Migration and Gender--Guntur Sugiyarto

7/30/2019 Migration and Gender--Guntur Sugiyarto

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Impact of Global Crisis on Asian Migrant Workers and

their Families:A Survey-based Analysis with a Gender Perspective

Guntur Sugiyarto

Economics and Research Department/ADB. 30 July 2013, ADBHeadquarters


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Outline

Next steps

Policy implications

Key findings

Methodology

Background and objectives


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Background

Global crises impacted Asian migration and remittancesat different levels: global, country and household levels.

Impact at household level: based on migrant householdsurveys in BAN, INO and PHI (ADB and IOM 2011).

Results were presented already, but further analysiswith more gender dimension was needed.

Follow-up surveys with gender lens in 2012 in INO andPHI, where feminization of migration is very strong.


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Main Objectives

Using gender lens:

Examine the trend and impact dynamics.

Analyze the gender-differentiated impacts. Identify the coping mechanisms.

Unit of analysis:

Migrant workers and migrant households.


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Methodology

Analyzed gender-disaggregated data from

ADB-IOM survey in 2010 (first survey).

Period covered: Oct 2008 to Sept 2009.

Sample: 217 and 200 migrant households in INO and PHI.

Revisit (second) survey in 2012 to collect more gender-relevant data.

Period covered: 2009 to 2012.

Re-sample: 100 households each in INO and PHI.

Conducted FGDs and RTDs with migrant households, returningmigrants and key informants.

Combined results of surveys and FGDs/RTDs in the analysis.


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Impacts Examined

Impacts

Migrant

Workers

Earning andRemittance

Job andworking

condition

Coping

Mechanism

Migrant

Households

Income andExpenditure

Employment andJob status

CopingMechanism


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General Findings ...

Crisis had limited impact on international migration andremittances at global and country levels.

Migrants and Remittances proved to be resilient.

But the crisis affected men and women migrant workersand migrant households differently.

There seems a Macro-Micro mismatch and strongimpact dynamics at the micro level.


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Macro: Deployments and Remittances

Remittances Flows, 2006-2011 (US$ million)

Number of Deployed MigrantWorkers, 2006-2011

5.6 6.06.5 6.6 6.7 6.7

12.8

14.5

16.417.4

18.8 20.1

0

5

10

15

20

25

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

(US$millions)

Indonesia Phi lippines

0200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

('000persons)

Indonesia Philippines


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Migrant Earning

Related to education, skill and occupation.

INO: Women mostly in domestic work and men inmanufacturing and construction.

PHI: spread over various occupations (services,technical/professional, sea-based, construction anddomestic work). Earning more than INO.

INO: monthly earnings fell by 15% and 4% for men and

women migrants.

PHI: monthly earnings of men & women increasedslightly.


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Average monthly earnings of migrants


0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

Before Crisis First Period

(Rph)

Men

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

Before Crisis First Period

(PhP)

Women


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Regression Analysis

VariablesHousehold

incomeRemittances

Migrant

worker's

income

abroad

VariablesHousehold

incomeRemittances

Migrant

worker's

income

abroadHousehold

size

0.0323

[0.332]

0.0172

[0.661]

0.0446**

[0.029]

Number of

migrant worker's

children

-0.0253

[0.659]

-0.0274

[0.592]

-0.0412

[0.210]

Number of

migrants in

household

-0.0397

[0.749]

0.0579

[0.842]

-0.0366

[0.719]

Level of education

of migrant worker

0.2903***

[0.003]

0.0471

[0.624]

0.2733***

[0.000]

Level of

education ofhousehold head

0.3386***

[0.000]

-0.0827

[0.331]

0.0332

[0.572]

Migrant worker's

length of stayabroad

-0.0022

[0.510]

0.0098**

[0.024]

0.0036

[0.396]

Sex of

household

head

0.2373*

[0.094]

-0.3236*

[0.051]

-0.0644

[0.485]

Constant 2.4662***

[0.000]

7.0252***

[0.000]

4.6098***

[0.000]

Knowledge

of the

global financial

and economic

crisis

0.1347

[0.101]

-0.0532

[0.543]

0.1908***

[0.001]

Observations 243 246 219

Sex of migrant

worker

-0.1665

[0.183]

-0.2710**

[0.032]

-0.2664***

[0.002]

R-squared

0.538 0.098 0.369

Age of

migrant worker

0.0156**

[0.038]

0.0032

[0.677]

0.0061

[0.242]Robust pval in brackets

*** p


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Working conditions

Working condition deteriorated, and more profound than impacton earning.

