MIAD Bridge

MIAD BRIDGE

Defining Service Learning

VOLUNTEERING AND MENTAL HEALTH IN

CHILDREN

EVERY SEPARATION IS A LINK

THE INTERPLAY OF TRAITS AND MOTIVES ON

VOLUNTEERING

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. . . c o n t e n t s

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This Month:

In Every Issue

Letter from the Editor ....................... 3

VOLUNTEERING AND MENTAL HEALTH IN CHILDREN.......................................................... 17

Readers Reflect ..................................16

Impact ................................................ 3

MIAD BRIDGE

••

fea•tured

effects of volunteering on children

EVERY SEPARATION IS A LINK .............................................................. 4

THE INTERPLAY OF TRAITS AND MOTIVES ON VOLUNTEERING..................................................... 10a scientific study on the characteristics of volunteers

a look into the empathetic side of service learning

3

Letter From the

You don’t need to be a psychologist to understand the dynamics between

human beings. The authors in this magazine use their differences as

writers to dig deep into research and writing to understand the motivation

(or lack there of ) within people who consider volunteer work.

For this issue of MIAD Bridge, I chose to define the concept of service

learning and volunteer work in relation to psychological characteristics of

the human race. The three featured articles are very diversely written, but

explain the scientific attributes to the reasons we interact with each other

the way that we do, specifically in terms of community service.

The whimsical illustrations and muted photographs represent the more

free flowing characteristics of the human mind and the capricious traits

that differ within us all.

e d i t o rMIAD Bridge

im•pactim•pactAn early learning childhood group is being formed at

Westpark Elementary School in Cedarburg, Wisconsin this

summer. The group is meant to help children with learn-

ing or social disabilities become integrated and comfortable

with the kids they will be having class with in the fall. Run

by David Eichenhofer and aided by teachers and volunteers,

the group provides games and activities appropriate for all of

the children and an exciting/engaging social and learning en-

vironment. Volunteers are expected to interact with the kids.

For more information on how to get involved, please contact

Allie Eichenhofer at 555-707-7097.

.EichenhoferA

...contents

Letter from the Editor ....................... 3

VOLUNTEERING AND MENTAL HEALTH IN CHILDREN.......................................................... 17

Readers Reflect ..................................16

Impact ................................................ 3

A volunteer position with St. Joseph’s Hospital in Mequon,

Wisconsin has opened up for working with in-home care for

senior citizens. Non-medical care services include personal

care, companionship and supervision, as well as help in the

home with the tasks of daily living such as meal prepara-

tion, medication reminders, laundry, housekeeping, errands,

shopping, transportation, and companionship. For more

information please contact Fritz Potter at 555-697-9987 or

visit the St. Joseph website: stjoesinhomecare.com.

Opportunities to Volunteer Locally

Childhood Development In-Home Care

••

Step back and look at the world. It’s such a strange thing, and incredible and beautiful, but rolling across that great sphere is also turmoil. Much of existence, perceived through the eyes of a human, is sorrow and violence, manifesting itself in multitudes of particular guises - war, poverty, famine, prejudice, crime, etc. But we’re stuck here. So, for the sake of being here, of living, how do we make it better? How do we go about diminishing these problems? Where can we possibly start? Underlying most of them, when the complications and differences are for the moment, stripped away, is something simple. For whatever reason, amidst the accumulated confusion of contemporary human life, we fall into the denial or hatred of another human being. We know that humans are at once imperfect and magnificent. What is difficult is accepting the imperfect as inevitable, and forgiving it in ourselves so that we can forgive it in others. There is so much

sameness, if we decide to become aware of it. Our genetic code, which means our basic anatomical structure, which means our physiological functions, are fundamentally identical. We have the capacity to empathize with one another, and we need to use this. What I am saying is obviously nothing new. But the fact that it has survived thus far in the course of human civilization only serves to testify to its solidarity. It is simple, but I think it has profound implications. In all the world’s major religions, the basic tenet, the “Golden Rule,” is the same. We should “Do unto others what we would have done unto us.” Although this is drawn from religion and may seem idealistic, it’s tenets are at base, human, and extend to the nature of our experience in everyday life. For example, how can we expect others to have respect for our own views if we do not respect theirs? And how can we expect to get anything out of a conversation if we don’t try to understand what the other person is

