Midbrain (“mesencephalon”) • One inch in length • Extends from pons to diencephalon • Cerebral aqueduct connects 3rd ventricle above to 4th ventricle below
Feb 22, 2016
Midbrain (“mesencephalon”)
• One inch in length• Extends from pons
to diencephalon• Cerebral aqueduct
connects 3rd ventricle above to 4th ventricle below
Structures of the Mesencephalon
• Tectum:• 2 pairs of sensory nuclei (corpora
quadrigemina):– superior colliculus (visual)– inferior colliculus (auditory)
Relationship of mesencephalon to pons and cerebellum
Structures of the Mesencephalon
• Tegmentum:– red nucleus (many blood vessels) – substantia nigra (pigmented gray
matter)
Structures of the Mesencephalon
• Cerebral peduncles:– nerve fiber bundles on ventrolateral
surfaces– contain:
• descending fibers to cerebellum• motor command (pyramidal) fibers
Mesencephalon in Section
• Red nucleus-- rich blood supply & iron-containing pigment• Substantia nigra---helps controls subconscious muscle activity
– cortex & cerebellum coordinate muscular movements by sending information here from the cortex and cerebellum
• Cerebral peduncles---clusters of motor & sensory fibers
Figure 14–8a
The Mesencephalon
Midbrain(“mesencephalon” of the brainstem)
Table 14-4
Summary: The Mesencephalon
Reticular Formation (Don’t forget this diffuse
structure!)Motor function: helps regulate muscle
movementsSensory function: Reticular activating system
(RAS)Stimulation increased cortical activityInactivation sleep
Reticular Activating System• RAS filters out repetitive, weak, irrelevant
stimuli. • LSD removes the filtering effect sensory-
overload.
Head Trauma (eg., lightweight boxers) concussion (mild, transient loss of consciousness) coma (loss of consciousness, hours to lifetime).
Figure 14–7a
The Cerebellum
Cerebellum1.Adjusts postural muscles
2.Fine-tunes conscious and subconscious movements
Cerebellar Peduncles
• Three paired fiber tracts • Superior peduncles connect the cerebellum to
the midbrain• Middle peduncles connect the pons to the
cerebellum• Inferior peduncles connect the medulla to the
cerebellum and carry ascending and descending cerebellar tracts from the spinal cord.
• All fibers in the cerebellum are ipsilateral
Figure 14–7b
Structures of the Cerebellum
Arbor VitaeCerebellum
Arbor Vitae• Highly branched, internal white
matter of cerebellum • Cerebellar nuclei:
– embedded in arbor vitae – relay information to Purkinje cells
Purkinje Cells • Large, branched cells• Found in cerebellar cortex• Receive input from up to 200,000
synapses
Disorders of the Cerebellum
• Ataxia:– damage from trauma
or stroke – intoxication
(temporary disturbance)
– disturbs muscle coordination
Table 14-3
Summary: The Cerebellum
What are the main components of the
diencephalon and their functions?
Figure 14–5a
The Diencephalon
• Filters ascending sensory information for primary sensory cortex
• Relays information between basal nuclei and cerebral cortex
• Integrates sensory information and motor commands
The Diencephalon• Thalamus,
epithalamus, and hypothalamus
Figure 14–9
The Third Ventricle• Separates left thalamus and right
thalamus • Intermediate mass:
– projection of gray matter – extends into ventricle from each side
Thalamic Nuclei• Lateral geniculate nucleus: relays
visual information • Medial geniculate nucleus: relays
auditory information• Lateral group: involved in emotional
states and integration of sensory information
Table 14-5
Summary: Thalamic Nuclei
Hypothalamus• Located below the thalamus
it caps the brainstem and forms the inferolateral walls of the third ventricle
• Mammillary bodies– Small, paired nuclei;
Relay station for olfactory pathways– control reflex eating movements
• Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus; connects to the pituitary gland
The DiencephalonHypothalamus
Diencephalon
Figure 14–10a
The Hypothalamus• Lies below thalamus
8 Functions of the Hypothalamus
1. Provides subconscious control of skeletal muscle
2. Controls autonomic function3. Coordinates activities of nervous
and endocrine systems
Functions of the Hypothalamus
4. Secretes hormones:– antidiuretic hormone (ADH) by
supraoptic nucleus– oxytocin (OT) by paraventricular
nucleus
Functions of the Hypothalamus
5. Produces emotions and behavioral drives:
– the feeding center (hunger)– the thirst center (thirst)
Functions of the Hypothalamus
6. Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
7. Regulates body temperature:– preoptic area of hypothalamus
Functions of the Hypothalamus
8. Controls circadian rhythms (day–night cycles):
– suprachiasmatic nucleus
Table 14-6
Summary: The Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
• Above the thalamus• Pineal gland
– secretes melatonin:a hormone involved with sleep regulation, sleep-wake cycles, and mood
Pineal Gland
Questions?
