MGMT 500 Chapter 9_ppt_09

Management, 3rd editionHitt/Black/PorterCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall9-*

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Managerial Challenges: From the front line9-*Elizabeth HayesFirst job:High School Teacher

Motto:Whether you think that you can, or that you cant, you are usually right. (Henry Ford)

ManagementStyle:Delegatorenabling people with the tools and support they need to succeed

Corp. Trainer/Instructional DesignerFannie Maewww.fanniemae.com/kb/index?page=home

Key Topics MotivationForces and individuals sourcesContent theories vs. process theoriesJob EnrichmentReinforcement ApproachesValue and AttitudesCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall9-*

Learning ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall9-*

9-*What Is Motivation?Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice HallCan come fromPush forcesinternal from the personPull forcesexternal from the environmentA set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior

9-*Sources of MotivationCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice HallCategories of Variables Determine motivation in the work setting

Characteristics of the individual Characteristics of the job/task Characteristics of the work situation

job/task

9-*Sources of MotivationCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice HallExhibit 9-1SAS Institute, one of the worldsleading software developers, knows its no better than the talent of the programmers who work for it. When the companys employees leave the building for the evening, CEO Jim Goodnight knows that its his job to motivate them to come back the next day

9-*Motivation Theories Applicable to WorkCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice HallExhibit 9-3Content Theories: Acquired Needs Theory David McClellandthree-needs theoryFocuslearned, or acquired needsNeedsbecome enduring predispositions/tendenciesTypesaffiliation, power, and achievement High-need-achievement individuals Work on tasks of moderate difficulty Take moderate risks Take personal responsibility for their actions Receive specific and concrete feedback on their performance

9-*Sources of MotivationCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice HallExhibit 9.5Differential Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators


Consequence of Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Increased emphasis on how jobs are designed

To motivate employeesrevise jobs to give employees greater feeling of responsibility accomplishment achievement Implications for Job Design9-*Job Enrichment


Comprehensive approach to designing enriched jobs with high potential for increased motivation

Implications for Job Design9-*Job Characteristics ModelExhibit 9.6


Core Job Characteristics in Model 9-*Job Characteristics ModelExhibit 9.6


Core Job Characteristics in Model 9-*Job Characteristics ModelExhibit 9.6


Deals with the way different variables combine to influence the amount of effort people put forthProcess Motivation Theories9-*How the variables affectEquity theory Social Cognitive Theory

Expectancy theory Goal Setting


Process Motivation Theories9-*Equity TheoryIndividuals will compare their circumstances to those of othersSuch comparisons may motivate certain kinds of behavior


Process Motivation Theories9-*Equity TheoryExhibit 9.8


Beliefs affect amount of effort people will put forth Expectancy (effort-to-performance) (E P) If I try this, will I succeed? Instrumentality (performance-to-outcome) (P O) If I succeed, will I get praise from the boss? Valance (anticipated value person attaches to outcome)Focusthought processes people use when they face particular choices among alternative courses of action with their anticipated consequences.Process Motivation Theories9-*Expectancy Theory


Process Motivation Theories9-*Components of Expectancy Theory


Key ways manager can influence employees motivation Identify valued rewards Strengthen beliefs that their efforts will lead to valued rewards Clarify understanding of exactly where they should direct their efforts Make sure the desired rewards you control are given directly following performance Provide level/amount of rewards consistent with a realistic level of expected rewardsProcess Motivation Theories9-*Expectancy TheoryManagerial Implications


Self-EfficacyProcess Motivation Theories9-*Social Cognitive TheoryConfidence about ones abilities to mobilize motivation cognitive resources courses of action needed to successfully execute a specific task within a given contextHow can a persons self-efficacy be increased?


