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M a k ing Pub lic Schoo ls G re a ta k ing Public S chools G r e a t

— For Ev e ry G ir l a nd B oyor Ev e ry G ir l a nd Boy

Gender Equity in the Mathematics and Science Classroom:Confronting the Barriers that Remain



A b o ut t h e a u t h o r

Karen Zittleman (M.A.) is a doctoral candidate in the

School of Education at American University,

Washington, D.C. Her dissertation investigates what

teachers and students know about Title IX and gender

issues along with how well schools comply with the law.Numerous publications reflect her commitment to edu-

cation equity. Her research on curriculum bias in

teacher education textbooks has been published in the

Journal of Teacher Education and Educational

Leadership. Ms. Zittleman has also published a cri-

tique of standardized testing in Phi Delta Kappan and of

single-sex schooling in The Christian Science Monitor.

She has written a Title IX chapter for Gender

Complements, a teacher education curriculum funded

by the Ford Foundation, and coordinated the develop-

ment of a website for that project as well. She has

served as researcher, editor, and author of special fea-

tures for the introductory education textbook Teachers,

Schools, and Society. Two educational film guides also

bear her name: One for A Hero for Daisy about Yale

women’s athletics and Title IX, and another for Apple

Pie: Raising Champions about celebrating the unique

relationship between athletes and their mothers. She

has also taught several Title IX online courses through

the Women’s Educational Equity Act. Ms. Zittleman is

also project manager for Myra Sadker Advocates.

Fo r m o re in fo rm a t io n c on ta c t : Andrea I. Prejean, Ed.D.

Senior Professional Associate for Mathematics/Science

Student Achievement

National Education Association

1201 16th Street, NW

Washington DC 20036

V 202-822-7891 F 202-822-7482





M A KI N G P U B LI C S C H O O L S G R EA T — FO R E V E RY G I R L A N D B O Y

2

Discrimination

against women

in education isone of the most

damaging forms

of prejudice in

our nation for it

deprives a high

proportion of

our people of theopportunity for

equal employ-

ment and equal

participation in

national leader-

ship.

Gender Bias: An Equal OpportunityIssueGender equity in schools and classrooms

generally is assumed to mean creating andsustaining environments in which both

females and males have:

• an equal chance of learning in all sub-

jects,

• equally high learning and academic

expectations communicated to them,

and

• equal opportunities and encouragement

to participate and achieve in courses

that prepare them for further education

and a wide range of career choices.

In recent decades, attempts to eliminate

bias against women and girls have received

significant attention. Women and girls have

historically faced more and greater restric-

tions and barriers than have men and boys,

and, as a result, they have experienced more

negative consequences of gender discrimina-

tion. As Representative Patsy Mink, an early

advocate of gender equity in education,

noted in 1972:

Discrimination against women in education

is one of the most damaging forms of preju-dice in our Nation for it deprives a high pro-

portion of our people of the opportunity for

equal employment and equal participation

in national leadership.3

In fact, however, bias and stereotypes affect

both genders, although in different ways.

Both girls and boys experience unique chal-

lenges that must be addressed so that they

can reach their full potential.

Girls often encounter problems in certain

subjects, such as math, science, and tech

nology. Further, they receive less attention in

the classroom and have fewer opportunitieson the athletic field. Many of these problems

are masked by strong report card grades that

suggest girls are doing just fine. As they

progress through high school and college,

however, women find themselves channeled

into lower-paying careers and occupations.

At first glance, boys may appear to be the

more favored gender — recipients of the

lion's share of time and attention from

teachers, and rich in role models both in

textbooks and in everyday life. With higher

standardized test scores, they win the major-

ity of scholarship dollars and are expected toprepare for successful careers with high

salaries.

Although boys still dominate the top ranks

of the class, they also are more likely to stag-

nate at the bottom. Labeled “problems,” in

need of special control or assistance, boys

are more likely to fail a course, miss promo-

tion, or drop out of school. Even when a

boy’s behavior, or misbehavior, is similar to a

girl’s, he is disciplined more harshly and

more publicly. Boys mature more slowly,

their reading and writing skills lag behind

those of girls, and they are more likely to

drop out of school — particularly if they are

boys of color. Although it is true that more

women than men now enroll in college, the

missing males are not white but African

American, Hispanic, and Native American.4

Clearly sexism is not a “girls only” issue.



