EXPLORING THE TEACHING OF INFERENCE SKILLS By Michela Kopitski A Capstone submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English as a Second Language Hamline University Saint Paul, Minnesota September, 2007 Committee: Cynthia Lundgren, Primary Advisor Deirdre Kramer, Secondary Advisor Tammy Bukowski, Peer Reader
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EXPLORING THE TEACHING OF INFERENCE SKILLS
By
Michela Kopitski
A Capstone submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English as a Second Language
Skilled readers comprehend by asking questions before, during and after reading.
Questionanswer relationships, (QAR) is a strategy created by Taffy Raphael that can
help students approach the task of reading texts and answering questions. Readers must
realize that there are different types of questions, as well as different ways of finding the
answers (Wilhelm et al., 2001). Readers must know how to answer literal questions, in
which the answers are found directly in the text; and inferential questions, in which the
reader must take clues from various parts of the text and their background knowledge to
help fill in the gaps and/or draw conclusions.
Some experts believe that readers need to have strategies to help them answer
literal questions before they can infer (Keene and Zimmermann, 1997). According to
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Hillock’s Questioning Hierarchy, students need to be able to answer simple, literal
questions before more difficult inferential questions (Wilhelm, 2001). Dole et al. (1991)
dispute this and believe literal comprehension does not need to be mastered before
readers can be taught to make inferences. Keene and Zimmermann (1997) agree, urging
teachers to help students use literal information to make predictions, draw conclusions,
and make other types of inferences.
The KIS Strategy KIS stands for: Key Words, Infer, Support. This mnemonic strategy helps students
remember the three steps in making and supporting inferences. First, students need to
underline key words and facts from the text. Next, the readers make inferences using the
key words or facts to answer the question. Lastly, the readers list background knowledge
used to support their answers.
It SaysI Say Inferring requires readers to combine information from the text with their prior
knowledge. It SaysI Say is a visual for students to use to organize their thoughts. (See
Appendix) The reader needs to show what the text states, what schema they have in their
mind and what conclusions they can make based on that information. Graphic organizers
like this one help students focus on concepts (Armbruster, et al., 2003). This strategy
would be most beneficial after the students have an understanding of different types of
questions.
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Marking texts
In order for reading strategies to be useful, students need to monitor them. This
requires readers to focus while reading. Marking texts is one way that can help students
stay focused on their reading. Harvey and Goudvis (2000) suggest using sticky notes as
one way to help students keep track of their thinking while reading. There are many
variations to how the sticky notes can be used to monitor comprehension. Teachers can
have the students jot down questions or thoughts during reading. Then questions will be
discussed during a conference or group discussion. Teachers can focus students to solicit
more specific information, such as finding examples of inferences. When the students
come across places in which they need to make an inference, they can write a note on
their sticky note and place it in the story where they inferred.
Readers can also be taught how to code the strategies they used in their text.
Some examples are I for inference, BK for background knowledge, ? for question, etc.
The teacher models how to code strategies by selecting a short text and either making a
copy for each student, or displaying it on the overhead. When the teacher makes an
inference, he labels the area with an I. The following threecolumn chart can be used to
show support for his inference.
Quote from Text Page
Number I Infer…
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Gradually release responsibility to the students by having them work with a partner to
label inferences they make while reading. After the students have a basic understanding
of making inferences, expand on the activity by having them label clues as textual
evidence and/or background knowledge.
Conclusion Literature expert’s views of how reading should be taught has changed throughout
the years. Current literature says students benefit from the explicit instruction of reading
strategies, such as inferencing, making connections, and asking questions. Reading
strategies require readers to take an active role in their reading by thinking before, during
and after reading. Inferencing is one of the most difficult reading strategies for students
because it requires students to combine information in the text with their background
knowledge to obtain meaning. Many authors assume every reader has the same
background knowledge and cultural experiences, which makes inferencing especially
difficult for English language learners.
Comprehension is the reason for reading and teaching reading strategies is an
effective way to improve student comprehension. Will using teaching activities
specifically designed for inferencing make readers better at making inferences? In this
study, I want to know:
1. Which activities do students feel help them make inferences?
2. Do students transfer the strategy to other texts?
In the next chapter, I present the methods for this study.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction and Research Question
This study is designed to explore the explicit teaching of reading strategies in
order to increase student comprehension. Explicitly teaching these strategies will help
students become aware of how they can use strategies while reading. Specifically, I want
to know:
§ Which teaching activities are most helpful for teaching the reading skill of
inference?