Step Backand

Every sep•a•ra•tion is a link.Simone Weil

trying to get across? A sense of empathy, as current research in neuroscience and psychology is finding, really does permeate our lives. Without having to will a conscious decision, we register the body language and facial expressions of those around us. We are able to base this in our own experience and realize the analogous intentions behind the behavior of others. So what happens when empathy ceases to function? On an individual scale, this can be a major component of closed-mindedness, arguments, and physical fights. Cases in point are bullying, whether at school or over the internet, domestic violence, and gang violence. Among larger groups this is exhibited in similar ways, largely as prejudice against, and mistreatment and/or suppression of, another people. Extreme cases are genocide and war. Can’t these be seen as large-scale manifestations of the inability to take another’s perspective? I don’t mean to oversimplify these grand issues. There are certainly

various other complications that come into play. Many of these complications, however, could be explained as themselves arising partially as a consequence of lack of understanding between people. Circumstances like these coalesce and build upon each other, eventually forming one mass conflict, which leads to atrocities. A clash occurs when we see an individual or group as other than ourselves, that we disagree with so fervently that it appears foreign enough to be designated as wrong or even evil. To protect ourselves we often feel the need to do something to suppress that other. If these notions push further into action, physical harm is done. The thoughts themselves however, are already silently germinating this view of the world. In turn, this obviously impacts the deeds one carries out. If one continues this way unawares, the effects will only multiply. But the human brain is malleable (Boroditsky 6). Biases can be turned around if they are brought to

at theWorld

Written by Isabel Kent

one’s attention. The problem is that maybe reminders are not prevalent in our everyday lives. We may see images of war on the news, but this is perhaps not specific enough. We still watch through our own tinted lenses, maybe as a proponent of one or the other of the conflicting sides. What should be emphasized is the nature of the core disagreement, how and why it exists, perhaps that it should not exist, and what the resolution may be. We also need to be made more aware of our own slant and the perspective we are missing in our repertoire. Once we can see all involved outlooks more holistically, we notice their inherent sameness, and the ensuing ridiculousness of antagonism. To illustrate a concrete example of a social issue involving the inability to take on another perspective, consider the rift between the wealthiest and poorest classes in the United States. My estimation is that much of the very wealthy are so adapted to their way of living that they are not aware of the vast struggles of the impoverished. They must know that the poor do in fact exist, but they cannot put themselves in that situation, because they have never been there and do not relate to it experientially, and they also probably feel no reason to make attempts to do so. They are so comfortable where they are. Whatever charities may be goading them to donate are just an annoyance. The thought of taking on the vantage of the poor does not cross their mind, at least not with any great urgency. And frankly, it would just be too much effort. But if something were to make them, imagine the impact it could have. If the wealthy were made to live like the poor, or to just experience a small part of such a life, perhaps they would realize how awful it can be. To know that they personally would not want to be in a position of poverty may be enough for them to conclude that since there are other humans that are in that place, they need to be helped. The prior example becomes an issue of human

rights. Throughout the world, the poor lack many basic entitlements of life because they are bound by their circumstances. In extreme conditions, there is lack of adequate shelter and nourishment to even stay alive. When the pressure of mortality is so present, anything beyond the necessities of life must seem frivolous. Furthermore, although it varies depending on the specific location, opportunities in jobs, education, and all areas of life, are in scarce supply. Law and justice may be seen as concepts created for the purpose of treating all equally in discernment of right or wrong action, in protecting individuals from mistreatment, and overall, to keep human society as a whole in order and running smoothly. But they are also founded on an emotional groundwork. Humans are innately social, require contact with others for health and well-being, and have built society based on the ability to operate in a network. For this to function properly, cooperation between people is essential. And in order for this to occur, we need to at least have respect for the views of others. This is not to say that it will be perfect. Dilemmas will inevitably arise. The paradox is that once we acknowledge human imperfection, the dilemmas are much less common. Throughout this entire process, empathy aids us. In 2009, President Obama propounded the qualifications he deemed necessary for successors to the Supreme Court. He included everything one might expect: extensive legal experience, a spotless ethical record, and dedication to the rule of law (Garrett 1). However, Obama also added empathy. He stated, I will seek someone who understands that justice isn’t about some abstract legal theory or footnote in a case book; it is also about how our laws affect the daily realities of people’s lives, whether they can make a living and care for their families, whether they feel safe in their homes and welcome in their own nation. I view that quality of empathy, of understanding and identifying with people’s hopes and struggles, as an