Gender (In)Equities in Math andScience: Problems To SolveIs sex discrimination still a problem in our

nation’s schools? Unfortunately, the answeris yes. Research confirms that traditional

gender-based stereotypes and inequities

continue to prevail, limiting the academic

and social development of both females and

males.

For girls, this bias remains especially preva-

lent in math and science subjects, which his-

torically have been dominated by their male

classmates. On the surface, however, even

here one could easily get the impression

that things are moving in the right direction.

For example, it is true that female enroll-

ment in science and mathematics courses

has increased dramatically in recent years.

However, whereas girls are more likely to

take biology, chemistry, trigonometry, and

algebra II, boys still dominate physics, calcu-

lus, and more advanced courses. Boys also

are more likely to take all three core science

courses — biology, chemistry, and physics.5

Similarly, females now take more advanced

placement tests than do boys, except in

math, science, and computer science.However, females lag behind males in

America’s “high stakes” tests — across all

races and ethnicities. This limits women’s

access to educational institutions, financial

aid, and careers. Females score lower on

both the verbal and mathematics sections of

the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT); the math,

science, and computer science advanced-

placement (AP) exams; and the Graduate

Record Exam (GRE) for masters and doctoral

programs.5

Perhaps as a result — even though jobsrequiring math and science skills will

increase by 5.6 million in 2008, — girls are

five times less likely than boys to consider

technology-related careers. Girls from all

ethnic groups rate themselves considerably

lower than do boys on technological ability.8

Despite the positive influences of Title IX,

this disparity is still fostered, wittingly and

unwittingly, by attitudes and practices within

the school system, as well as within societyat large. As early as nursery school, and con-

tinuing through college, boys and girls sit in

the same classroom, listen to the same

teachers, and use the same textbooks — but,

when it comes to mathematics and science,

they experience substantially different edu-

cations.

Consider:

• By the third grade, 51 percent of boys have used a microscope

in class, in contrast to just 37 percent of girls.9

• Girls are more likely to be found in word-processing and cleri-

cal-support programs. Girls also are less likely to use comput-

ers outside of school, and girls from all ethnic groups rate

themselves considerably lower than do boys on technological

ability. Current software products are more likely to reinforce

these gender stereotypes and biases rather than reduce

them.10

• Children’s science programs feature three times as many male

as female characters and twice as many adult male scientists

as female scientists. Of the female characters, most are por-

trayed in secondary roles such as lab assistants or students.11

• Boys receive more math- and science-related toys than do

girls.12

• In sixth and seventh grades, girls rate popularity as more

important than academic competence or independence.13

• A recent study found that 71 percent of male teachers are

more likely to attribute boys’ success in technology to talent,

while dismissing girls’ success as due solely to luck or dili-

gence.14

• Vocational training programs channel girls and women into

low-wage jobs. Students in cosmetology, child care, and

health care programs are more than 85 percent female, where-

as more than 90 percent of males are clustered in traditionally

male — and higher paying — courses in technology and

industrial trades, such as carpentry and plumbing.15

GENDER EQUITY IN THE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE CLASSROOM: CONFRONTING THE BARRIERS THAT REMA



Given the climate of lower expectations and

more limited opportunities, girls grow

increasingly alienated in these classrooms.

In elementary school, both males andfemales report that they like math and

science, and their test scores are compara-

ble. Yet, by the 12th grade, females report

less positive attitudes and consider math

and science harder subjects than do boys.16

Teachers and administrators sincerely

appear to be committed to carrying out

the mandates of Title IX. Yet gender bias

continues to permeate attitudes and prac-

tices both in the classroom and in the dis-

trict. Many forms of subtle discrimination

seem to be embedded in the system itself,

the result of centuries of accumulated

assumptions.

Here are some common examples of ways

in which gender bias still influences teach-

ing and learning today.

• Classroom interactions: Who’s talking?

Many teachers still inadvertently favor

boys in their classroom interactions.

Research reveals that teachers call on

boys more often than girls, wait longer

for boys’ answers, and engage boys

when they call out.

