MEXICAN AMERICANS

MEXICAN MEXICAN AMERICANSAMERICANS

CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8

• LatinosLatinos• Persons whose national origins (or Persons whose national origins (or

whose ancestors’ national origins) are whose ancestors’ national origins) are in the countries of Latin Americain the countries of Latin America

• Caribbean, Central and South AmericaCaribbean, Central and South America

• HispanicHispanic• An English word derived from An English word derived from HispaniaHispania

• Roman name for SpainRoman name for Spain

THE CONQUEST PERIOD, THE CONQUEST PERIOD, 1500-18531500-1853

• In 1500s, Spaniards conquered; sought In 1500s, Spaniards conquered; sought to Catholicize indigenous population in to Catholicize indigenous population in Mexico and southwestern U.S. for Mexico and southwestern U.S. for economic exploitationeconomic exploitation

• Offspring of sexual liaisonsOffspring of sexual liaisons• MestizosMestizos

• Mixed peopleMixed people• Outnumbered colonizersOutnumbered colonizers

Depiction of casta system in Mexico from the Museo Nacional del Virreinato.

Las castas. Anonymous, 18th century, oil on canvas, Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotl, Mexico.

Casta Paintings: Inventing Race Through ArtMexican Art Genre Reveals 18th-Century Attitudes on Racial Mixing - June 2004 LA County Museum of Art

The upper-class Spaniards views on race, class and skin color during the 1700s, when Mexico was a colony of Spain…

"De Espaniol y Albina, Torna Atras" = "From a Spaniard and Albino, return backwards."

The Texas Revolt: (1820-1830s)The Texas Revolt: (1820-1830s)

• Mexican government: freed enslaved people Mexican government: freed enslaved people and placed restrictions on U.S. immigration,and placed restrictions on U.S. immigration,

• Texas rebellion Texas rebellion • U.S. settlers go beyond an existing boundary and U.S. settlers go beyond an existing boundary and

intentionally aim to create new territory (Texas intentionally aim to create new territory (Texas portion of Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas)portion of Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas)

• 1836 Republic of Texas; 1845 joins US1836 Republic of Texas; 1845 joins US• 1848 Mexico surrenders ($15 million)1848 Mexico surrenders ($15 million)• Treaty of Guadalupe HidalgoTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

1821 Mexican independence1830s Anglo American presence

The Mexican Cession agreed by Mexico (White) and the Gadsden Purchase (Brown). Part of the area marked as Gadsden Purchase near modern-day Mesilla, New Mexico, was disputed after the Treaty. (1853)

California and New MexicoCalifornia and New Mexico

• Discovery of gold in 1849 led U.S. Discovery of gold in 1849 led U.S. Anglos to enter CaliforniaAnglos to enter California

• At the time of acquisition, the 50,000 At the time of acquisition, the 50,000 Mexicans in what is now New Mexico Mexicans in what is now New Mexico had long maintained cultural traditionshad long maintained cultural traditions

• Soon many lost their lands to invading Soon many lost their lands to invading whiteswhites

PAST AND PRESENT IMMIGRATIONPAST AND PRESENT IMMIGRATION

• Immigrants include:Immigrants include:• Those with official visasThose with official visas• Undocumented Immigrants or IllegalsUndocumented Immigrants or Illegals

• Immigrants without legal immigration papersImmigrants without legal immigration papers• BracerosBraceros

• Seasonal farmers on contractSeasonal farmers on contract• Commuters Commuters

• Those with official visas that live in Mexico but work in Those with official visas that live in Mexico but work in U.S.U.S.

• ““Border Crossers”Border Crossers”• Domestic workers with short-term permitsDomestic workers with short-term permits

Braceros and Undocumented Workers: Braceros and Undocumented Workers: Encouraging ImmigrationEncouraging Immigration

• 1924 Immigration Act; 1929 “illegal entry” is 1924 Immigration Act; 1929 “illegal entry” is a felonya felony

• 1942 Emergency Farm Labor (Braceros) 1942 Emergency Farm Labor (Braceros) AgreementAgreement• Between U.S .and Mexico to provide Mexican Between U.S .and Mexico to provide Mexican

workers for agricultureworkers for agriculture• Today they are not rural migrants but come Today they are not rural migrants but come

from urban areas in Mexicofrom urban areas in Mexico• U.S. economy depends on immigrants from U.S. economy depends on immigrants from

Latin AmericaLatin America• ““Backbone”Backbone” of Dole, Green Giant, McDonalds, of Dole, Green Giant, McDonalds,

Burger King, Del Monte, etc.Burger King, Del Monte, etc.