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)• 80-150 ml (about ½ cup)• Clear liquid containing glucose, proteins, &
ions• Functions
– mechanical protection • floats brain & softens impact with bony walls
– chemical protection• optimal ionic concentrations for action potentials
– circulation• nutrients and waste products to and from blood
CSF CompositionCSF Composition
Differs from plasma: no (or very few) cellsprotein is lowerionic concentrations are differentpH affects brain blood flow &
respiratory rate.
Blood Brain BarrierBlood Brain Barrier
Ependymal cells around choroid plexus (which produce CSF) have tight junctions.
Capillaries of brain tissue have tight junctions between endothelial cells.
Astrocytes wrap the small vessels.
Many antibiotics and chemotherapy agents can not pass from blood to brain.
Blood Brain Barrier – details to knowBlood Brain Barrier – details to knowBreak-Down
radiation, infection, neoplasm (cancer), manitol (intentional disruption)
facilitated diffusion glucose, amino acids
simple diffusionSmall, neutrally charged molecules (i.e., lipid solublemolecules) pass easily.• Water, CO2, O2, • alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, heroin• “general” anesthetics
Brain Blood FlowBrain Blood Flow
Sources: 2 internal carotids (R and L)2 vertebral arteries and “Circle of Willis”(Study in more detail in lab.)
14% of cardiac output, and uses 20% of oxygen used by body
Brain Blood Brain Blood FlowFlow
Brain Blood FlowBrain Blood FlowFlow depends on CO2 more than O2 concentration • High CO2 increased blood flow• Low CO2 decreased blood flow
Hyperventilation blow off CO2 low blood flow dizzy spell
Other Factors: extreme blood pressuresintracranial pressureblood viscosity
Brain Blood Flow: Brain Blood Flow: Clinical Clinical IssuesIssues
• Low blood sugar (eg., too much insulin) starves neurons
• Mass (tumor, blood clot) decreased flow• Heart attack decreased flow and
confusion• 10 seconds without blood 10 seconds without blood pass out pass out• 4 minutes 4 minutes permanent brain damage permanent brain damage
• lysosomes release enzymeslysosomes release enzymes
Medical Example: Subdural Hematoma
An subdural hematoma is a blood collection Between the dura and arachnoid mater (external to the brain)Since the skull cannot expand, the brain shifts across the midline.
Clinical Cases:Bleeding in the Brain
• Epidural Bleed
• Subdural Hematoma
• Intraparenchymal Bleed
Clinical Cases:Bleeding in the Brain
• Epidural Bleed
• Subdural Hematoma
• Intraparenchymal Bleed
Clinical Cases:Bleeding in the Brain
• Epidural Bleed
• Subdural Hematoma
• Intraparenchymal Bleed(s)
Medical Examples
• Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges due to bacterial or viral infection.
• Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain
Parkinson’s Disease• Unknown cause.
• Basal ganglia involved.
• Tremor, rigidity.
• New therapy….
Basal Ganglia
• Connections to red nucleus, substantia nigra & subthalamus
• Input & output with cerebral cortex, thalamus & hypothalamus
• Control large automatic movements of skeletal muscles
Figure 14–17
The Electroencephalogram
Seizure• Is a temporary cerebral disorder• Changes the
electroencephalogram• Symptoms depend on regions
affected
4 Categories of Brain Waves1. Alpha waves:
– found in healthy, awake adults at rest with eyes closed
2. Beta waves:– higher frequency– found in adults concentrating or
mentally stressed
4 Categories of Brain Waves3. Theta waves:
– found in children– found in intensely frustrated adults– may indicate brain disorder in adults
4. Delta waves:– during sleep– found in awake adults with brain
damage
Synchronization• A pacemaker mechanism:
– synchronizes electrical activity between hemispheres
• Brain damage can cause desynchronization
CN V (trigeminal)Dermatomes
Herpes Virus
Next time:• Special Senses and Cranial Nerves
(not on pre-midterm)• Review of somatic sensory and
motor pathways• Integration areas of the brain• Limbic system• Learning and Memory
end