The quality of feedback males and

females receive from teachers also

often differs. Girls receive comments

for neatness, whereas boys are more

likely to receive praise and criticism

for the intellectual quality of their

efforts. The good news: Research also

shows that when teachers are aware of

their biased classroom behaviors and

practice equitable instruction, the

gender gaps in interaction diminish.17

• Attributions: Boys are smart, girls are lucky.

Boys typically attribute their achieve-

ments to intelligence and their fail-

ures to luck or insufficient effort. In

contrast, many girls believe their suc-

cesses are due to luck and their fail-

ures to inability.18 Girls’ negative

attributions can become harmful self-

fulfilling prophecies: Trying harder orrisking a new approach will not make

much difference if you believe you

simply are not smart enough.

Even gifted and talented girls report

less confidence in their academic

skills, especially in math and science.

The Illinois Valedictorian Project fol-

lowed the progress of nearly 100

young men and women who graduat-

ed at the top of their classes. After

four years of college, students of both

sexes had continued their high aca-demic performance. Yet when asked to

describe their level of intelligence, 25

percent of the men perceived them-

selves as “far above average,” whereas

not a single woman did, despite earn-

ing higher grades.19 Even our most

talented girls and women are too

often discouraged from reaching their

full potential.

Special Alert! How Classroom Behaviors Feed the Gender Gap




• Act like a girl. Social pressures to act in stereo-

typed gender roles increase as students enter

adolescence, a time when peer acceptance often

takes priority over academic success. Many girlsbelieve they will be unpopular if they are per-

ceived as intelligent or good at math and sci-

ence. As a result, they submit to pressure to be

“feminine” — not too smart or too good at “boy

stuff.”

In math and science classrooms, boys more fre-

quently use scientific instruments and computers

than do girls, even when girls express interest in

participating. In one study, boys carried out 79

percent of student-led science demonstrations,

whereas girls were 300 percent more likely to be

the group note takers.20

Teachers also encourage boys to persist and

solve problems, but they unintentionally finish

tasks for girls who hit a roadblock. Consequently,

girls learn that they are less capable of finding

solutions on their own.

• Expecting less than the best. Many teachers, coun-

selors, and parents still unwittingly buy into

stereotypes of girls as less capable than boys in

math and science. These assumptions are not

new: In 1873, Harvard scholar Edward Clarke

described how females would exhaust their

reproductive energies trying to keep up with their

male classmates, damaging their brains and

becoming candidates for mental problems.

Women were presented with a choice: algebra or

ovaries.21

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, Teen Talk

Barbie perpetuated the myth when she pro-

claimed, “math is hard.”

Even when girls today take math and science

courses and do well in them, they do not receivethe encouragement they need to pursue scientific

careers.22

When girls are not exposed to books, toys, and

computer software that stimulate scientific and

mathematical thinking; when they are not

encouraged to voice their ideas and questions;

and when they are not shown the importance of

these subjects, they are likely to lose interest —

if they ever become curious at all.

• Testing and assessment: What’s the right answer?

Gender differences in achievement may be the

result of bias in the testing process. Girls are less

likely to take the risk and guess at multiple-choice questions than are boys, and they do less

well in competitive timed test situations.

Research also shows that tests tend to reflect

male interests, refer less to women, or present

women in stereotypical roles. Girls tend to have

more success with real-life application problems

and with process skill questions.23

When test content does not reflect girls’ knowl-

edge and learning styles, their scores are artifi-

cially low. In contrast, authentic measurements,

such as performance assessments and portfolios,

assess what students know in real-life contexts,encourage both girls and boys to reflect on their

work, and are integrated into the whole learning

process. Authentic assessment captures diverse

learning styles and works well for both girls and

boys.

• Textbook bias. Curriculum materials that still use

male-biased language, content, and illustrations

reinforce mathematics and science as male

domains. Older texts, such as Mary Budd Rowe's

Teaching Science as Continuous Inquiry (1978), assert-

ed that just being female was “a special handi-

cap” in science. The text informed readers that

girls “know less, do less, explore less, and are

prone to be more superstitious than boys.”

Today’s science and math methods texts avoid

such overt and harmful stereotypes, but they are

far from bias-free.24 Biased and stereotyped

messages are embedded in books — in textual

presentation, misrepresentation, or simply lack

of presentation — at all levels, from picture

books to professional studies, and not only

about genders but also about numerous other

groups.25

(See Toolbox: Are Your Curriculum MaterialsBias Free?)