INO migrants reported more deteriorating working conditions

(60% compare to 15% for PHI).

Factors: delays and withholding salaries, overtime loss, benefitreductions and wage cuts.

Country and gender influence very strong.


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Changes in Working Conditions


0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%)

Reduction of benefits

Wage cuts

Working hours reduction

Overtime without pay

Conditions improved

Other

No change

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%)


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Impact on remittances

Remittances increased (in both survey periods), despite theadverse impacts on earning and working conditions.

PHI remit more regularly than INO (may be due to Migranthousehold share in PHI already 25%, INO only 3%)

Men remitted larger amount than women.

PHI: men remitted 2.4 times more than women.

INO: men remitted 1.2 times more than women.

Women made more transactions to remit than men

Remittance Dynamics


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Amount of monthly remittances ..

PhilippinesIndonesia

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

Before crisis First period Second period

('000Rp)

Men Women Average

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Before crisis First period Second period

('000PhP)

Men Women Average


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Remitting Frequency

PHI migrants remit more regularlythan INO migrants.

INO: women remit more regularly(monthly) than men.

PHI: men remit more regularly thanwomen.


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Returning migrants

INO: accounted to 25% of household members.

50% and 25% of women and men received assistance from their employers

PHI: Very small, only 3% of household members with very few receivedassistance.

Reasons: premature termination and non-renewal of contracts.

More women reported facing difficulties after returning, including in finding ajob.


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Returning migrants

Indonesia

9

0

6

11

20

7

18

5 5

13

9

14

27

5

11

24

29

21

0

10

20

30

40

Before

2008

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

(Number)

Men Women

Philippines

20 0

24

0

8

0 02

0 1

10

0 0

4 4

10

10

20

30

40

Before

2008

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

(Number)

Total


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Returnees

INO

Most returnees found a job within 6 months.

25% and 15% of women and men returneeswould like to work abroad again.

PHI

Mostly found a job in 6-10 months.

50% of them would like to work abroadagain.


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Intention to migrate of migrant family

members and impact on work status

8% and 2% of INO and PHI household membersintended to go abroad for employment, mostlywomen.

INO: Unemployed 50%. Wage, non-wage andvulnerable employments are 15%, 2% and 35% ofhouseholds members.

PHI: Unemployed 80%. Wage, non-wage andvulnerable employments are 15%, 1% and 5%.


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Changes in work status

Since the crises: Reduced wage employmentand increased vulnerable employment of

household members.

Women were more likely to be in vulnerableemployment.

More 10% of Filipino household membershave joined the labor force, mostly men.


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Work status of household members

Indonesia PhilippinesA. Before the crisis

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%)

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%)

B. Since the crisis

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%)

Wage employee- full time/regular/permanentWage employee casual/ temporary/part-time/contractSelf-employed (own account)Unpaid family worker

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%)


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Migrant Households Economic Condition

INO: Women-headed households tend to have lowerincome or expenditure, contrary to the PHI.

INO: 20% households experienced deterioration in 1st

period and further deteriorated in 2nd period.

PHI: 1st period 15% a deteriorated, 40% improved. 2ndperiod, 50% improved.

The impact mostly felt through rising food prices.


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Migrant Household Economic Conditions Indonesia Philippines

A. First Period (2008-2009)

B. Second Period (2010-2012)

5

1411

37

10 82 12 2 1

71 0 1 0

0

10

20

30

40

50

Greatly

improved

M

oderately

improved

Slightly

improved

Nochange/thesame

Slightlydeteriorated

Moderately

deteriorated

Greatlydeteriorated

Notspecified/no

an

swer

(Number)

1

57

19

5

132

1214

25

3 2 1

0

10

20

30

Greatlyim

proved

Mo

derately

im

proved

Slightlyim

proved

Nocha

nge/the

sa

me

Slightly

dete

riorated

Moderately

dete

riorated

Greatly

dete

riorated

(Number)

Men Women

5

14 13

33

713

2 12 24 5

0 1 0 0010

20

30

40

50

Greatlyimproved

Moderately

improved

Slightlyimproved

Nochange/the

same

Slightlydeteriorated

Moderately

deteriorated

Greatlydeteriorated

Notspecified/no

answer

(Number)

2

48

17

35

23

17 1619

2 1 10

10

20

30

Greatlyimproved

Moderately

improved

Slightlyimproved

Nochange/the

same

Slightly

deteriorated

Moderately

deteriorated

Greatly

deteriorated

(Number)


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Migrant Household Incomes

INO: Majority of household incomes fell

PHI: only 10% experienced a decrease

Reasons: Reduction in remittances and wage cuts,and for the PHI includes exchange rate volatility.