§ How can I measure the students’ reading skill of inference?
§ Will students be able to transfer this skill to other texts?
Overview of the Chapter This chapter describes the methodology used in this study. First, the rational and
description of the research design is presented. Second, the data collection and analysis
of the data methods are presented.
Qualitative Research Paradigm
Action Research This study uses action research cycles to explore the impact of four different
instructional strategies used to teach the reading skill of inference. Action research is a
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classroom method chosen by many teachers to help improve instruction. Action research
is a focus to bring about change while gathering data (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). There are
many benefits of action research, including gathering useful information in a flexible
environment. Action research provides opportunities for teachers to become aware of
their current practices and the impact of student achievement through a systematic cycle
of instruction analysis and reflection. Teachers gain a better understanding of their
pedagogical beliefs, as well as becoming more aware of deeper values and assumptions
regarding teaching and learning through reflective practice. Most importantly, action
research helps teachers use data to guide instructional decisions.
This action research is particularly important to help determine how to better
implement specific lessons to teach the reading skill of inferencing for English language
learners and nativeEnglish speaking students. Action research allows me the ability to
use my classroom as a resource and use daily reflection to improve reading instruction.
Although the validity of qualitative data is sometimes questioned, qualitative data is
helpful for educators whose studies are focused on the ways context influences specific
outcomes (Hendricks, 2006). Sharing the information learned through all types of
research contributes to educational knowledge base.
This action research takes place in cycles of instruction that include these steps:
plan, gather data, analyze data and reflect, and decision making. During the planning
step, I choose a variety of teaching activities that would work to enhance the reading skill
of inferencing. As I try each teaching activity, I gather data through anecdotal notes and
collect student work. Next, I analyze the student data to determine if the intervention
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made sense. I use the results to make decisions about instructional decisions. Each of
these specific steps lead to the next step, and continues in a cyclic motion (Hendricks,
2006). Because the process of action research never ends, action research is an ongoing
process that teachers use to improve their instruction.
My study contains four action research cycles implemented over the course of
three months. While all cycles focus on the explicit instruction of inferencing, the cycles
are named for a particular activity that supports students’ independent practice and
application of the inferencing strategy.
§ Cycle One: QuestionAnswer Relationships (QAR)
§ Cycle Two: The KIS Strategy
§ Cycle Three: It SaysI Say
§ Cycle Four: Marking Texts
Data Collection
Data was collected from several sources. Standardized assessment scores served
to provide baseline data regarding student skills. Throughout the action research cycle, I
collected student surveys, recorded anecdotal notes in a reflective journal, collected
student data and completed student interviews. Table 3.1 includes a timeline showing
when data was collected.
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Table 3.1
Data Collection Timeline ________________________________________________________________________ Data Collection Method Spring 2005 Fall 2005 Winter 2006 Spring 2006
The first question I asked students when they came to the back table for their
individual interviews was to tell me what an inference is. All fifteen students could give
me a definition that included combining clues from the text with background knowledge.
Next, I asked students to tell me which activity they found most helpful while
reading, and explain why that activity was most helpful. Nine of fifteen students said
using the It SaysI Say chart is most helpful activity for making inferences. These
students said that the chart works like a graphic organizer, in which they are able to
organize their thoughts. Five other students said the KIS strategy is most helpful in
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making inferences. These students like how this activity had three steps: find key words,
make an inference, support the inference. One student reported marking texts is most
helpful for making inferences. This student liked being able to place sticky notes directly
on the page in which he made an inference. None of the students chose QAR as the most
helpful activity.
Authentic Assessment Measures
Table 4.1
Authentic Assessment Results: Inferential Questions Activity Total Number Answered Total Number Correct
QAR 0 0
The KIS Strategy 2 1
It SaysI Say 24 19
Marking Texts 3 2
Students showed they were able to answer inferential questions by applying the
activities learned during the action research cycles. At the end of the study, each student
read a trade book and answered literal and inferential questions about the story. When
answering the inferential questions, students had to show their thinking by using one of
the four activities. Table 4.1 shows the number of times students chose particular
activities to answer inferential questions, as well as, the number of questions students
were able to answer correctly when using the activities introduced in this study. The It
SaysI Say chart was the activity students used most often when answering inferential
questions during independent practice. During student interviews, most students reported
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the It SaysI Say activity as most helpful in answering inferential questions. Students may
have chosen to use the It SaysI Say chart most often, because it is an activity they felt
comfortable using.