• U.S. involvement in Latin America long U.S. involvement in Latin America long involved U.S. government and major involved U.S. government and major corporationscorporations

• Most immigrants Most immigrants pulledpulled by U.S. jobs by U.S. jobs• PushedPushed by serious economic problems by serious economic problems• Maquiladoras Maquiladoras (1960s)(1960s)

• Manufacturing operations in Northern Manufacturing operations in Northern Mexico near the U.S. border, where they Mexico near the U.S. border, where they can take advantage of low-wage labor can take advantage of low-wage labor and weak environmental standards and weak environmental standards while avoiding certain tariffs and dutieswhile avoiding certain tariffs and duties

On Maquiladoras…Corp Watch

http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=1528

On vioence against women…

Femicide along the border

http://www.libertadlatina.org/Crisis_Lat_Mexico_Juarez_Femicide.htm

• NAFTA – North American Free Trade NAFTA – North American Free Trade AgreementAgreement• Accelerated U.S. investment and Accelerated U.S. investment and

manufacturing in Mexicomanufacturing in Mexico

• Approx 12 million undocumentedApprox 12 million undocumented• Most are temporary labor migrants caught by Most are temporary labor migrants caught by

INS and do not intend to live in U.S.INS and do not intend to live in U.S.• Large reverse flow into Mexico goes unnoticed Large reverse flow into Mexico goes unnoticed

and unreportedand unreported• Most pay more in income and other taxes than Most pay more in income and other taxes than

they receive in government benefitsthey receive in government benefits

• 1986 Immigration and Reform Control 1986 Immigration and Reform Control Act (IRCA)Act (IRCA)• Legalization of undocumented immigrants in Legalization of undocumented immigrants in

U.S. since 1982U.S. since 1982• Sanctions for employers who hire Sanctions for employers who hire

undocumented aliensundocumented aliens• Reimbursement of government for cost of Reimbursement of government for cost of

legalizationlegalization• Screening of welfare applicants for migration Screening of welfare applicants for migration

statusstatus• Programs to bring in agricultural laborersPrograms to bring in agricultural laborers• 1.7 of 3 million applications accepted1.7 of 3 million applications accepted

• 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA)Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA)• Established regulations restricting legal Established regulations restricting legal

immigration as well as undocumented immigration as well as undocumented immigrationimmigration

• 2006 Secure Fence Act2006 Secure Fence Act• Estimated to cost $35 billionEstimated to cost $35 billion• Increased number of border enforcement Increased number of border enforcement

personnel and surveillance technologypersonnel and surveillance technology• Construction of physical barriers to Latin Construction of physical barriers to Latin

American immigrants including double-American immigrants including double-layered fence to be completed by 2008layered fence to be completed by 2008

In a country of immigrants, a(nother) In a country of immigrants, a(nother)

case of social closing:case of social closing:

Arizona Senate Bill 1070Arizona Senate Bill 1070Signed into law April 23, Signed into law April 23, 2010: 2010: It is the 1st state toIt is the 1st state todemand that immigrants meetdemand that immigrants meetfederal requirements to carryfederal requirements to carryidentity documents legitimizingidentity documents legitimizingtheir presence on American soil.their presence on American soil.

An example of prejudice, An example of prejudice, discrimination, and discrimination, and xenophobia. xenophobia.

Population and LocationPopulation and Location

• ““Latinos” - fastest growing major racial-Latinos” - fastest growing major racial-ethnic segment of U.S. population. ethnic segment of U.S. population. Approx 42 million.Approx 42 million.

• Latino population in Los Angeles now Latino population in Los Angeles now larger than population of numerous stateslarger than population of numerous states• More than one third of the residents of More than one third of the residents of

California, largest stateCalifornia, largest state

• California and Texas have population California and Texas have population majoritiesmajorities that are not European that are not European AmericanAmerican

Conflict and Protests Since the 1960s

• Brown Berets, Chicano Movement

• Chicano Studies departments

• Cesar Chavez -(March 31, 1927 - April 23, 1993)

Latino civil rights activist and founder of the United Farm Workers

Delores C. Huerta (April 10, 1930 - )

THE ECONOMYTHE ECONOMY• Mexicans initially incorporated into U.S. Mexicans initially incorporated into U.S.

economy by often violent conquest and economy by often violent conquest and takeovers of Mexican landstakeovers of Mexican lands