What is difficult is accepting the im•per•fect as inevitable, and forgiving it in ourselves so that

we can forgive it in others.

essential ingredient for arriving at just decisions and outcomes. (Garrett 1). When a predicament comes to the fore, empathy helps us determine a just solution. Yes, we do have to rely on written law as a solid standard, but we also must be considerate of the circumstances under which the individuals involved acted. Maybe someone acted wrongly, did something that is illegal, but maybe it was because they were facing such plight, that for them at that time, it was the best decision. We need to be understanding of this. A person who may endanger others cannot be dismissed, but they also cannot be punished for being human. In all cases, beyond categorization of wronged and wrong-doer, and because all of us are really both, we need to be able to see an individual’s suffering and act out of compassion in an effort to correct it. This in itself serves to connect. In it is a realization that we are all human and that we all share the same life. The nature of how we view and interact with others has directed culture, politics, economics, and human society as a whole, which also extends to our impact on the environment. All of these things provide us with a striking image of how we participate in and create our world. This web of inter-relationships has biological foundations, into which current studies surrounding the nature of the human nervous system have brought new insights. A region toward the front of the brain called the medial prefrontal cortex, or MPFC, activates when we are pondering our own feelings, but also when we are thinking about or observing those same feelings in another (Boroditsky 5). More specifically, a class of cells called mirror neurons, which are located in various areas of the brain, have been found to direct our ability to read not only another person’s actions, but also the intentions and emotions behind them. In an interview with the New York Times, Dr. Giacomo Rizzolatti, a neuroscientist at the University of Parma

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credited with some of the first research of these structures in the 1990’s, was quoted in saying, “We are exquisitely social creatures. Our survival depends on understanding the actions, intentions, and emotions of others. Mirror neurons allow us to grasp the minds of others not through conceptual reasoning but through direct simulation” (Blakeslee 1). Here is very real evidence of just how connected we are. In a sense we can simultaneously experience the thoughts and actions of another. This also poses the intimate connectivity of thought, action, and language. These cells fire when one performs an action, sees another carrying out that action, hears it happening, says the word for that action, or hears that word (Blakeslee 1). Mirror neurons can be seen as the meeting place of these different avenues, which all allow for understanding between people, and are essentially linked as a means of communication whose framework is emotional. It is also important to note that social emotions like shame, pride, embarrassment, and so on, are centered in a uniquely human mirror neuron system in a brain region called the insula. In a study conducted by Dr. Christian Keysers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, it was found that when people watched a hand go to caress someone and then saw another hand push it away, this region registered the pain of rejection. Moreover, he noted that humiliation appeared to be “mapped in the brain by the same mechanisms that encode real physical pain” (Blakeslee 3). This just goes to show us that when someone is suffering from emotional trauma, they are also really ailing from physical distress. When mirror neurons malfunction, an emotional level of communication ceases to occur. It is now thought that this is a major cause of Autism and Aspberger’s disease. Autistic individuals are often cited as sort of living in their own world, or being

Illustrations by Robert Walsh

highly antisocial. It could be that the neural basis of social abilities is lacking, and they therefore are significantly unable to relate to other people. Studies show that these individuals can identify an emotional facial expression, and even imitate it, but they do not feel its emotional significance (Blakeslee 2). A similar effect is seen in individuals with Aspberger’s, who are unable to read facial expressions and vocal inflections, recognize sarcasm, and also cannot understand figurative language. They interpret everything logically and literally. For individuals with either disorder, everyday life is made extremely difficult simply because they cannot adequately relate socially and emotionally to other people. The importance of empathy is apparent. It lends us the competence to recognize that other viewpoints must be just as valid as our own. Scientific research has provided us with more clues as to how and why this phenomenon operates, and has given us greater insight into how incredible this biological capacity truly is. The complexity and social grounding of our empathy is something uniquely human. It lies behind much of our daily decisions and behavior, and is one of the key components of how we have developed as a society. Truly, it needs to exist for us to exist. All of this serves to remind us of empathy’s profundity. But what teaches us most is the face-to-face encounter in which we share a real and fathomless

humanness with another.