6

When teachers recognize these instances of

unconscious bias in their own practices, they

are willing and eager to address them. Hereare nine areas you may wish to examine,

along with some ideas for making each area

more equitable for both girls and boys.

• Call on different students. Many teachers are

so focused on getting an answer, and

getting it quickly, that they call on the

“quickest hand,” which is usually

attached to a male. This typically keeps

the same students involved and slower

hand raisers and thoughtful thinkers

remain outside the conversation.

Instead of calling on the first hand in

the air, choose instead to pick the third

or fifth or seventh hand raised. Teachers

may also ask students to choose among

their peers to answer questions so that

one student calls on another. Whatever

strategies are used, the key is to keep all

students actively involved.

• Use wait time deliberately. Many teachers

are familiar with wait times 1 and 2, but

may not be aware of just how the con-

cepts can help teach girls and boys

more equitably.

Wait time 1 is the silence between a

teacher’s question and a student’s

response — typically, less than a sec-

ond. Research suggests that when

teachers pose a higher order question,

they should increase wait time to three,

four, or even five seconds. These longer

wait times lead to more careful thinking

and more accurate answers. A longer

wait time also gives the teacher more

time to consider who to call on, to thinkabout which students have not spoken,

and to avoid the tendency to call on the

first hand raised.

Wait time 2 is the period after the stu-

dent’s answer and before a teacher

reacts to that answer. Research shows

that boys typically get more precise and

thoughtful teacher reactions. Extending

wait time 2 to three, four, or five sec-

onds gives teachers the opportunity to

reflect more thoughtfully on all stu-

dents’ answers and to provide girls withthe same specific, helpful feedback that

they give to boys.

• Balance your curriculum. Use books and

stories that show girls and women in

strong, nonstereotyped roles, from doc-

tors to computer programmers to engi-

neers. If you are teaching a unit or using

a text that lacks female representation,

ask students to fill in the missing pages

and research the role women play or

played in that area. The Internet is a rich

source of women’s biographies, and

4000 Years of Women in Science

(www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/4000WS.html)

is a terrific place to begin filling in the gap.

• Raise student awareness of the bias. Challenge

students to create ways to remove the

bias and to create more equitable text-

books. Extend this activity by asking stu-

dents to identify bias in magazines,

television programming, and on the

Internet.

Classroom Strategies for Gender Equity Success



• Put walls to work. Classroom displays

communicate daily messages about

what is valued. Walls decorated mostly

with pictures of caucasian men in math,science, and technology (or in history,

literature, and athletics) send one mes-

sage; displays that include females and

males from diverse racial and ethnic

groups engaging in a variety of activities

send quite another. What messages are

your classroom walls sending? Survey

the school displays for equal representa-

tion of all groups. Ask your students to

work with you — let them know that you

make gender equity a priority.

• Promote collaboration. Working in groups oftwo to five can provide a comfortable

environment for shy girls and boys who

may be intimidated by speaking in front

of the entire class. But a small group is

no guarantee of equity. Research

describes how in cooperative learning

groups girls tend to assist both other

girls and boys, whereas boys are more

likely to help only other boys. In addi-

tion, some students (usually boys) may

dominate the group, while others (usu-

ally girls) are quiet. Some boys need to

learn how to ask questions — especiallyunsuccessful boys who prefer to “tough

it out” rather than admit that there is

something they do not know. It is impor-

tant for teachers to monitor groups and

intervene if these inequitable patterns

emerge.

• Ensure equal access to hands-on learning. Do

both boys and girls in your classroom

have an equal opportunity and receive

equal support when using manipula-

tives, calculators, or computers? Hands-

on activities with open-ended learning

opportunities encourage interest and

understanding, and make your class-

room a fun place to learn. But take care

during these authentic learning activi-

ties: Teachers can be too helpful, espe-

cially with girls.

• Beware the self-fulfilling prophecy. In

Principles and Standards for School

Mathematics, the National Council for

Teachers of Mathematics declares,

“Excellence in mathematics education

requires equity — high expectations andstrong support for all students.”26 Yet

thoughtless behavior and comments can

unintentionally create two very different

classroom realities, one for girls and

another for boys. If a teacher expects

boys to succeed and girls to struggle in

science, technology, or math, the stu-

dents will quickly pick up on these

expectations.