• Mexicans were original Mexicans were original VaquerosVaqueros• Spanish word for cowboysSpanish word for cowboys

• Late 1800s to early 1900sLate 1800s to early 1900s• Working conditions in agriculture were often Working conditions in agriculture were often

severe and wages very lowsevere and wages very low• Few whites competed for these jobsFew whites competed for these jobs

• Women concentrated in agriculture, domestic Women concentrated in agriculture, domestic service, and manufacturingservice, and manufacturing

Continuing Language DiscriminationContinuing Language Discrimination• Language discrimination in workplace Language discrimination in workplace

involves treating people unfairly because involves treating people unfairly because they speak language other than Englishthey speak language other than English• EEOC reports increase in complaintsEEOC reports increase in complaints

• Garcia v. Gloor (1981)Garcia v. Gloor (1981)• Supreme Court upheld firing an employee for Supreme Court upheld firing an employee for

speaking Spanishspeaking Spanish

• Lawsuits over language discrimination more Lawsuits over language discrimination more common in recent yearscommon in recent years

• Language discrimination periodically draws Language discrimination periodically draws protests from Latinosprotests from Latinos

Unemployment, Poverty, and IncomeUnemployment, Poverty, and Income• Latino unemployment rates relatively Latino unemployment rates relatively

high for decadeshigh for decades• Mexican American incomes consistently Mexican American incomes consistently

low compared with whiteslow compared with whites• Poorest families include workers Poorest families include workers

immigrated in recent decades with little immigrated in recent decades with little education or economic capitaleducation or economic capital

• U.S. has predominantly service-worker U.S. has predominantly service-worker economy with decreasing industrial jobseconomy with decreasing industrial jobs

• Recent research shows two divergent Recent research shows two divergent patterns of economic mobilitypatterns of economic mobility• Earning of low-skilled, foreign-born Mexicans Earning of low-skilled, foreign-born Mexicans

decrease as immigrants reside in U.S. longerdecrease as immigrants reside in U.S. longer• Earning of high-skilled, foreign born Mexicans Earning of high-skilled, foreign born Mexicans

increase as immigrants reside in U.S. longerincrease as immigrants reside in U.S. longer

• Movement of large numbers of immigrants Movement of large numbers of immigrants into Latino communities buttressed local into Latino communities buttressed local economies and maintained a demand for economies and maintained a demand for businesses that provide Latino goods and businesses that provide Latino goods and servicesservices

• Extended family and strong cultural Extended family and strong cultural frameworks remain at core of communitiesframeworks remain at core of communities

Immigrant Workers:Immigrant Workers:Targeted for DiscriminationTargeted for Discrimination

• Mexicans now neighbors of other Mexicans now neighbors of other Americans in all U.S. regionsAmericans in all U.S. regions• Yet, other Americans treat them as outsidersYet, other Americans treat them as outsiders

• Growing numbers report housing and Growing numbers report housing and related discrimination by white neighborsrelated discrimination by white neighbors

• Housing discrimination plagues Latino Housing discrimination plagues Latino families, both immigrants and established families, both immigrants and established citizenscitizens

• Patterns of discrimination led to Latinos Patterns of discrimination led to Latinos living in Latino-majority neighborhoodsliving in Latino-majority neighborhoods

POLITICS AND PROTESTPOLITICS AND PROTEST

• Before 1910 only a few hand-picked Before 1910 only a few hand-picked Latinos held office in territorial and state Latinos held office in territorial and state legislatures in the southwestlegislatures in the southwest

• Gerrymandering in some districts Gerrymandering in some districts diluted Latino voting strength and diluted Latino voting strength and prevented election of Latino candidatesprevented election of Latino candidates

• Voter registration and turnout of Latinos Voter registration and turnout of Latinos have risen over past three decadeshave risen over past three decades

Growing Political RepresentationGrowing Political Representation• Recent surveys indicate Latinos are Recent surveys indicate Latinos are

committed to working together to increase committed to working together to increase political participation and political powerpolitical participation and political power

• National Association of Latino Elected National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials Educational and Appointed Officials Educational FundFund• Empowerment organization for LatinosEmpowerment organization for Latinos• Played major role in increasing Latino voter Played major role in increasing Latino voter

registration and turnoutregistration and turnout• Between 1960s and mid-200s number of Between 1960s and mid-200s number of

Latinos in state legislatures increased Latinos in state legislatures increased significantly and are overwhelmingly significantly and are overwhelmingly DemocratsDemocrats