Standardized Tests
I used the results from the NWEA and MCAII tests to measure the students’
ability to infer. The NWEA results were most useful because the comprehension scores
are broken down into literal, interpretive and evaluative comprehension. The MCAII
results lump all comprehension skills under the comprehension substrand. The NWEA is
also administered three times during the school year and the scores are immediately
available, which provides more opportunities for immediate reflection and the ability to
make adjustments in the curriculum. The NWEA is a better measure of student growth
because there is cumulative data on the NWEAs. Last year, 2006, was the first year the
MCAIIs were given in Minnesota, so there are no previous results to measure.
Test of Emerging Academic English
Two of the students in this study are English language learners. One student
speaks Somali, the other speaks Spanish. These two students took the Test of Emerging
Academic English (TEAE) in lieu of the reading portion of the MCAII. The TEAE is
divided into three portions: reading, writing and oral proficiency. Students receive
separate scores for literal and inferential comprehension on the TEAE.
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ELLs and inferencing. The Somali student was not considered a proficient reader of
English, and received a level 3 score (See Appendix G). Table 4.2 shows the skills that a
student who is considered a Level 3 in the reading section of the TEAE is able to do.
Table 4.2
TEAE Score: Level 3 _______________________________________________________________________ Students at this level of reading ability succeed at many English reading tasks. These students can: ___________________________________________________________________ • Understand some infrequentlyused school vocabulary
• Understand articles written for young readers
• Understand reading passages with few pictures or other supports
• Make simple inferences from reading passages
This student’s literal comprehension score of 84% was much higher than her
score 61% in the area of inferential comprehension. It would be helpful to see what this
student’s inferential comprehension score was prior to the study. On a positive note, you
can see that she is above the state average in both areas of literal and inferential
comprehension. The second English Language Learner was considered to be at an
advanced level of English reading and writing according to the LAS test.
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The Spanishspeaking student received 94% on the literal comprehension
questions and 83% on the inferential comprehension questions (See Appendix I). This
data supports the fact that inferential comprehension is more difficult than literal
comprehension. Table 4.3 shows what a student who is considered Level 4 on the TEAE
Students at this level of reading ability succeed at many English reading tasks. These students can: ___________________________________________________________________ • Understand most school vocabulary
• Understand longer stories and subjectarea reading passages
The purpose of my study was to determine if the explicit teaching of reading
strategies increases comprehension. I specifically asked:
§ Which teaching activities are most helpful for teaching the reading skill of
inference?
§ How can I measure the students’ reading skill of inference?
§ Will students be able to transfer this skill to other texts?
Standardized test scores showed little change in students’ inferential skills.
However, anecdotal notes and student work show students developed a stronger
awareness of making inferences after explicit teaching of reading strategies. Students
were able to define inferencing and improved on determining when it is necessary to
make inferences while reading. When answering inferential questions, students were
better at providing support for their answers.
Students found the It SaysI Say chart most helpful in making inferences while
reading. The It SaysI Say chart is a graphic organizer that allowed students to easily
organize their thoughts. Students needed to include information in all three columns,
which reminded them to include clues from the text and background information to make
an inference.
In the following chapter, I will discuss the results of this study and how other
reading teachers and I can use the information to teach the reading skill of inference. I
will also discuss more thoroughly the implications of this study, as well as ideas of how I
will apply what I have learned in my classroom instruction.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Discussion of Results Reading Strategies
Based upon the results of my study, teaching reading strategies, such as inferring,
questioning, summarizing, etc., is an important part of reading instruction. Giving
strategies, such as inferring, a name was helpful for students and me as a teacher.
Learning how to be a strategic reader provides the students with a better understanding of
the process of reading comprehension. After my study, I concluded that although each
student improved upon making inferences while reading, they did not have the skill
mastered. Therefore, each strategy needs to be introduced to students, and slowly built
upon over years of instruction. Since reading strategies can coincide, teachers can refer to
inferences while teaching other strategies to reinforce what students already know.
Inference and Comprehension
Based on student work and conversations, it is evident that students were better
able to answer inferential questions after the study. First of all, the students understood
that they are expected to answer different types of questions; some that required them to
make inferences and some that did not. When inferring, the students knew that they
needed to support their answers using clues from the text and their background
knowledge. Since the students were able to provide support for their answers, the
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students were better able to reflect on their reading, which improved their
comprehension.