Of course, self-fulfilling prophecies can

be positive as well. A teacher who prais-

es a student’s special talent or skill cre-

ates memories that can last a lifetime.

When you “catch” a girl doing well on a

science or math project, offer a support-

ive comment and put that self-fulfilling

prophecy to work in a constructive way.

• Give girls a helping hand. A female positive

role model is often cited as the most

important factor for cultivating and sus-

taining girls’ interests in math and sci-

ence. Through other women of achieve-

ment, girls can see themselves as capa-ble mathematicians and scientists, chal-

lenging the stereotype of a scientist as a

caucasian male in a lab coat. Mentors

also can help girls with scientific and

mathematical concepts, open their eyes

to an array of scientific fields, give them

a realistic sense of the vast challenges

and reward of various occupations, and

map educational paths to math and sci-

ence careers.





8

Consider the following scenario:

Ariel is struggling with programing her graphing calculator. Sheis a terrific student but anxious to use her calculator. The

teacher, thrilled with Ariel’s motivation, walks over and enters the

correct settings, remarking, “Now you can do it!” At first glance,

it may seem that the teacher is facilitating learning. However, by

programming the calculator for Ariel rather than showing Ariel

how to do it for herself, the teacher is actually encouraging

learned helplessness. A better approach would be for the teacher

to guide and encourage Ariel to use the graphing calculator herself, offering suggestion when appropriate.

Invite women working as scientists,

engineers, mathematicians, or computer

scientists to speak with your class. Askthe women to talk about their careers,

describe the nature of their work, dis-

cuss the rewards and challenges, and

share what it is like to be a woman in

this field. Learning about women’s expe-

riences offers a more complete under-

standing of women’s contributions —

beneficial lessons for girls and boys.

Role models can also be found in curric-

ular resources that share the stories andcontributions of women in math and sci-

ence. Create with your students a promi-

nent bulletin board or monthly display

that showcases the contributions

women have made to mathematics, sci-

ence, and technology. (See Toolbox: Finding

Role Models)

Gender Bias: An Equal Opportunity Issue



Here are a selection of ideas, self-assessments, and other materials that you can use to

help eliminate gender bias from your school and classroom.

PA R T 2 : A G E N D ER E Q U I TY T O O LB O X

Toolbox

Item 1. Are Your Curriculum Materials Bias Free?

Here are some ways that gender bias infiltrates today’s textbooks and other materials. How

many of these appear in the ones you use?

• Stereotyping. Stereotypes cast males as active, assertive, and curious, while portraying

females as dependable, conforming, and obedient. Be alert to these in all classroom

materials.

• Invisibility. Textbooks published prior to the 1960s largely omit African Americans,

Latinos, Asian Americans, and other groups. Many of today’s textbooks continue to give

minimal treatment to women and other groups.

• Imbalance and selectivity. Sometimes a curriculum presents only one interpretation of an

issue, situation, or group of people, simplifying and distorting complex issues by omit-

ting different perspectives. When math and science texts refer only to discoveries and

formulas by men, they present incomplete pictures of scientific inquiry. For example,

one of the co-inventors of the historic cotton gin was a woman, Katherine Littlefield

Greene. But because women were not allowed to register patents, Eli Whitney received

the patent — and the sole credit in history texts ever after.

• Unreality. Textbooks have gained a sort of notoriety for glossing over unpleasant facts

and controversial events. When discussions of sexual or racial discrimination are dis-

missed in texts as remnants of a bygone day, students receive a distorted version of the

facts.

• Fragmentation and isolation. Some of today’s texts relegate discussion of contributions bywomen or minorities to special inserts or even chapters, for example, “Ten Women

Achievers in Science.” Instead of highlighting their work, this fragmentation presents

these groups and topics as peripheral — less important than the main narrative. Try to

work such discussion into routine instruction.

• Cosmetic bias. Some textbooks prominently display images of women and other groups,

while virtually ignoring them in the text. This cosmetic bias offers an “illusion of equity”

to teachers and students who may casually flip throught the pages of a textbook with-

out noticing that the bias persists in the content.




