Central Front Démocratique du FDPC Established 2005African Peuple CentrafricainRepublic

Central Union des Forces UFRAfrican RépublicainesRepublic

Chad Armée Nationale de ANR Led by Mahamt Garfa (until 1994Résistance commandant of the national

armed forces); active in Eastern and Southern Chad, split off in 2003

Chad Concorde Nationale CNTTchadienne

Chad Comité de Sursaut CSNPNational de la Paix et dela Démocratie

Chad Forces Armées du Nord FAN Led by Hissen Habré; first rebel movement in Africa since anti-colonial struggles to seize power

Chad Forces Armées de la FARFRépublique Fédérale

Chad Front de Libération Frolinat Established 1966Nationale du Tchad

Chad Front Uni pour le FUCChangementDémocratique

Chad Mouvement pour la MDJT Established 1998, northern Chad,Démocratie et la Justice ceasefire 2003au Tchad

Côte d’Ivoire Groupe Patriotique pour GPP Established 2002, umbrella groupla Paix of pro-government militia

Côte d’Ivoire Union des Patriotes pour UPLTCI Established 2003, pro-governmentla Libération Totale de la militiaCôte d’Ivoire

Djibouti Front pour la Restauration FRUDde l’Unité et de la Démocratie

Ethiopia/ Alliance of Eritrean AENF Established 1999Eritrea National Forces

Ethiopia/ Eritrean Liberation Front ELF Established early 1960sEritrea

Ethiopia Ethiopian Democratic EDU Conservative/monarchistUnion

Ethiopia/ Eritrean People’s EPLF Established 1970, split off to formEritrea Liberation Front the ELF. Linked to the TPLF; EPRDF

+ EPLF overthrew the Ethiopian government in 1991

Ethiopia/ Ethiopian People’s EPRDF EPRDF + EPLF overthrew theEritrea Revolutionary Democratic Ethiopian government in 1991

Front

Ethiopia Islamic Front for the IFLO OLF splinter groupLiberation of Oromiya

Ethiopia Oromo Liberation Front OLF Established 1973, http://www.oromoliberationfront.org

Ethiopia Ogaden National ONLF/A Established 1969Liberation Front/Army

Ethiopia Tigray Liberation Front TLF Established 1974 as a students’organisation, dissolved 1976 by the TPLF

Ethiopia Tigray People’s Liberation TPLF Established 1975Front

The Gambia Green Boys Pro-government, reported to be affiliated with the ruling APRC

Congo (DRC) Mai-Mai militia Collective term for local militia in the Kivus

Congo (DRC) Mouvement pour la MLC Established shortly after theLibération du Congo beginning of the war in 1998

Congo (DRC) Mouvement National MNC/L 1960/61Congolais/Lumumba

Congo (DRC) Mouvement National MNC/K 1960/61Congolais/Kalondji

Congo (DRC) Mouvement MRC Agreed to disarm in August 2007Révolutionnaire Congolais

Congo (DRC) Rassemblement RCD Split after the war of 1996/97Congolais pour la Démocratie

Congo (DRC) Rassemblement RCD – Goma Established 1998Congolais pour la Démocratie – Goma

Congo (DRC) RCD – Mouvement de RCD-ML Established 1999, North Kivu,Libération supported by Uganda, split from

the RCD

Congo (DRC) Union des Patriotes UPC Established 2002, led by ThomasCongolais Lubanga, Ituri region

Côte d’Ivoire Congrès des Jeunes Cojep Supports President LaurentPatriotes (‘Young Patriots’ Gbagbo (but not governmentincluding student militia) controlled)

Côte d’Ivoire Forces Nouvelles de FNCI (MPCI Alliance of the FNCICôte d’Ivoire (alliance of + MJP formed in 2003 during the war;Mouvement Patriotique + MPIGO) political leader Guillaume Sorode Côte d’Ivoire, (now prime minister); Mouvement pour la supported by traditional DozoJustice et la Paix and hunters (especially in 2002/03),Mouvement Populaire http://www.fninfo.cipour le Grand Ouest)

Côte d’Ivoire Front de Libération du FLGO Established 2002, ‘patriotic’ youthGrand Ouest militia in the Western region (loyal

to the president/government side, fought against MJP and MPIGO)

Côte d’Ivoire Front pour la Sécurité de FSCO Established 2002, pro-governmentCentre-Ouest militia

Madagascar JINA (secret organisation) Established 1945, anti-colonial movement

Madagascar Mouvement de la Established 1945, anti-colonialRénovation Malgache movement, military defeated 1956