Process Motivation Theories9-*Social Cognitive TheoryExhibit 9.10Similar prior taskObserving othersOthers statementsInspirations

9-*Goal-setting TheoryProcess Motivation TheoriesAssumption: Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions Level of goals is potentially powerful determinant of motivationCommitment to particular goals is crucial More challenging goals (if accepted) Specific goals ResultHigher levels of effort


Ask Questions Before Engaging in Goal-Setting with Employees9-*Goal-Setting TheoryExhibit 9.11


Reinforcements and Consequences9-*Reinforcement ApproachesConsequences (events that happen to people following their behavior) can reinforce their tendencies to continue/discontinue that behaviorPositive Reinforcement desirable consequence

Negative Reinforcement undesirable consequence

Punishmentunwanted consequence

ExtinctionAbsence of positive consequences


Reinforcements and Consequences9-*Positive ReinforcementConsequences (events that happen to people following their behavior) can reinforce their tendencies to continue/discontinue that behaviorCongratulationsDesirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the futureRewards given should be Equitable Efficient Not exclusive Available Visible Reversible Can inadvertently reinforce behavior that is not wanted


Reinforcements and Consequences9-*Negative ReinforcementConsequences (events that happen to people following their behavior) can reinforce their tendencies to continue/discontinue that behaviorRemoval of undesirable, or negative, consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the futureCan backfire if used incorrectlyUndesirable consequence


Reinforcements and Consequences9-*PunishmentConsequences (events that happen to people following their behavior) can reinforce their tendencies to continue/discontinue that behaviorUndesirable consequence that follows undesirable behavior to decrease the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the futureUndesirable consequence


Reinforcements and Consequences9-*Extinction Consequences (events that happen to people following their behavior) can reinforce their tendencies to continue/discontinue that behaviorAbsence of positive consequences lessening the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the futureNo positive consequence


Reinforcement Approaches and Their Effects9-*Reinforcements and ConsequencesConsequences (events that happen to people following their behavior) can reinforce their tendencies to continue/discontinue that behaviorExhibit 9.12


Planned Programs of Positive Reinforcement9-*Reinforcements and ConsequencesExhibit 9.12Specify desired performance preciselyMeasure desired behaviorsProvide frequent positive consequences for specified behaviorsEvaluate the effectiveness of the program


How the Situation Influences Motivation9-*Situational Context


Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward Work9-*Situational Context


Differences in Core Values Among (3) Cultures9-*Exhibit 9.13Sensitivity to these differences can be highly useful in addressing motivational issues and problems.Exhibit 9.13

Summary: Key Topics MotivationForces and individuals sourcesContent theories vs. process theoriesJob EnrichmentReinforcement ApproachesValue and AttitudesCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall9-*


Managerial Challenges: Rest of the Story From the front line9-*Elizabeth HayesLearning: Challenge of motivating remote employees on a steady basis is ever- presentChange: Extensive use of available technology Setup clear performance goals/objectives 9-to-1 quarterly, very direct feedback sessions Remote training and growth opportunities for employees Virtual meetings to foster team feeling

Result: AOL educational portal increased steadily Employee retention consistently high

Corp. TrainerInstructional DesignerFannie Maewww.fanniemae.com/kb/index?page=home


Closing Case: Pamela Jones, Former Banker9-*

#Question1Consider various need theories. What are Pamela Jones underlying needs that motivated her? What is the basis for your answer?

2Given the comments that Jones received from her first year trainers, what would she realistically expect after finishing her training? What did she get? Using expectancy theory, explain why the situation would not be motivating for her.3Burns was given extra work and told it was priority work, and he did it well. However, he was punished for not doing his other work. Analyze this situation according to reinforcement theory. What type of behavior would you expect from Burns in this situation, and why?

4Pamela Jones was going to be transferred to another position in a branch about 100 miles from Vancouver. Do you think it is only her husbands work that makes her reluctant to take this position? What other motivational elements could be influencing her attitude toward whether to accept the new position? What could the company have done to motivate her to want to take the job?

Motivational TheoryCopyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall8-*Individual Assignment

Select one of the motivational theories listed on the next slide andpresent an overview of the theory.

Your presentation will be made in class using no more than two PowerPoint slides and must be less than 5 minutes.