A G E N D ER E Q U IT Y T O O LB O X

1 0

Item 2. Finding Role Models

These Web sites offer a wealth of biographies and will open doors to the world of women in

math and science:• The National Women’s History Project: Math and Science (www.nwhp.org)

• Archives of Women in Science and Technology (www.lib.iastate.edu/spcl/wise/wise)

• The Role Model Project for Girls (www.womenswork.org/girls/index.html)

• 4000 Years of Women in Science (www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/4000WS.html)

• Women of NASA (questdb.arc.nasa.gov/content_search_women.htm)

Item 3. Grade Your School

Gender bias has been described as “a syntax of sexism so elusive that most teachers and

students were completely unaware of its influence.”27

This quick list will help educators and administrators identify barriers to equity in math andscience in their schools, as well as help them take steps to create gender-fair education.

In your classroom, do you …1. use language that is inclusive of all kinds of students? For example, do you say

“firefighter,” not “fireman,” or “server,” instead of “waiter” or “waitress”? Do you use

both male and female pronouns instead of the generic “he” or “him”?

2. allow adequate wait time (3–5 seconds) for students to answer a question?

3. hold high expectations for, and communicate those expectations to, all students?

4. find ways to engage all students in class discussions and hands-on activities, eventhose who are more quiet or passive?

5. analyze your interactions with students to check for biased language and stereotyp-

ing? For example, do you automatically assume all boys will be rowdy or boisterous

and try to control such situations before they start? Or, when a girl stands up for

herself or is competitive, would you characterize her behavior as aggressive or abra-

sive?

6. use software that is free of harmful gender or other stereotypes in language or

characterization?

7. structure and monitor problem-solving activities so that they are

cooperative-collaborative rather than competitive?

8. challenge all students with higher order questions?

9. encourage girls to be confident in their abilities as mathematicians and scientists?

10. encourage girls to pursue math and science in high school, college, and beyond?




Does your school …

1. monitor enrollment in science and math classes by gender?

What patterns emerge? Is there equity in some subject areas? Where does progress

still need to be made?

Tip: Brainstorm strategies with colleagues to ensure that all

students are encouraged to pursue science and math courses.

2. collect data on standardized test scores by gender?

What patterns emerge? Is there equity in some subject areas? Where does progress

still need to be made?

3. have programs that encourage girls and other under-represented groups to partici-

pate in upper-level math and science courses?

What is effective about these initiatives, and what can be improved?

4. give all students the same information about scholarships, special programs, and

college requirements for science, math, and technology majors?

How are students made aware of these resources?

What steps are taken to alert females and males?

5. have classrooms and a school library that include ample books and media about

the contributions of both men and women of various ethnic or demographic groups

in science, mathematics, and technology?

How are faculty and students made aware of these resources?

What support does the school librarian need to include such materials?




1 2

Item 4. Now It’s Your Turn!

Consider the strategies for equity success discussed in this paper.

• How will you use these in your classroom?• What efforts can you add to the list?

• What steps will you take to strengthen gender equity in your classroom and school

and to further your understanding of equity in math and science education?

Create pledge cards, contracts, or action plans that encourage equitable instruction and

opportunities. Answer the following questions to help make your action plan work:

• What is my goal?

• What are barriers to reaching this goal?

• What support and resources will help me keep these commitments?

• How will I assess that I have reached my goal?

Item 5. Putting Knowledge into Action: How Will You Break These Gender Barriers?

The following vignettes describe actual events confronted by math and science teachers.

Consider how you would respond to each.

1. Zoe is one of your best middle school math students, and you encouraged her to sign

up for advanced mathematics next year. Today Zoe stays after class to discuss her deci-

sion with you. “I’ve talked with my friends about taking advanced math next year. They

all say advanced is tough, that boys tease you if you don’t know an answer, and that

only dorky girls take it. My stomach gets butterflies just thinking about being in

advanced math. I don’t think I can do it. Plus, my parents think math is not for young

ladies and worry I will not like it or be accepted.”

As Zoe’s teacher, how do you respond?

2. Maura is eager to begin your introductory physics course, and already envisions con-

structing a hologram or a wheel chair lift for disabled students as her final project. She

even has her brother’s graphing calculator to help with the difficult mathematical equa-

tions she will encounter. Yet as Maura flips through the pages of her textbook, her

enthusiasm quickly wanes. There are neither pictures of women nor any mention of the

contributions of female physicists. She asks you, “Do I really belong in a physics class?”