References:

Blakeslee, Sandra. “Cells That Read Minds.” The New York Times. The New York Times Co. 10 Jan. 2006. Web. 19 Apr. 2011.

Boroditsky, Lera. “Empathy and Other Mysteries.” American Scholar. 80.1 (2011): 44-52. Academic Search Premier. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.

Garret, Major. “Obama Pushes for ‘Empathetic’ Supreme Court Justices.” FoxNews.com. Fox News Network, LLC. 1 May 2009. Web. 13 Apr. 2011.

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4.2 -

4.1 -

4 -

3.9 -

3.8 -

3.7 -

3.6 -

3.5 -

3.4 -

3.3 -

3.2 -

Relative Conflict Frequency(Weekly)

Low High

Well-Being

Low Agreeableness

High Agreeableness

Empathy can easily be related to

agreeableness. The agreeableness char-

acteristic in the human spectrum of

traits is a “tendency to be pleasant and

accommodating in social situations”

(online dictionary). In contemporary

personality psychology, agreeableness

is related to the support of individual

differences in concern for cooperation

and social harmony. [1] People who

are agreeable are also often empa-

thetic, considerate, friendly, generous,

and helpful. Not only do these people

project positive traits, they also tend

to believe that others are capable of

obtaining them as well.

Studies show that people who live

this way are generally happier and

more satisfied with life. They also tend

to stay calm and deal with conflict bet-

ter than most.

Graziano, W.G., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Agreeableness; A dimension of personality. In R. Hogan, S. Briggs, & J. Johnson, (1997). Handbook of Personality Psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press

a•gree•a•ble•ness

Agreeableness, Extraversion and Prosocial Value Motivation

The In•ter•play of Traits and Motives on Vol•un•teer•ing

All images are of Abbey Gregorash in her volunteer environment.Photos taken by Allie Eichenhofer

Morris A. Okun+ Maria Rosario T. de Guzman* Gustavo Carlo* George Knight+

* University of Nebraska-Lincoln

+ Arizona State University

During the past 20 years, there has been a renaissance of interest in personality and motivational concepts in personality and social psychology (Little, 1983). Scholars continue to develop conceptual models to account for the links between traits, motives, and behaviors. Traits and motives can be conceptualized as representing different levels of personality functioning (McAdams, 1994; McClelland, 1985a). McCrae and Costa (1999) posited that traits are “enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions...” (p. 140). Traits are organized hierarchically from narrow to broad traits. At the broadest level, researchers have identified five common traits: agreeableness, extraversion, openness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. Motives reflect the tendency to strive for a general class of incentives that are highly fused with affect (McClelland, 1985b). Several classes of motives have been identified in the research literature on volunteering (Clary et al., 1998; Okun, Barr, & Herzog, 1998). However, the relations between traits and social behaviors are often relatively modest in magnitude (cf., Bem & Funder, 1978; Kenrick & Funder, 1988). This is also the case for the relations between personality traits and volunteering behavior (Omoto & Snyder, 1995). Several explanations for the relatively modest

and inconsistently significant relations have been posited (Carlo, Knight, Eisenberg, & Rotenberg, 1991; Eisenberg, 1986; Kenrick & Funder, 1988; Knight, Johnson, Carlo, & Eisenberg, 1994). First, investigators may not have focused upon the traits that are conceptually most relevant to the specific social behavior being studied. Second, the relations between traits and social behaviors may be mediated by motives. Third, traits might interact with other traits to jointly influence motives, which in turn, are causally more proximal to social behaviors. Fourth, traits might interact with motives to jointly influence social behaviors.