Due: Jan 17

2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.. 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Classification of Motivation Theories*Fredrick HerzbergDouglas McGregor

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall9-*Incentives that work well for some employees/groups might not motivate others

*Additional information for discussion: Alma mater: University of Texas at Austin (BA)Outside work activities: Reading, movies, museums, and yogaHero: Educators in general

Ever since Elizabeth Hayes graduated from college, her career track has primarily combined the worlds of education and business. After spending her first several postgraduate years teaching high-school English, she went to work for a major college textbook publishing company as a developmental editor and associate acquisitions editor. After several years, Hayes decided to leave the publishing industry and join Texas Instruments as a product manager in the companys education division. From that job she moved to a position as a programming director of education service at America Online, Inc. (AOL). At AOL, Hayes was responsible for the editorial vision, integrity, and product direction of a no-cost web portal that K12 educators can use to find the right online resources and tools they need. She was also responsible for building the product and AOLs brand identity, identifying and working with strategic partners, and supervising programming staff. In this latter role, one of the biggest managerial challenges she faced was keeping her remotely located subordinates consistently motivated and challenged. As virtual employees, these subordinates often feel like they are left out and missing out on things happening in the office. Furthermore, with employees working at off-site locations, there is always the potential one of them will take advantage of being unobserved and avoid (for a while, at least) accountability. After covering Chapter 9 material, the Rest of the Story is presented at end of the chapter.****Understanding these motivational forces has been a continuing challenge for managers ever since the beginning of the Industrial Age. However, what we want to demonstrate in this chapter is that regardless of factors not directly under ones control, it is still possible to influence the motivation of employees. Motivation can be thought of as the set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior. These forces can come from the person, the so-called push of internal forces, or they can come from the environment that surrounds the person, the so-called pull of external forces. It is, therefore, essential for managers to recognize the importance of both sets of factors when they are analyzing motivational causes of behavior.*As shown in Exhibit 9.1, three basic categories of variables determine motivation in the work setting:1. The characteristics of the individual.2. The characteristics of the job or task.3. The characteristics of the work situation.The first category, the individuals characteristics, is the source of internal, or push, forces of motivation. This is what the employee brings to the work setting. Three variables contribute to an individuals push forces: The persons (1) needs, such as the need for security, self-esteem, achievement, or power; (2) attitudestoward self, a job, a supervisor, or the organization; and (3) goals such as completing a task, accomplishing a certain level of performance, and career advancement.The second category of motivational forces, which relates to both internal (push) and external (pull) forces, focuses on the characteristics of a persons job or taskwhat the person does in the work setting. These characteristics include how much direct feedback the person receives, the persons workload, the variety and scope of the tasks that make up the job, and the degree of control the person has in terms of how he or she does the job.The third category of motivational forces also consists of external pull forces. It relates to the characteristics of the work situationwhat happens to the individual. This category has two sets of variables: The immediate social environment composed of the persons supervisor(s), work-group members, and subordinates; and various types of organizational actions, such as, the firms reward and compensation practices, the availability of training and development, and the amount of pressure applied to achieve high levels of output. **Toward that end, SAS offers its employees a plethora of benefits unheard of at most companieson-site daycare, extensive healthcare, car detailing, an art museum, assistants to help employees with their day-to-day personal matters, and even live entertainment in the companys lunchroom.*Several theories of motivation are particularly relevant for work settings. Each of these theories highlights one or more of the variables just discussed and displayed in Exhibit 9.1.However, it is important to note that almost all these theories were developed by American behavioral scientists. Thus, an obvious question is: Do these theories apply only in the context of American culture and society, or can the theories be used to analyze motivation in other societies and cultures? Unfortunately, the answer is not clear. Based on available evidence, the best answer is that some of the theories can be applied widely across the world whereas others cannot.*NEED HIERARCHY THEORIES The most prominent need hierarchy theory was developed a half century ago by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslows theory appealed to managers because it was easy to remember. It contains five types of needs that are arranged in a hierarchy of strength and influence, starting with the most essential: Physiological needs: The need for the basic essentials of life, such as water, food, and shelter. Security (safety) needs: The need to feel safe and secure. Social (belongingness) needs: The need to be loved and accepted by other people. Esteem needs: The need for self-respect and respect from other people. Self-actualization needs: The need to be personally fulfilled, to feel a sense of achievement and accomplishment and, especially, to develop ones own unique talents to their highest possible levels.The essence of Maslows need hierarchy theory is that an individual is motivated to satisfy the most basic