How do you answer? Why?

3. Harold is struggling in math, but he continues to make real efforts. He has been work-

ing on a fractions division problem for some time. He finally comes to you for help.

What do you do? Why? Would you do anything differently if this student were female?

Why or why not?

4. Your class is dissecting fetal pigs, but Angela and Katrina don’t want to because it is

“gross.”

How do you respond? Why?



5. Rebecca’s friends nicknamed her “computer whiz” after she installed memory chips and

a CD burner into her family’s computer. Her high school offers a career education track,

and Rebecca decided to explore her options as a computer technician at Career Day.

At the event, though, she was disappointed when speakers and materials promote nurs-ing and child care as good careers for females and computer repair and electrical engi-

neering as male endeavors. She now wonders if her goal is unrealistic and grabs materi-

al on cosmetology.

How do you respond? Why?

Item 6. On the Web: Effective Programs for Teachers and Students

Advocates for Women in Science, Engineering and Mathematics(www.saturdayacademy.pdx.edu/awsem/)

AWSEM is an after-school project designed to link middle school girls with role models.

Girls meet for hands-on science activities, presentations, and field trips.

Association for Women in Mathematics (www.awm-math.org/)

AWM is a nonprofit organization dedicated to encouraging women and girls in the mathe-

matical sciences. Resources for teachers and students include biographies, awards, scholar-

ships, and other resources.

Association for Women in Science (www.awise.org/)

AWIS is dedicated to achieving equity and full participation for women in science, mathe-

matics, engineering, and technology. Check the site for information on the scientist of the

month, mentoring, scholarships, book reviews, and discussion forum.

Color Math Pink (www.colormathpink.com)

The Color Math Pink site is designed to help middle school girls excel at math. It connects

girls with peer tutors to assist with homework and with mentors to explore career options.

Teachers also will find a wealth of lesson plans and instructional ideas to engage girls in

math.

Cyber Sisters (www.cyber-sisters.org)

An educational tele-mentoring program in science, math, and technology for middle school girls.

Design Your Future (www.autodesk.com/dyf/dyfmain2.html)

This site is designed to encourage girls to explore careers related to science, math, and

technology. It contains e-mentoring, information about working women, and more.

EQUALS (www.lhs.berkeley.edu/equals/)EQUALS programs work to increase access and equity in mathematics for all students, par-

ticularly girls and under-represented groups. With attention to gender and race, class, and

culture, EQUALS presents ways of learning and thinking about mathematics that help build

access and success for all students.





1 4

Engaging Middle School Girls in Math and Science (www.edc.org/WomensEquity/)

This eight-week online course for teachers focuses on building classroom environments that

support girls’ achievement in math and science. It explores ways to increase girls’ interest in

math and science and examines factors that affect their achievement levels. Topics includegender in math and science classrooms, equitable expectations and interactions, equitable

teaching strategies, and equity in assessment.

Girls Start (www.girlstart.org)

Girls Start provides a supportive and empowering atmosphere in which girls perform hands-

on activities with robots, microscopes, environmental science, math, engineering, and tech-

nology. Girls learn science, math, engineering, and technology concepts in a fun and ener-

getic environment. The Girls Start Web site features activities for girls, as well as resources

for teachers and parents.

Operation SMART (www.girlsinc-houston.org/smart.htm)

Created by Girls Inc., Operation SMART builds girls’ skills and interest in science, math, and

technology. Hands-on activities give girls the opportunity to explore, ask questions, andsolve problems.

Sally Ride Science Club (www.sallyrideclub.com/dynamic/public_home.jsp)

Sally Ride created this organization for girls who like science, math, and technology. It is

open to upper elementary and middle school girls across the country. The club enables girls

to consult with experts and role models, exchange ideas, collaborate with peers, and

embark a vast array of online and off-line activities.

Books:

Jo Sanders. 1994. Lifting the Barriers, 600 Strategies That Really Work to Increase Girls’ Participation in

Science, Mathematics and Computers. Seattle: Jo Sanders Press. Available at

www.josanders.com

Before You Go …

The attitudes that keep females from pursuing careers in mathematics and science are the

same attitudes that for generations kept women from voting, flying airplanes, playing pro-

fessional sports, and holding political offices. Like countless other activities, women have

shown that they are not only capable of pursuing these endeavors, but of excelling at them.