I was disappointed to see that the students’ standardized test scores did not reflect
the students’ increase in inferencing. I question standardized test validity, when the
results do not show the progress that I see in student work. As a teacher, it is rewarding to
see student scores increase, but it would be more helpful to know what caused certain
scores to increase. Teachers often judge a student’s understanding of content based on
student work and conversations with students. Politicians and administration base
academic progress and teacher accountability on standardized tests. There is so much that
standardized tests do not show, which can also be frustrating for the students who are
pressured into scoring well on these tests.
Teaching Inference
Explicit instruction. Research has shown that explicit instruction is helpful in teaching
students reading strategies, such as summarizing, predicting and inferring. Explicit
instruction provides a better understanding of these reading strategies, so the students are
able to explain the strategies and know how to use them.
At the beginning of the study, the students were told they would be able to answer
the following questions by the end of the study: How do we infer? When do we need to
infer? Why do we need to infer? The results of my study show that all of the students
were able to define inference. I was pleased when my students would comment in science
class how they had to infer an answer. This is a great first step in the process, but the
results from the NWEA, MCAII, and TEAE show that the students still need more
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practice. More time and repetition is needed, and the strategy of inference needs to be
discussed with other reading strategies to be most effective.
The students also understood that the author does not always give us all of the
information necessary to answer a question. Readers need to combine their background
knowledge with clues the author gives us to answer these inferential questions. The
students need more guidance to determine which information is most important when
making inferences.
Teaching steps. When teaching reading strategies, it is effective to explain the strategy
and why it is important, model and provide guided practice, and finally, provide time for
independent practice. Before introducing the teaching activities for making inferences, I
wanted the students to be able to accurately define inference and have an understanding
of why inferencing is important. There were two short activities I used to show students
how we infer in our everyday lives: inferring the use of uncommon household items, and
other people’s feelings. After these two activities most of the students were able to tell
me what an inference is.
Think alouds were helpful in modeling how to make inferences while reading.
The students picked up the process of how we combine clues from the text to our
background information very quickly. The students were eager to try the process on their
own. Even though the students had a good understanding of the process, they needed
guidance on finding the important clues in the text and how to combine those clues with
their background knowledge. I found that even though the students appeared ready to
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work on their own, a gradual release of independence was most effective. It is also
necessary that the students are provided with a lot of independent work time.
Teaching Activities
When planning my study, the goal of the teaching activities was to provide an
easytofollow framework that would help the students organize their thoughts while
inferring. The two activities that I found to be most effective and studentfriendly were
the KIS strategy and the It SaysI Say chart. Both of these activities were graphic
organizers that helped the students organize the support for their inferences. Students said
they liked these activities, and I was able to see their thoughtprocess and how they came
up with their answers.
Limitations of Study
Although this study provided me with an idea of how this particular group of
students improved on making inferences, it may not be generalized for all groups of
students. With only fifteen students participating in the study, I cannot say that future
groups of students will show the same progress. There may also be a difference in which
teaching activities are most effective.
Another limitation of my study was the timing and length of the study. My study
took place at the end of the year, when there are a lot of interruptions to the regular
schedule. If I could spend more time on particular activities or touch on inferencing
throughout the year, students may have shown more improvement. As an example, the
KIS strategy could be more effective if more time was spent focusing on finding the most
important words in the text. Without guided instruction, many students would underline
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an entire sentence or unimportant words, such as linking verbs and articles. Another
problem with such a short study, is that the information may be in the students’ short
term memory, but the skill needs to be used more frequently before it is mastered.
My initial plan was to use two standardized test scores to help determine student
achievement: MCAII and NWEA. I found authentic assessment more valuable in
measuring student learning, because I felt standardized test scores were not indicative of
what students can do and did not provide me with clear results. MCAII results were not
as helpful as I had hoped, because there was not a previous score to compare. The MCA
II results lump all comprehension skills under the comprehension substrand, so it is
difficult to determine if students’ inferential skills improved.
NWEA results had implications as well. Students receive a low, lowaverage,
average, highaverage or high score in each area. For the purpose of this study, it may
have been more helpful to have numerical scores in order to see student growth. The
interpretive/inferential score also encompasses areas other than making inferences. For
example, it also measures a students’ ability to make reasonable predictions before,
during and after reading; recognizing causeeffect relationships; and summarizing and
synthesizing information from a variety of written materials. Therefore, I feel that even
though a student’s ability to make inferences increased, their inability to summarize,
synthesize or recognize causeeffect relationships could have impacted their score. Since
the NWEA is administered three times during each school year, data could be more
valuable if it was studied for a longer period of time. Having a number of test scores to
compare is helpful in determining students’ skills.