needs first (such as physiological needs) and then, once those are satisfied, move to the next level. According to this theory, only when their most basic needs have been met will people be able to concentrate on satisfying higher-order needs. However, if these persons basic physiological and security needs should become threatened, they would then be likely to revert to focusing on those lower-order needs. They would decrease their efforts to satisfy social, esteem, and achievement needs until or unless the threat has passed.A somewhat more simplified variation of need hierarchy theory was published subsequent to Maslow by behavioral scientist Clay Alderfer. Alderfers alternative version, labeled ERG theory for Existence-Relatedness-Growth, collapsed Maslows five levels into three and provided a more straightforward way of thinking about need hierarchies. (Exhibit 9.3 provides a graphic comparison of the two classifications of needs.) ERG theory differs from Maslows theory in some respects. For example, it presumes that different levels of needs can be active at the same time. Thus, a lower level does not have to be completely or even mostly satisfied before higher-level needs can emerge. Alderfers version suggests that even though a lower-level need has already been satisfied, a person may revert to focusing on such a need if he gets frustrated trying to satisfy a higher-level need. ERG theory presents an interesting alternative to Maslows earlier, more complicated version, but the key point is that both theories focus on peoples attempts to satisfy particular needs and on how that can affect the amount and direction of motivation. *ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY Another content theory centered on needs was developed by American psychologist David McClelland. His acquired needs theory focuses on learned, or acquired, needs that become enduring predispositions or tendencies of individuals, almost like personality traits, that can be activated by appropriate cues in the environment. McClelland considered three of these needsaffiliation, power, and achievementto be especially important; hence, his theory is sometimes referred to as the three-need theory. However, most subsequent research has concentrated on the need for achievement. According to McClellands theory, a person who has a high need for achievement habitually strives for success or goal attainment in task situations (though not necessarily in other types of settings). The research data collected by McClelland and his associates indicate that individuals with high need achievement prefer to work on tasks of moderate difficulty, take moderate risks, take personal responsibility for their actions, and receive specific and concrete feedback on their performance*TWO-FACTOR THEORY In the early 1960s, American psychologist Frederick Herzberg proposed a motivation theory that came to be called the two-factor theory. This theory focuses on the distinction between factors that can increase job satisfaction (motivators) and those that can prevent dissatisfaction but cannot increase satisfaction (hygiene factors). As shown in Exhibit 9.4, motivators are intrinsic factors directly related to the doing of a job, such as the nature of the work itself, responsibility level, personal growth opportunities, and the sense of achievement and recognition directly received by performing the work. The other factors, hygiene factors, are extrinsic to directly performing the job. They, instead, are associated with conditions surrounding the job. Hygiene factors include supervision, relations with co-workers, working conditions, and company policies and practices related to benefits and compensation. As shown in Exhibit 9.5, the two-factor theory predicts that motivator factors actively increase satisfaction, whereas hygiene factors only decrease dissatisfaction to thepoint where the employee is neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. The theory was an immediate hit with managers when first proposed some years ago because it contains a relatively simple message: To motivate employees, focus on improving how the job is structuredwhat they do. Simply taking care of the hygiene factors can prevent dissatisfaction but will have no effect on positive motivation. Although intuitively appealing, the two-factor theory has been criticized by some scholars as overly simplistic. For one thing, the theory sometimes confuses satisfaction (positive attitudes based on the receipt of desired rewards) with motivation (the forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior). Furthermore, subsequentresearch has shown that it is often impossible to distinguish clearly between variables that only decrease dissatisfaction from those that only increase motivation.*As shown in Exhibit 9.5, the two-factor theory predicts that motivator factors actively increase satisfaction, whereas hygiene factors only decrease dissatisfaction to the point where the employee is neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. The theory was an immediate hit with managers when first proposed some years ago because it contains a relatively simple message: To motivate employees, focus on improving how the job is structuredwhat they do. Simply taking care of the hygiene factors can prevent dissatisfaction but will have no effect on positive motivation. Although intuitively appealing, the two-factor theory has been criticized by some scholars as overly simplistic. For one thing, the theory sometimes confuses satisfaction (positive attitudes based on the receipt of desired rewards) with motivation (the forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior). Furthermore, subsequent research has shown that it is often impossible to distinguish clearly between variables that only decrease dissatisfaction from those that only increase motivation.**Developed by two organizational scientists, J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, the job characteristics model emphasizes three components, as shown in Exhibit 9.6: Core job characteristics, such as skill variety and task significance. Critical psychological states, such as experienced meaningfulness of work and experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work. Expected outcomes, such as high internal work motivation and high work effectiveness.