Madagascar PANAMA (secret Established 1945, anti-colonialorganisation) movement

Mali Alliance Démocratique Established 2006, formerdu 23 mai pour le combatants of the 1990s TuaregChangement rebellion

Mali Armée Révolutionaire ARLA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1996de Libération de l’Azawad

Mali Front Populaire pour la FPLA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1996Libération de l’Azawad

Mali Front Islamique Arabe FIAA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1996de l’Azawad

Mali Front National pour la FNLA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1996Libération de l’Azawad

Mali Front Uni de la Libération FULA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1996de l’Azawad

Mali Mouvement Populaire MPA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1996de l’Azawad

Mali Mouvement Populaire MPLA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1996pour la Libération de l’Azawad

Mali Mouvement Touareg MTNMC Founded 18 September 2007Nord-Mali pour le Changement

Mauretania Frente Popular de Polisario 1975–1991Liberación de Seguia el Hamra y Rio de Oro

Mozambique Frente de Libertação de FRELIMO 1964–1974Moçambique

Mozambique Resistência Nacional RENAMO 1975–1992, supported by USMoçambicana during the Cold War

Guinea Union des Forces UFDG Armed conflict against theDémocratiques de Guinée government of Guinea in 2000/01

Guinea Union des Forces pour UFGNune Guinée Nouvelle

Guinea Rassemblement des RFDGforces Démocratiques de Guinée / Rally of Democratic Forces of Guinea

Guinea Young Volunteers

Guinea-Bissau Partido Africano da PAIGC/FLING Seized power after independenceIndependéncia da Guiné in 1975; overthrown by a coupe Cabo Verde / Frente da in 1980Tutta para la Independencia Nacional da Guiné

Kenya Rebellion Anti-colonial revolt 1952–56

Kenya Shifta Secessionist/separatist war 1963–67

Liberia Lofa Defence Force LDF Loma-dominated, allied to Charles Taylor

Liberia Liberian Peace Council LPC

Liberia Liberians United for LURD Established 1993, partly proxy ofReconciliation and the armed forces of Liberia, foughtDemocracy against NPFL

Liberia Independent National INPFL Split to form the NPFL in FebruaryPatriotic Front of Liberia 1990 because of personal rivalries

between Prince Johnson (INPFL) and Charles Taylor (NFPL)

Liberia National Patriotic Front NPFL Established 1989, led by Charlesof Liberia Taylor; overthrew Doe’s regime in

September 1990

Liberia Movement for MODEL Established in early 1993Democracy in Liberia

Liberia United Liberation ULIMO Established 1991Movement for Democracy

Nigeria Niger Delta People’s NDPVF Established 2003, broke up after(Niger Delta) Volunteer Force the detention of its leader,

Dokubo-Asari, in September 2005

Nigeria Niger Delta Volunteer (Niger Delta) Force NDVF

Nigeria Niger Delta Vigilante NDV Leader Ateke Tom(Niger Delta)

Nigeria O'odudua (also O'odua) OPC Established 1994, south-western(Centre, People’s Council NigeriaLagos)

Nigeria Zamfara State Vigilante ZSVS Established 1999Service

Rwanda Forces Démocratique FDLR Established 2000; DRC andpour la Libération du Rwanda agreed to disband theRwanda FDLR in December 2008

Rwanda Front Patriotique FPRRwandaise

Rwanda Interahamwe, Hutu Militia Interahamwe was not formally dissolved after the 1994 genocide but merged with the Hutu Militia

Senegal Mouvement des Forces MFDC Established 1982; armed conflict Démocratiques de 1990–2004, split in ‘Front Nord’Casamançe and ‘Front Sud’

Sierra Leone Armed Forces AFRC Defected members of the armedRevolutionary Council forces

Sierra Leone Civil Defence Force CDF

Sierra Leone Revolutionary United RUF Entered 1991 Sierra Leone,Front supported by NPFL Fighters

Sierra Leone West Side Boys WSB Led by Foday Kallay

Somalia Al-Ittihad al-Islami / AIAI Established 1992(Islamic Union)

Somalia Alliance for the Liberation ALS/ARS Established 2007of Somalia / Alliance for the Reliberation of Somalia

Namibia South West Africa SWAPO/PLAN Established 1960People’s Organisation /People’s Liberation Army Namibia

Niger Forces Armées FARSRévolutionnaires du Sahara

Niger Front Démocratique pour FDR 1990sle Renouveau

Niger Front pour la Libération FLAA Tuareg rebellion 1990–1994de l’Air et de l’Azawad