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Since my study was action research, I was able to use my own students as the
participants. I had formed a relationship with these students throughout the year, and this
relationship may have swayed some results. When conducting the final student
interviews, students may have given me answers that they thought I would want to hear.
Students may have also felt as if they had to like at least one of the teaching activities and
did not want to tell me that none of the activities were helpful.
Classroom Application
This study provided the awareness of how important it is to teach reading
strategies explicitly. Research states that readers need to be an active part of the
comprehension process, and explicit instruction can do that by making the readers more
aware of what they need to do to increase comprehension. I also realize that if I can find
one or two helpful activities to show kids how to use the various strategies and provide
them with enough time to practice, the students will learn how to use the strategies.
Being a strategic reader helps students improve their reading comprehension.
The students found the It SaysI Say chart and the KIS strategy helpful, so I
would definitely spend more time using these activities in the future. These activities
provided a template that students found easy to use. Since the students had to be able to
support their inferences in order to complete the charts, I was able to see if students were
able to support their answers.
QAR was useful in helping students recognize that there are different types of
questions. I would introduce QAR to teach questioning right along with inferring. Like
the other activities, I would spend more time teaching and using QAR, so it becomes
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easier for the students. It would be most effective, if I used it throughout the year and in
other subject areas as well.
During the upcoming school year, I would like to implement more reading
strategies in the classroom. Since we combine a variety of reading strategies when we
read, I would like to do the same in my reading instruction. I would like to come up with
a plan to introduce the various reading strategies throughout the year. Too often, I
introduce a strategy, but then rarely touch on it again. There was not enough consistency
for the students, and they often forgot what the strategy is and how to use it.
Conclusion
I will use what I have learned in this study to improve my reading instruction, and
I hope that other educators can use some of the activities that worked for me. Doing this
study has provided me with more confidence when talking to my colleagues and parents
about the reading instruction in my classroom. Reading is one of the core subject areas
and needs to be used in all academic areas. What I have learned through this study will
provide me with an opportunity to offer my students a better chance at making academic
gains, which is a teacher’s overall goal.
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APPENDIX A
TYPES OF INFERENCES READERS MAKE
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TYPES OF INFERENCES SKILLED READERS MAKE
_________________________________________________________________________________ 1. Recognize the antecedents for pronouns
2. Figure out the meaning of unknown words from context clues
3. Figure out the grammatical function of an unknown word
4. Understand intonation of characters’ words
5. Identify characters’ beliefs, personalities, and motivations
6. Understand characters’ relationships to one another
7. Provide details about the setting
8. Provide explanations for events or ideas that are presented in the text
9. Offer details for events or their own explanations of the events presented in the
text
10. Understand the author’s view of the world
11. Recognize the author’s biases
12. Relate what is happening in the text to their own knowledge of the world
13. Offer conclusions from facts presented in the text _____________________________________________________________________ Note. From When Kids Can’t Read: What Teachers Can Do, by K. Beers, 2003.
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APPENDIX B
IT SAYSI SAYAND SO CHART
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IT SAYSI SAYAND SO CHART
Question It Says I Say And So __________________________________________________________________
1. Read the 2. Find information 3. Think about what 4. Combine what
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question. from the text you know about the text says
that will help you that information. with what you
answer the question. know to come up
with the answer. __________________________________________________________________ Note. From When Kids Can’t Read: What Teachers Can Do, by K. Beers, 2003.
APPENDIX C
BENCHMARKS FOR MCAII SUBSTRANDS
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APPENDIX D
INFERENTIAL REFLECTION SHEET
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APPENDIX E
QAR CHART
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APPENDIX F
PASSAGES USED FOR KIS STRATEGY
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APPENDIX G
DETERMINING THEME USING THE KIS STRATEGY
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Name ________________________________ Date _____________________
Book Title_________________________________________________________
As you know, I am your child’s 4 th grade teacher. I am also a graduate student working on an advanced degree at Hamline University. An important part of my degree is a research project. The purpose of this letter is to get your permission for your child to participate in my project.
The purpose of my project is to use various activities and texts to teach students how to make inferences while reading. I will be showing them how to use clues the author gives and combining them with what the readers already know to make an inference. My main goal is to improve my reading instruction so students’ reading achievement increases.
Your child’s participation would consist of ordinary reading activities during the months of March and April 2006. No additional homework or activities outside our class or the regular school schedule will be required for participation. Participation in this project does not entail any risks.