Of course, not every employee wants more responsibility, autonomy, and the likebut many do. In recent years, a number of companies have paid more attention to the motivational content of their employees jobs. It seems to be paying off. For example, in a survey of U.S. workers conducted in 1977, only 17 percent of them said the work they do is meaningful to me. By contrast, in 2002, the percentage was 66 percent. Likewise, the percentage of workers answering my job lets me use my skills and abilities jumped from 28 percent to 68 percent. In Europe, research carried out within the past decade has shown highly positive results for jobs that make effective use of employees personal resources, such as optimism and self-esteem, and that couple those individual resources with those provided by the organization and manager, such as helpful coaching and increased autonomy where appropriate. The researchers term this increased work engagement.*The bottom-line message is that if those in managerial positions can create or adjust jobs to include more of the core characteristics (see Exhibit 9.7), and use more of the personal resources that subordinates bring to the work situation they may be able to increase both the motivation and satisfaction of many of those who work for them. A useful way for managers, who often have highly enriched jobs themselves, to think about enriching the jobs of their subordinates is to make those jobs more like their own!****Equity theory, as shown in Exhibit 9.8, assumes that people know what kind of effort and skills they put into their jobs and what kinds of outcomes (salary, promotions, etc.) they receive from their employer. The theory also assumes that individuals are likely to compare (a) the ratios of inputs to outcomes they receive to (b) the ratios of other people like their colleagues or acquaintances (within, or outside, their organization). Such comparisons determine whether the individual feels equitably treated. The most important assumptionas in the example of the professional athletes just citedis that if the comparisons result in feelings of inequity in favor of the other persons, the individual making the observation will be motivated to take steps to reduce these feelings. Unfortunately, equity theory has not been very successful in predicting which method people will use in a specific situation. However, the chief value of this theory is that it highlights the importance of how peoples perceptions of equity, in comparison to others circumstances, can affect their motivation. In effect, equity theory emphasizes the social nature of motivation. *Psychologist Victor Vroom formulated a motivation theory applicable to work settings that is based on peoples expectations. Although details of expectancy theory can get complicated, the basics are easy to understand, and Exhibit 9.9 diagrams them. Expectancy theory focuses on the thought processes people use when they face particular choices among alternatives, particularly alternative courses of action. Simplified, the theory proposes that two kinds of beliefs affect the amount of effort people will choose to put forth. One such belief, (typically referred to as an expectancy), effort-to-performance, symbolized as (E P), is the probability that a certain amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance: If I try to do this, will I succeed? The other belief (often called an instrumentality belief), performance-to-outcome, symbolized as (PO), is the probability that a particularlevel of performance will lead to (will be instrumental in obtaining) particular outcomes or consequences: If I succeed, will I get praise from the boss? The third key variable in the theory is the valence (V), or the anticipated value a person attaches to an outcome: How much will I like praise from the boss, if I get it? If the valence of rewards offered is high, there is potential for increased motivation; likewise, if the anticipated value of those rewards is low, or the offered rewards are seen as irrelevant, motivation is likely to be weak. *Expectancy theory states that the three key variables interact in a multiplicative, not additive, manner to determine the amount of effort people will choose to expend on a particular task: Effort = (E P) (P O) V. According to the theory, these three variables are multiplied to determine the level of effort, a low value of any one of the three would result in very low motivation. A number of implications for managerial practice flow from this theory. For each of the theorys three key variables, managers can take steps to increase employee motivation. For example, the E P expectancy can be modified in a variety of ways: If a person believes he doesnt have the skills needed to reach a certain level of performance, these perceptions can be changed. His manager might encourage him to get additional training and further practice, and by appropriately guiding and counseling him, build his confidence (thereby influencing his E P expectancy). Employees who believe they are capable of performing well will be more motivated to achieve their goals.