Expecting the best from every student in math and science includes recognizing the diverse

intellectual energy each girl and each boy bring to the world. The questions they ask along

the way may open the doors to discoveries that will change all of our lives. By nourishing in

these children a sense of competence, ownership, and excitement about these subjects, wegive them the greatest gift we can — not only the possibility of becoming mathematicians

and scientists but of becoming fully human.




1 National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education. 2002. Title IX at 30: Report card on

gender equity; National Center for Education Statistics. 2002. Digest of Education Statistics.

2 Karen Zittleman and David Sadker. Dec. 2002/Jan. 2003.Teacher education and gender

equity: The unfinished revolution. Educational Leadership 60(4): 59–62.3 Patsy Mink. 1971. Congressional Record 117-2658.

4 David Sadker. 2002. An educator’s primer to the gender war. Phi Delta Kappan 84 (3):

235–240; National Center for Education Statistics. 2002. Digest of Education Statistics;

National Center for Education Statistics. 2000. Trends in educational equity for girls and

women.


gender equity; National Center for Education Statistics. 2002. Digest of Education Statistics.

6 Educational Testing Service. 2001. Differences in the gender gap: Comparisons across racial/ethnic

groups in education and work; National Center for Education Statistics. 2000. Trends in

educational equity for girls and women.

7 National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching in the 21st Century. 2000.Before it’s too late: A report to the nation.


gender equity.

9 National Center for Education Statistics. 2002. Elementary and secondary education: An

international prospective.

10 American Association of University Women. 2000. Tech-Savvy: Educating girls in the new

computer age.

11 Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities

in Science, Engineering, and Technology, 2001.

12 National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, 2000.

13National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, 2000.

14 American Association of University Women. 2000. Tech-Savvy: Educating girls in the new

computer age.

15 National Women’s Law Center. 2002. Title IX and equal opportunity in vocational and technical

education: A promise still owed to the nation’s young women. Retrieved on March 6, 2003, from

http://www.nwlc.org/pdf/TitleIXCareerEducationReport.pdf

16 National Center for Education Statistics. 2000. Trends in educational equity for girls and women.

17Gail M. Jones and Thomas M. Gerig. 1994. Silent sixth-grade students: Characteristics,

achievement, and teacher expectations. The Elementary School Journal 95:169–182; Myra

and David Sadker. 1995. Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls. New York:

Touchstone; Myra and David Sadker. 2003. Questioning skills. In Classroom Teaching Skills,

edited by James M. Cooper, 7th ed.

18 Sandra Hanson. 1996. Lost talent: Women in the sciences. Philadelphia: Temple University; J. K.

Swim & L. J. Sanna. 1996. He’s skilled, she’s lucky: A meta-analysis of observers’ attribu-

tions for women’s and men’s successes and failures. Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin 22(5): 507–519.

19 Karen Arnold. 1995. Lives of promise: What becomes of high school valedictorians. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.


gender equity.




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21 Edward Clarke. 1873. Sex in education: Or a fair chance for girls.

22 Myra and David Sadker. 1995. Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls. New York:

Touchstone; Jo Sanders. 1994. Lifting the barriers: 600 strategies that really work to increase girls’

participation in science, mathematics and computers. Seattle: Jo Sanders Press.23 Educational Testing Service. 2001. Differences in the gender gap: Comparisons across racial/ethnic

groups in education and work. Princeton, NJ; National Coalition for Women and Girls in

Education. 2002. Title IX at 30: Report card on gender equity.

24 Connie Nobles and Shirley McDonald. 1996. Equity under the microscope: Forgotten

women in math and science. School Library Journal 42:28–29.

25 Adapted from Myra and David Sadker. 2003. Seven forms of bias. In Teachers, Schools, and

Society; and from Karen Zittleman and David Sadker. Dec. 2002/Jan. 2003. Teacher educa-

tion and gender equity: The unfinished revolution. Educational Leadership, 60(4): 59–62.

26 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics

http://standards.nctm.org/document/chapter2/equity.htm.

27 Myra and David Sadker. 1995. Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls. New York:Touchstone, 2.



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