With regard to the first explanation, Graziano and Eisenberg (1997) suggest that agreeableness might be the core dispositional trait contributing to prosocial behaviors. Agreeable individuals are altruistic, straight-forward, trusting, soft-hearted, modest, and compliant (Graziano. 1994; McCrae & Costa, 1999). There is empirical evidence of the link between agreeableness and prosocial behaviors (see Graziano & Eisenberg. 1997). Furthermore, researchers have found significant positive relations between agreeableness and volunteering (e.g., Smith & Nelson, 1975). Similarly, extraversion is associated with sociability, gregariousness,

A•gree•a•ble•ness might be the core dispositional trait contributing to prosocial behaviors. ”

“

assertiveness, positive emotions, warmth, and activity (McCrae & Costa, 1999); and has been shown to predict volunteering (Burke & Hall, 1986; Kosek, 1995; Smith & Nelson, 1975). Because volunteerism often requires extensive social interactions, scholars have linked it to extraversion (e.g., Burke & Hall, 1986). Hence, in the present study we have made predictions regarding the relations of personality traits (i.e., agreeableness and extraversion) that are clearly conceptually related to a social behavior (i.e., volunteering). Specifically, we predict that agreeableness and extraversion will be positively associated with volunteering behavior.

With regard to the second explanation, scholars have noted that traits may be indirectly related to social behaviors. A number of possible mediating variables have been posited that might help account for the relations between traits and prosocial behaviors such as volunteering. Among those possible mediating variables are motives. Clary and his associates (Clary et al., 1998) identified a set of six motives for volunteering including: career enhancement, learning new skills, social interaction, escape from negative feelings, personal development, and expressing prosocial values. Of these motives, the prosocial value motive to volunteer (hereafter referred to as prosocial value motive) is clearly conceptually related to volunteering because it reflects the endorsement of care-based values to voluntarily assist others (Allison, Okun, & Dutridge, 2002; Clary et a]., 1998; Clary & Orenstein, 1991; Okun, 1994; Omoto & Snyder, 1995; Penner & Finkelstein, 1998). Further, both agreeableness and extraversion reflect a positive orientation towards others, which conceptually forges a link between these personality dispositions and prosocial value motives. Hence, it is reasonable to presume that individuals who are altruistic, trusting, warm, and emotionally positive

may value prosocial behaviors. In the present study we examined the degree to which the effects of agreeableness and extraversion on volunteering behavior were mediated by prosocial value motives.

With regard to the third explanation, extraverted individuals seek warm and positive social interactions, but these desires really facilitate volunteering behavior when combined with the altruistic orientation inherent in agreeableness. Further, this joint effect may be mediated through prosocial value motivation as described above. Therefore, we also examined the degree to which the interaction effect of agreeableness and extraversion on volunteering behavior was mediated by prosocial value motives.

With regard to the fourth explanation, extraversion may provide the affiliative disposition needed to volunteer. However, volunteerism may be jointly determined by whether there is a match between the personality traits associated with volunteerism and the motives that are most salient (Carlo, Allen, & Buhman, 1999; Clary & Snyder, 1999). For example, extraverted individuals may be more likely to volunteer than introverted individuals only when their prosocial value motivation is high. Prosocial value motives are conceptually related to individual differences in sympathy (see Graziano & Eisenberg, 1997) which are linked to prosocial behaviors including altruism (Batson, 1999; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Staub, 1978). Consequently, we examined the degree to which prosocial value motivation moderates the relation extraversion and volunteering.

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meth•od 2.1. Participants A sample of 849 college students was drawn from 1,272 students enrolled in sections of Introduction to Psychology at a large southwestern state university. Students completed a battery of measures in classes as a prelude to participating in studies that can be used to fulfill a course requirement. To reduce respondent burden, students were randomly assigned to one of three versions of the battery with the constraint that approximately one-third of the students received each version of the battery. To assess sample biases, we compared students in the sample with those who were not in the sample on demographic and main variables. Students in the sample had significantly lower prosocial value motivation to volunteer than students who were not in the sample Similarly, we compared students in the sample who had missing data with those who did not and found that students with missing data had significantly

higher openness to experience scores, than students without missing data. Sample biases were weak in magnitude of effect and sparse. The final sample consisted of 796 undergraduates (Median age = 19 years; 56% were women; 75% were White, non-Hispanic, 8% were Hispanic, 5% were Asian, 3% were African American).