Niger Mouvement des MNJ Established 1991Nigériens pour la Justice

Nigeria Ahlul Sunnah Jamaa(North)

Nigeria Al-Sunna Wal Jamma Established 2002, also known as(Followers of the Prophet) Taleban

Nigeria Arewa People’s Congress APC

Nigeria Bakassi Movement for BAMOSD Declared ’secession’ from Nigeria(south-east) Self-Determination in 2006

Nigeria Bakassi Boys Established 1999(south-east)

Nigeria Bakassi Freedom Fighters(south-east)

Nigeria Biafran Organisation of BOFF Name was given only at the end (Biafra) Freedom Fighters of the Biafran war (1967–1970)

Nigeria Egbesu Boys of Africa EBA

Nigeria Hisba Established 2001(North)

Nigeria Movement for the MASSOB Established 1999(Biafra) Realisation of the

Sovereign State of Biafra

Nigeria Movement for the MEND Active since January 2006(Niger Delta) Emancipation of the

Niger Delta

Sudan Justice and Equality JEM DarfurMovement

Sudan Justice Front Established 2007, Arab militia

Sudan New Sudan Brigade Established 1995, eastern branch of SPLA

Sudan Popular Defence Forces Government-controlled armed group

Sudan Sudan Alliance Forces SAF Established 1994

Sudan Sudan Liberation SLM/A Established June 1992 at theMovement/Army University of Khartoum

Sudan Sudan People’s Liberation SPLM/A Established 1983, Southern SudanMovement/Army

Sudan The Beja Congress Established 1993, eastern Sudan

Sudan United Front for Liberation UFDL Established 2007and Development

Sudan United Revolutionary URFF Established 2007Force Front

Uganda Allied Democratic Forces ADF Established 1995

Uganda Front for National Fronasa Established 1973Salvation

Uganda Holy Spirit Mobile Forces HSMF Established by Alice Auma (Alice Lakwena) (later her father, Severino Lukoya) since August 1986

Uganda Lord’s Resistance Army LRA Established 1987 by Joseph Kony

Uganda National Resistance NRM/A Led by Yoweri Museveni, seizedMovement/Army power in 1986

Uganda Uganda Freedom UFM Former Save Uganda Movement,Movement 1980s

Uganda Uganda People’s UPDA 1986–1988Democratic Army

Uganda Uganda National UNLF/A Established 1979, defeated by theLiberation Front/Army NRA in 1986

Uganda Uganda National Rescue UNRF 1980–1986Front

Somalia/ Front de Libération de la FLCSDjibouti Côte des Somalis

Somalia Northern Frontier NFDLFDistrict Liberation Front

Somalia Popular Resistance PRA Established 2007Movement in the Land of Two Migrations

Somalia Rahanweyn Resistance RRA Established 1995/96, allied withArmy SDM

Somalia Somali Democratic SDM Established 1992, southernMovement Somalia

Somalia Somali National Alliance / SNA Established July 1992 as anUnited Somali Congress alliance of parts of the USC and

the Somali Patriotic Movement; led by Mohammed Farah Aidid

Somalia Somali National Front SNF Established 1991

Somalia Somali National SNM Established 1982, declaredMovement independent republic of

Somaliland in 1991

Somalia Somali Patriotic SPM Established 1989Movement

Somalia Somali Salvation SSDF Established 1978, declaredDemocratic Front autonomy of the Puntland region

in 1998

Somalia Supreme Islamic Courts SICCCouncil

Somalia Union of Islamic Courts UIC Established 1991, supported by Eritrea

Somalia Western Somali WSLFLiberation Front

South Africa Umkhonto we Sizwe MK

Sudan Eastern Front Established 2005, ceasefire

Sudan Janjaweed, Fursan and Arab and Fur militias firstMalihiyat mentioned in 1994, Darfur

Uganda Uganda National Rescue UNRF II Established 1996, signed ceasefireFront II in December 2002

Uganda Uganda People’s Army UPA

Uganda West Nile Bank Front WNBF Established 1995

Zambia Mushala-Army 1976–1982, leader Adamson Mushala; restricted to the North-West Province of Zambia

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe African National Union ZANU

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe African ZAPU Established 1961, merged withPeople’s Union ZANU in December 1987