**A process theory closely related to expectancy theory, and one that has received considerable recent attention among organizational scholars, is social cognitive theory (SCT), developed by social psychologist Albert Bandura. For our purposes, we will concentrate on one key component of SCT: Self-efficacy. It can be defined as an individuals . . . confidence about his or her abilities to mobilize motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to successfully execute a specific task within a given context. In other words, self-efficacy is the extent to which a person believes he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific situation. It is roughly the equivalent of the EP expectancy in expectancy theory. Such a belief has three dimensions: Magnitude (how difficult the task to be accomplished is), strength (the certainty of its accomplishment), and generality (the extent to which similar but not identical tasks can be accomplished). Research to date appears to show conclusively that when individuals have high self-efficacy beliefs, their work-related performance is better.2*As shown in Exhibit 9.10, SCT proposes four major determinants: They are not mutually exclusive.Enactive Mastery Experience: Succeeding on a similar prior task and attributing that success to ones own capabilities rather than to luck or circumstances.Vicarious Learning/Modeling: Knowledge gained by observing or learning how others successfully perform a task and then modeling ones own behavior in a similar manner.Verbal Persuasion: Statements from others that convince a person that he or she can successfully perform the task.Physiological and Psychological Arousal: Potential energizing forces that can increase self-efficacy beliefs if the focus is directed to the task.*GOAL-SETTING A somewhat different type of process theory that has attracted considerable research attention in recent years is goal-setting theory. Goal-setting theory assumes that human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions. Therefore, as Elizabeth Hayes learned in her supervisory position at AOL, if managers can influence goals and intentions, they can directly affect performance. The level at which goals are set is a potentially powerful determinant of motivation, and obtaining a persons commitment to particular goals is crucial. *If too many specific but difficult goals are set, organization members may face too many conflicting demands at one time and simply select one to pursue and ignore the others. Here, again, it is the total combination of number of goals together with degree of goal difficulty that will be the deciding factor in affecting both the amount and direction of motivation. The accompanying table in Exhibit 9.11 poses a set of useful questions for managers to ask themselves before starting on goal-setting activities with those who report to them, and indicates why these questions are important to consider. The major conclusion regarding all of the research that has been carried out to date on goal-setting is that it offers potential advantages for motivating increased performance, but it is definitely not a simple panacea suitable for all occasions and in all types of situations.*Events that happen to people following their behaviorthe consequence of their performancecan reinforce their tendencies to continue or discontinue that behavior. The consequences can be positive, neutral, or negative and can vary from insignificant to overwhelming. The deliberate and appropriate application of them, however, provides a manager with a potentially powerful set of motivational tools.*A positive reinforcement, sometimes referred to as a reward, is a desirable consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future. In many instances, the use of positive reinforcements, such as a manager praising an employee for good performance, strengthens the likelihood of that behavior in the future, especially if the subordinate does not see such praise as routine or insincere. However, positive consequences also can inadvertently reinforce behavior that is not wanted. For example, an employee might take a risky shortcut to achieve an important performance goal. If the employees manager does not realize that the shortcut behavior occurred and congratulates the person for reaching the goal, the risky behavior is also being reinforced.*The removal of undesirable, or negative, consequencesthat is, consequences a person performing an act does not wantcan increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future. Removing undesirable consequences is referred to as negative reinforcement, just as the addition of desirable consequences is called a positive reinforcement. In both cases, they are reinforcing if they cause behavior to be maintained or increased. For example, a salesperson working in a sales territory with very difficult and demanding customers finds that, by putting in extra effort, the unpleasant experiences he has been encountering are reduced when he is transferred to a different territory. If he believes the transfer or promotion was a result of his hard work, the removal of the undesirable consequences (the difficult territory with difficult customers) has reinforced the likelihood that he will try hard to please his customers in his new territory. In this instance, both the company and the salesperson benefited from the negative reinforcement.