2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Volunteering We created a measure of volunteering based upon responses to four items. Students were asked whether they had ever volunteered (0 = no, 1 = yes), were currently volunteering (0 = no, 1 = yes), planned on volunteering during the next two months (0 = no, 1 = yes), and the likelihood that they would volunteer at the campus-based community service program if asked (0 = definitely no, 1 = probably no, 2 = maybe, 3 = probably yes, and 4 = definitely yes). Students were provided the following definition of volunteering: “By volunteering, we mean performing a service without compensation for an organization or agency. This may include church/religious groups, social service agencies, schools, not-for-profit organizations (e.g., American Red Cross), cause-oriented organizations (e.g., a political campaign and/or environmental conservation group), or for profit corporation (e.g., hospital)”. The percentage of students who ever volunteered, were currently volunteering, and planned on volunteering in the next two months were 90%, 19%, and 45%, respectively. The mean rating for likelihood of volunteering at the campus- based community program if asked was 2.20 (SD = 0.98).

To determine whether a composite index of volunteer behavior could be created, a principal components analysis was carried out after standardizing the scores on the four items. The results of this analysis indicated that the eigenvalue for the first factor was 1.81. The eigenvalues for the remaining factors were all below 1.00. The lowest factor loading on the first factor was 0.52. Factor scores were created using the regression method. Higher scores

indicate greater involvement in volunteering. Furthermore, prior studies have shown validity evidence for self-report, aggregate measures of about past, present, and future volunteerism (e.g., Clary et al.,1998; Penner & Finkelstein, 1998).

2.2.2. Prosocial Value Motive We employed the Value-Expressive Scale from the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) to assess prosocial value motive (Clary, Snyder. & Ridge, 1992). Participants indicated on a 7-point scale how important/accurate each of five prosocial value reasons is for why they volunteer or would be if they were to volunteer (sample item, “I feel compassion toward people in need”). Anchor points on the scale were from: 0 = “not at all important/accurate for you”, through 6 = “extremely important/accurate for you”. Scale scores were formed by averaging the responses to the five items. Higher scores on the scale are associated with greater prosocial value motive to volunteer. Adequate psychometric properties of this measure have been reported elsewhere (Allison et al., 2002; Clary et al., 1992) 2.2.3. Big Five Traits Traits were assessed used the 44-item version of the Big Five Inventory (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991 ). This commonly used inventory was originally constructed to allow for the efficient assessment of the big five dimensions of personality without providing for the more elaborate measurement of the various facets associated with each dimension (Benet-Martinez & John, 1998). BFI items consist of short phrases that are used to assess the most prototypical traits associated with each of the Big Five dimensions (John et al., 1991).

In the present study, students indicated how much they agreed or disagreed that each statement applied to them. Ratings were made on a 9-point scale with anchor points ranging from 0 = “strongly disagree” to 8 = “strongly agree”. A sample item for extraversion was “Outgoing, sociable”, and a sample item for agreeableness was “Is generally trusting”. Scale scores were formed by averaging the responses to the items associated with each personality dimension. Th e number of items on each scale ranged from 8 (Extraversion and Neuroticism) through 10 (Openness to Experience).

As scores on each scale increase, individuals are describing themselves as being higher on each personality dimension. Prior researchers have presented adequate evidence of the reliability and validity of the BFI scales (Benet-Martinez & John, 1998; Okun & Finch, 1998).

3.1. Preliminary Analyses According to our first explanation for the inconsistent and relatively small relations between personality variables and volunteering, researchers may not have focused on those traits that are most conceptually relevant to volunteering. As predicted, among the Big Five dimensions, agreeableness had the strongest correlation with volunteer behavior, followed by extraversion. Consistent with our second explanation, among the Big Five dimensions, agreeableness exhibited the strongest correlation with prosocial value motive, followed by extraversion, and prosocial value motive was the strongest overall correlate of volunteer behavior Among the control variables, females had higher prosocial value motives and engaged in volunteer behavior to a greater

re•sults

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15

degree than males. The correlations among the Big Five dimensions ranged from –0.29 to 0.33. In light of the hypotheses of the present study, it is noteworthy that the correlation between agreeableness and extraver- sion was modest.