I will be video taping and audio taping some lessons to reflect on my teaching. I will be the only one who listens to or views these tapes. I may include samples of student papers in my final paper. If your child’s work is selected, his or her identity will be kept confidential. I will report study results either as a group’s statistics or in tables. No real names will be used. Your child’s participation is voluntary and is free to withdraw from this project at any time without any negative consequences.
I have received approval for my study from the Graduate School of Education at Hamline University and from the Marshall Public School district. My study will be described in my final paper, called a capstone. It will be catalogued and shelved at Bush Library, Hamline University. My results might also be included in an article for publication in a professional journal or in a report at a professional conference. In all cases, your child’s identity will be kept confidential.
Please return the bottom portion of this page to indicate your permission for your child to participate in this study. If you have any questions, please call me at school (507)5376962 between 7:45 am and 3:45 pm or email me at [email protected]. Ann Mabbott can also be contacted about questions or concerns at (651)5232446 or at [email protected]. Thank you for your cooperation.
She moves backwards a few feet and with a piece of white chalk draws a
rectangle onto the wood floor. Then continues backwards, drawing more
rectangles, so there is a pyramid of them, single then double then single, her left
hand braced flat on the floor, her head down, serious…
She drops the chalk into the pocket of her dress. She stands and pulls up
the looseness of her skirt and ties it around her waist. She pulls from another
pocket a piece of metal and flings it out in front of her so it falls just beyond the
farthest square.
She leaps forward, her legs smashing down, her shadow behind her
curling into the depth of the hall. She is very quick, her tennis shoes skidding on
the numbers she has drawn into each rectangle, one foot landing, then two feet,
then one again until she reaches the last square.
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APPENDIX J
TEAE SCORE FOR SOMALISPEAKING STUDENT
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TEAE SCORE FOR SOMALISPEAKING STUDENT
Reading Not Proficient: Level 3
Strand Points Earned
Points Possible
State Average
What was measured?
Literal Comprehension 32 38 30.4
Ability to answer questions clearly shown in a picture or stated in text
Inferential Comprehension 11 18 9.2
Ability to answer questions not clearly shown in a picture or stated in text
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APPENDIX K
TEAE SCORE FOR SPANISHSPEAKING STUDENT
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TEAE SCORE FOR SPANISHSPEAKING STUDENT
Reading Proficient: Level 4
Strand Points Earned
Points Possible
State Average
What was measured?
Literal Comprehension 36 38 30.4
Ability to answer questions clearly shown in a picture or stated in text
Inferential Comprehension 10 12 9.2
Ability to answer questions not clearly shown in a picture or stated in text
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APPENDIX L
MCAII READING TEST RESULTS
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MCAII READING TEST RESULTS
Student Achievement
Level Raw Score
Vocabulary Expansion Substrand
Comprehension Substrand
Literature Substrand
Points Possible
Points Possible
Points Possible
8 22 16 A E 40 7 18 15 B M 30 6 11 13 C ** ** ** ** ** D P 24 5 10 9
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E M 33 6 15 12 F M 35 7 18 10 G P 29 4 13 12 H M 32 6 16 10 I P 27 6 14 7 J E 39 8 16 15 K E 42 8 20 14 L ** ** ** ** ** M M 36 7 17 12 N M 34 4 17 13 O P 28 6 11 11
Achievement Levels: **Did not take MCAII. See D= Does not meet standards results of Test of Emerging P= Partially meets standards Academic English (TEAE) M= Meets standards E= Exceeds standards
APPENDIX M
NWEA TEST RESULTS
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NWEA INTERPRETIVE/INFERENTIAL COMPREHENSION
TEST RESULTS
Student Fall Score Winter Score Spring Score A Low Average Average B Low Average Average C Low Average Average D LowAverage LowAverage Average
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E LowAverage Average Low F LowAverage Average Low G LowAverage LowAverage High H Average LowAverage HighAverage I Average LowAverage LowAverage J Average Average LowAverage K HighAverage High Average L HighAverage High High M High High HighAverage N High HighAverage HighAverage O High High Average
REFERENCES
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Anderson, R.C., & Pearson, P.D. (1984). A schematheoretic view of basic processes in reading. In P.D. Pearson, R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Armbruster, B.B., Lehr, F., Osborn, J. (2003). Put reading first: The research building blocks of reading instruction, kindergartengrade 3. (2 nd ed.). National Institute for Literacy.
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