Sources: compiled by Bettina Engels drawing from: Bruce Baker, When the Bakassi Boys came:eastern Nigeria confronts vigilantism, Journal of Contemporary African Studies 20(2) (2002), 223-244; ; J Bakonyi, S Hensell and J Siegelberg (eds), Gewaltordnungen bewaffneter Gruppen:Ökonomie und Herrschaft nichtstaatlicher Akteure in den Kriegen der Gegenwart, Baden-Baden, 2006;M Bøås and K C Dunn (eds), African guerrillas: raging against the machine, Boulder, Colo: LynneRienner, 2007; M Bøås and A Hatløy, ‘Getting in, getting out’: militia membership and prospects forreintegration in post-war Liberia, The Journal of Modern African Studies 46(1) (2008), 33–55; C Clapham, African guerrillas revisited, in Bøås and Dunn (eds), African guerrillas: raging against themachine, Boulder/London: Lynne Rienner, 2007; N Florquin, and E G Berman (eds), Armed andaimless: armed groups, guns, and human security in the ECOWAS region, Geneva: Small Arms Survey,2005; N P Gleditsch, P Wallensteen, M Eriksson, M Sollenberg and H Strand, Armed conflict1945–2001: a new dataset, Journal of Peace Research 39(5) (2002), 615–637; J Harnischfeger,Ethnische Selbstbestimmung und Demokratie, Minoritätenvölker und Milizen im Nigerdelta,Peripherie 26(103) (2006), 338–363; K Schlichte, In the shadow of violence: the politics of armedgroups, Frankfurt am Main/New York: Campus, 2009, 35–36; Small arms survey, Sudan issue brief,Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2007; IISS armed conflict database (International Institute for StrategicStudies, London), http://acd.iiss.org (accessed 20 March 2009); and AKUF database (University ofHamburg), http://www.akuf.de (accessed 20 March 2009).



Throughout Africa, armed militia, rebel and militantgroups continue to threaten state sovereignty and todestabilise the security of some of even the strongesteconomies on the continent. The question is: Howshould African states respond to the challenge posedby such armed groups? The impressive range of casestudies gathered here, ranging from the pirates ofthe Niger Delta and the rebels of the eastern DRCwho prey upon rich natural resources, to the culturaland religious advocacy by Kenya s Mungiki and thearmed Islamists of Northern Africa, reveals thecomplexity of the problem. For all those who wish tounderstand the contribution these groups make tocontinuing insecurity in African states, this collectionof well-researched case studies is essential reading.

David M Anderson Professor of African Politics at the University

of Oxfordand Fellow at St Cross College, Oxford

Militias, rebels and Islamist militants is a carefullyresearched study which shows that armed non-stateactors have become major contributors to humaninsecurity on the continent. It analyses the causes ofthe phenomenon and its consequences on thepopulations and the capacity (or lack of it) of statesto protect against it and deal with it. The book alsoprovides practical suggestions on how to deal withthis phenomenon. It is highly recommended readingfor scholars, researchers, policy makers and anyoneseeking a deeper understanding of militia, rebel andIslamist militant groups and the impact their actionshave on human insecurity and the state crisis inAfrica.

Major General Henry K Anyidoho Deputy Joint Special Representative for the

United Nations-African Union Hybrid Operations inDarfur (UNAMID) and former Deputy Force

Commander and Chief of Staff of the United NationsAssistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)

Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe have done asterling job in assembling a wide cross-section ofable Africanist scholars to analyse the challengingdynamics of violence perpetrated by armed non-state groups which continues to undermine theemergence and maturation of African states in thepost-colonial and post-Cold War eras. Africa needsconcrete proposals on how to address the human,national and regional insecurity posed by rebel,militia and Islamist militant groups. This book is amust-read for both intellectuals and practitionersinterested in promoting human security in Africa.

Martin R RupiyaExecutive Director

The African Public Policy & ResearchInstitute (APPRI)

Understanding the genesis and evolution of violentarmed groups in Africa is a critical enterprise as partof the effort to contain the phenomenon of weak,failed and failing states in Africa. This book contendsthat armed militia and insurgent groups with avariety of assorted grievances have proliferated inAfrica because of the profound crisis that hasbedevilled the project of post-independence nationbuilding on the continent. Militias, rebels and Islamistmilitants discusses the worrying trend that hasemerged from the progressive militarisation ofsocieties and polities across Africa and theformidable challenges of restoring a healthy balancebetween civilian and military institutions. It remindsone that violent groups and movements are notsimply going to fade away and that there is a needfor vigorous efforts to check their proliferation.

Gilbert M Khadiagala Jan Smuts Professor of International Relations

University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa


Militias, Rebels and Islam

ist Militants: Hum

an Insecurity and State Crises in AfricaOkum

u and Ikelegbe

Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants in Africa

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