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Change in household income

Change in income

Reasons for change

98

119

0

72

22

106

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Increase Decrease No change

(Number)


40

12

1

35

1

14

30 0

13

2 3 0

7

0 0 04 6

00

10

20

30

40

50

(Number)



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Changes in Living Conditions


0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%)

Adjusting day-to-day expenses

Borrowing money

Using savings

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Men Women Total

(%

)

Other

Adjusting day-to-day expenses

Borrowing money


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Migrant Household Coping Mechanisms

Common methods: cutting expenses, consuming cheaper (andless nutritious) food, using saving, selling assets, and borrowingmoney from loan sharks.

Extreme adjustments in children education such as pullingthem out of school were a last resort.

Women bear the brunt of the crisis as they must also holdreproductive responsibilities.


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Types of Expenditure Adjustments

Men WomenA. Indonesia

B. Philippines

2

1

25

22

14

26

28

12

29

37

62

65

56

51

61

56

53

72

56

50

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Falling behind on repayments

Doing own household chores

Borrowing money

Using savings

Selling valuable possessions

Growing own food

Cutting down on tobacco and alcohol

Cutting medical expenses

Cutting down on buying clothes

Reducing food consumption

0

0

3

5

1

3

1

1

3

5

10

10

8

8

12

10

11

11

10

0

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

2

5

8

2

3

2

4

3

10

13

6

34

8

13

7

7

11

17

23

28

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Falling behind on repayments

Doing own household chores

Borrowing money

Using savings

Selling valuable possessions

Growing own food

Cutting down on tobacco and alcohol

Cutting medical expenses

Cutting down on buying clothes

Reducing food consumption

Yes No

4

3

12

7

5

01

6

10

21

13

51

12

14

11

1413

24

36

38

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%


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Perceptions about Man or Woman

Asked about who should work abroad?

Most households, returning migrants, and keyinformants preferred man than woman.

Men should be the breadwinner and women shouldbe at home taking care of family and finances. Womenneed to work only if financial situation calls for it.

Yet, more women going abroad for employment.

This exemplifies a strong push factor out of necessity,calling for gender mainstreaming policies.


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Man or Woman should be working

abroad?


50

2117

88

41

712

0

20

40

60

80

100

Better to send

a man

Better to send

a woman

No difference Total

(%)

Men Women

32

4 5

4144

510

59

0

20

40

60

80

100

Better to send

a man

Better to send

a woman

No difference Total

(%)


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Summary of findings (1)

Women migrants more vulnerable to shocks due to

their lower levels of education and skills.

Remitting more frequent during the crisis andremittance market in INO seems to be less developed.

Returning migrants received little assistance.

More women returnees seek to work abroad again as

returning and finding a job at home are morechallenging.

Migrant households were also affected by the crisesthrough the adverse impact on domestic labor market,and women often bear the brunt more.


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Summary of findings (2)

Vulnerable employment increased during the crisis and in INOincrease significantly.

Women were more in vulnerable employment.

Anti-migrant sentiments are on the rise and policy responses of

some key destination countries make them worse.

Pre-departure orientation seminars have a lot of room forimprovement.


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Policy implications (1)

Better job creation in the domestic economy

Investing in education and skills especially for women migrantworkers and household members.

Lower transaction costs, remove barriers to remit andfacilitate the use of formal channels.

Provide better assistance to returning migrants in times ofcrisis.

Reintegration programs need to have better targetingespecially for women to ensure their success.


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Provision of cash and job search assistance, and skillstraining.

Institutions must be improved in the framework that men

and women have equal rights and are treated equally.

Home and host governments and civil society organizationsneed to act better following reports of abuses.

Programs need to improve targeting and coordination.


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Home and host governments and other stakeholders have tocombat discrimination against migrants, which tend toincrease during challenging times.

Make migrant labour inflows more flexible to changingdemand in the destination countries.

Pre departure training on contract familiarization, culturaladjustment, financial literacy for migrant workers and theirfamilies.


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Women migrant workers are morevulnerable to abuse and exploitation.

Host governments are to guarantee basic human rights of

migrant workers and provide them with adequate laborprotection.

Missions of sending countries need to provide assistance toaffected migrants and liaise with host governments.


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Next steps

Further publications anddisseminations in other forms

Policy dialogues with stakeholders

Outreach to local and international media

More in-depth study in other labor-exporting and host countries


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For any queries pls contact

[email protected]

Thank you !!!

Migration and Gender--Guntur Sugiyarto

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