3.2. Data Analytic Approach In testing our second, third, and fourth explanations for the weak and mixed findings regarding the relation between personality dimensions and volunteering, we carried out five regression models. We included conscientious, neuroticism, and openness as covariates in these analyses because they are often significantly correlated with agreeableness and/or extraversion. In addition, because gender differences in prosocial behaviors and personality variables have been found in prior research (e.g., Eagly & Crowley, 1996; Penner & Finkelstein, 1998), we also controlled for gender, neuroticism, openness to experience, and conscientiousness. Including neuroticism, openness to experience and conscientiousness as covariates did not alter the results with respect to the hypotheses that we tested. 3.3. Testing The Mediation The second possible explanation for the prior weak and inconsistent relations between personality traits and prosocial behaviors posited that agreeableness and extraversion predicted prosocial value motives, and that prosocial value motive is the strongest predictor of volunteer behavior. We tested this explanation by carrying out two regression analyses. In the first analysis, we regressed volunteering behavior on the control variables (gender, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience), agreeableness, extraversion, and prosocial value motive. In the second analysis, we regressed prosocial value motives on the control variables, agreeableness, and extraversion. The standardized partial regression coefficients from the first regression analysis constitute the direct effects of the variables on volunteer behavior whereas the standardized partial regression coefficients (betas) from the second regression analysis constitute the direct effects of the variables on prosocial value motives.

Allison, L. D., Okun, M. A., & Dutridge, K.

S. (2002). Assessing volunteer motives: a

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& Rotenberg, K. J. (1991). Cognitive

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& Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and

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Every Monday

Jack Webster, a psychology

graduate undertaking his master’s

degree, goes back to school. The

school is Lincoln Middle School

of Port Washington, Wisconsin

and the reason he’s there is to

volunteer his time.

Because of his love for children

and his drive for psychology

related activities, Webster set up

a peer-mentoring project to help

students with learning disabilities

become motivated in school.

Between finishing his degree

at the University of Wisconsin,

Madison and starting his master’s

in occupational psychology at

the University of East London,

Webster began sessions with

the middle school students at

Lincoln Middle School to focus

on empowering academically

challenged boys through fun and

engaging activities.

readers

re•flectre•flect

“When I started the project,

teachers at the school warned

me that I would have a problem

getting the boys to stay after

school, and that I would have to

find ways to motivate them, so I

was prepared for that,” Webster

explains. “In the beginning there

were problems with temper and

shyness but these were ironed out.

Now the boys eagerly ask about

the next session. That turnaround

is really inspiring. Through this

experience, I’ve become really

close with several of the students.

After some tough love and

inspiring experiences, they now

come to me for personal problems

and heart-to-hearts and I think

they consider me to be someone to

look up to and take comfort

in talking to.”

-Jack Webster

“That turn•a•round is really in•spir•ing”

“That turn•a•round is really in•spir•ing”

“That turn•a•round is really in•spir•ing”

Notes from our readers about their personal experiences in volunteering and what they’ve gained along the way

••

Upper Class Income

Middle Class Income

Lower Class Income

8%

12%

16%

PERCENT OF CHILDREN AGES 5-17 WITH A LEARNING DISABILITY(Cdc. Health Data Interactive)

vol •un• t er •1ngeMental Health

in Children

and

e By David Eichenhofer

vol •un• t er •1ngvol •un• t er •1nge

psy•ch•••

Em•pa•thy often develops natu-

rally in children when parents model

altruistic behaviors, openly discuss the

needs of others, and provide opportu-

nities for helping. In situations where

family dynamics are not conducive,

parents are egocentric, or children

exhibit mental health difficulties which

inhibit such development this trait can

be more difficult to establish. Disorders

such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disor-

der, Learning Disabilities, or Autism

Spectrum disorder, among others, can

inhibit development. This can further

involve impairment in social aware-

ness, self awareness, and empathy

which, left untreated, can impact

relationships, school performance, and

community functioning. Providing op-

portunities, in the educational environ-

ment, for children to volunteer to help

others can foster the development of

empathy, improve relationships with

peers, and promote a range of prosocial

behaviors among all students.