*A punishment is an unwanted consequence that follows undesirable behavior that is intended to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. In some organizations, punishments are seen as an effective way to prevent unwanted behavior. However, many other organizations discourage punishment, often because their use is seen as either inappropriate or ineffective. Also, punishment can have the inadvertent effect of increasing behavior that isnt wanted. For example, punishing employees for absenteeism may result in more sophisticated excuses rather than better attendance. This example illustrates that it is typically quite difficult in organizations to make sure that punishments have only the intended effects managers wantand no reinforcement of undesirable behavior. *Another way to decrease undesirable behaviors is to avoid providing any positive consequences as the result of that behavior. This process is referred to as extinction. It is a well demonstrated research finding, and a fact of everyday work life, that behaviors that do not lead to positive reinforcements tend not to be repeated, or at least not repeated as much. Managers can use the principle of extinction to their advantage by deliberately not reinforcing employee behavior that they consider undesirable. For example, a manager deliberately might refrain from reacting positively to a tasteless joke. ****No analysis of motivation in the work setting can be complete without considering how peoples values and fundamental attitudes affect their work. These values and attitudes are especially sensitive to cultural differences within a country or across countries. Thus, to understand motivational issues in an international workforce or a diverse domestic workforce, managers need to pay attention to these differences.Understanding how different groups or cultures view the meaning of work, that is, how much the activity of working is valued, helps us to gain additional insight into motivational differences across cultures. The famous sociologist Max Weber was one of the first persons to point out these differences. Weber contended that in the Christian countries of his era (the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries), Protestant religious values emphasized hard work and the accumulation of wealth. This idea led him to coin the well-known phrase Protestant work ethic. According to Weber, many people in the United States and in northern European countries were assumed to be guided by such an ethic, whether or not they were literally Protestants.*No analysis of motivation in the work setting can be complete without considering how peoples values and fundamental attitudes affect their work. These values and attitudes are especially sensitive to cultural differences within a country or across countries. Thus, to understand motivational issues in an international workforce or a diverse domestic workforce, managers need to pay attention to these differences.Understanding how different groups or cultures view the meaning of work, that is, how much the activity of working is valued, helps us to gain additional insight into motivational differences across cultures. The famous sociologist Max Weber was one of the first persons to point out these differences. Weber contended that in the Christian countries of his era (the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries), Protestant religious values emphasized hard work and the accumulation of wealth. This idea led him to coin the well-known phrase Protestant work ethic. According to Weber, many people in the United States and in northern European countries were assumed to be guided by such an ethic, whether or not they were literally Protestants.*Additional information for discussion: Alma mater: University of Texas at Austin (BA.)Outside work activities: Reading, movies, museums, and yogaHero: Educators in general

Ever since Elizabeth Hayes graduated from college, her career track has primarily combined the worlds of education and business. After spending her first several postgraduate years teaching high-school English, she went to work for a major college textbook publishing company as a developmental editor and associate acquisitions editor. After several years, Hayes decided to leave the publishing industry and join Texas Instruments as a product manager in the companys education division. From that job she moved to a position as a programming director of education service at America Online, Inc. (AOL). At AOL, Hayes was responsible for the editorial vision, integrity, and product direction of a no-cost web portal that K12 educators can use to find the right online resources and tools they need. She was also responsible for building the product and AOLs brand identity, identifying and working with strategic partners, and supervising programming staff. In this latter role, one of the biggest managerial challenges she faced was keeping her remotely located subordinates consistently motivated and challenged. As virtual employees, these subordinates often feel like they are left out and missing out on things happening in the office. Furthermore, with employees working at off-site locations, there is always the potential one of them will take advantage of being unobserved and avoid (for a while, at least) accountability.

Rest of the Story: After her AOL experience, Hayes made a career change and is now a corporate trainer and instructional designer for the mortgage industry firm Fannie Mae.**

MGMT 500 Chapter 9_ppt_09

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