School Guidance Counselors,

School Psychologists, and School Social

Workers, as well as Speech/Language

Therapists often provide social skills

training as part of their work with

special needs students. These related

service providers often recruit volun-

teers from students’ classrooms, with

parental permission, to help establish

small groups to facilitate programming.

While the primary intent of these ses-

sions is to meet the needs of special

education students, regular education

classmates benefit in many ways also.

For the special education students,

the peer volunteers provide positive

role models for social skill develop-

ment. Peer models provide examples of

verbal communication skills, turn tak-

ing, initiating social dialogue, resolving

conflict, patience in social situations,

and expanded range of interests. Spe-

cial education students develop a sense

of inclusion, security in the school en-

vironment, and establish relationships

with classmates that often generalize to

less structured situations (lunchroom,

playground, hallways).

In addition to skill acquisition, these

students frequently demonstrate

improved confidence, increased verbal

communication, less anxiety in social

situations, and general mood stability.

Classmates can often model strategies

to cope with frustration and access re-

sources when agitated or confused in a

range of settings. Depending upon the

nature of the disability, these special

education students may also increase

their awareness of social cues and build

empathy for others.

With regard to peers, many enter

the volunteer situation with a strong

sense of empathy, especially those

involved in middle and high school

settings. Programs such as ‘Best

Buddies’ pair regular education high

school students with their special

education classmates as a means to

vol•un•teer•ingvol•un•teer•ingvol•un•teers tend to be friendly, enjoy interpersonal relationships, and have higher levels of empathy and concern for the welfare of others.

“”

psy•chMIAD Bridge

facilitate social interaction, involve-

ment in extra-curricular activities, and

community awareness. In addition

to supports provided to these special

needs students, the peers often report

a sense of inspiration and increased

confidence and self-esteem themselves.

Not only do they demonstrate increased

empathy for their special friends, they

often experience increased empathy for

others in general. A stronger apprecia-

tion for diversity is reported and many

students become vocal advocates for

others across a variety of situations. As

with their special education classmates,

these regular education volunteers

also experience less anxiety in social

situations, enhanced confidence, and

improved affect in general. In addi-

tion, many of these volunteers go on to

helping professions and/or continue to

volunteer in schools and communities

as part of their daily lives.

Building empathy, through these

and similar volunteering opportunities,

is also very consistent with many of the

current anti-bullying efforts in the edu-

cational system. By helping students

better appreciate diversity, accept dif-

ferences among others, and establish

increased sensitivity for the needs of

others, we are likely to see a decrease

in bullying behavior in social situa-

tions. In addition, we can increase the

number of students willing to advocate

for victims in those circumstances.

In discussing the benefits of vol-

unteering with adults, Aleem (2011)

reports improved physical health,

reduced stress, and overall life sat-

isfaction. Increased social interac-

tion, improved sense of purpose, and

stronger self-esteem are also indicated.

Hamilton and Fenzel (1987) found that

youth participating in volunteer activi-

ties also demonstrate stronger decision

making skills, more enjoyable social

experiences, and a stronger sense of so-

cial responsibility. This was found to be

especially true among teens or young

adults who were felt to be at risk for

mental health or behavioral difficulties.

Given the demonstrated benefits

of volunteering among children and

adults, it makes sense from an indi-

vidual and community perspective

to continue to offer opportunities for

helping others within the educational

setting. Consult with your school pupil

services providers to help establish

these offerings and work to build

relationships with community service

agencies as well. These opportunities

can positively impact the mental health

of all students.

pa •thyem•

vol•un•teer•ingvol•un•teer•ingReferences

Aleem, Yasmeen. “Volunteering and Psychological Health.” Kaplan University. N.p., 2011. Web. 12 Oct. 2011.

S.F. Hamilton, and L.M. Fenzel, “The Effect of Volunteer Experience on Early Adolescents’ Social Development” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC, 1987)

19

Designed and Edited by Allie Eichenhofer