The Courts and the PoliceThe Courts and the Police• Mexican Americans long underrepresented Mexican Americans long underrepresented

in judicial systemin judicial system• First judge appointed in 1960sFirst judge appointed in 1960s

• All together, Latinos make up 11% of police All together, Latinos make up 11% of police but only 6% of first-line supervisorsbut only 6% of first-line supervisors• 3.5% of lawyers and 6% of various judicial 3.5% of lawyers and 6% of various judicial

workersworkers• Arizona, California, and Colorado require Arizona, California, and Colorado require

jurors to speak English, screening out many jurors to speak English, screening out many citizenscitizens• Recent survey found only 35% felt they receive Recent survey found only 35% felt they receive

fair outcome when dealing with the courtsfair outcome when dealing with the courts

The Chicano Political MovementThe Chicano Political Movement• Chicano Political MovementChicano Political Movement

• Social movement that sought greater Social movement that sought greater political power and less discrimination political power and less discrimination for Mexican Americansfor Mexican Americans

• La Raza Unida PartyLa Raza Unida Party (LRUP) (LRUP)• Goals include significant representation in Goals include significant representation in

local governments and pressing latter to local governments and pressing latter to better serve Latino communitiesbetter serve Latino communities

• Mexican American women held important roles Mexican American women held important roles in LRUPin LRUP

• Feminism easy because of woman’s traditional Feminism easy because of woman’s traditional roles and strength as center of familyroles and strength as center of family

Other Organization and ProtestOther Organization and Protest• Union organization has long history among Union organization has long history among

Mexican AmericansMexican Americans• 11stst was was Confederacion de Uniones Obreras Confederacion de Uniones Obreras

Mexicanas Mexicanas (CUOM) (1927)(CUOM) (1927)• American GI ForumAmerican GI Forum

• Formed after Texas cemetery refused to allow burial Formed after Texas cemetery refused to allow burial of a Mexican American WWII veteranof a Mexican American WWII veteran

• ChicanismoChicanismo• A philosophy of self-esteem and antiracismA philosophy of self-esteem and antiracism

• Mexican American Legal Defense and Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund Education Fund (MALDEF)(MALDEF)

• Address problems of jury discrimination, police Address problems of jury discrimination, police brutality, and school segregationbrutality, and school segregation

Unions for Low-Wage WorkersUnions for Low-Wage Workers• Agricultural Workers Organizing Agricultural Workers Organizing

CommitteeCommittee (AWOC) (AWOC) andand National Farm National Farm Workers AssociationWorkers Association (NFWA) (NFWA)• Created by Jessie Lopez, Dolores Huerta, Created by Jessie Lopez, Dolores Huerta,

and Cesar Chavezand Cesar Chavez• Agricultural Labor Relations Act (1975)Agricultural Labor Relations Act (1975)

• Provided for protection of union activitiesProvided for protection of union activities• Many Mexican American and other farm Many Mexican American and other farm

workers still get low wages across the workers still get low wages across the countrycountry• Increasing number members of mainstream Increasing number members of mainstream

unionsunions

Other Recent Challenges: Latinos and Other Recent Challenges: Latinos and African Americans African Americans

• Growing number of Latino population in Growing number of Latino population in urban areas have led to political conflict urban areas have led to political conflict and cooperation with African Americansand cooperation with African Americans

• Modern capitalism sometimes pits new Modern capitalism sometimes pits new immigrants against established citizens immigrants against established citizens who rely on lower-wage blue-collar and who rely on lower-wage blue-collar and service jobsservice jobs• General political competition between Latinos General political competition between Latinos

and African Americans also generates conflict and African Americans also generates conflict • White-controlled media focuses more on White-controlled media focuses more on

conflict and neglects cooperationconflict and neglects cooperation

EDUCATIONEDUCATION• Mendez v. Westminster (1946)Mendez v. Westminster (1946)

• Federal judge ruled that segregation of children Federal judge ruled that segregation of children in in “Mexican schools”“Mexican schools” in California violated the in California violated the 1414thth Amendment Amendment

• Anticipated Supreme Court ruling in Anticipated Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Brown v. Board of EducationBoard of Education

• For decades, some schools with high For decades, some schools with high percentages of Latino students prohibited all percentages of Latino students prohibited all manifestation of Mexican American manifestation of Mexican American subculturesubculture• ““Six-hour retarded”Six-hour retarded”

• Functioned well in the outside world but mislabeled by Functioned well in the outside world but mislabeled by school discrimination and poor testingschool discrimination and poor testing

Current Education Issues:Current Education Issues:Segregation and BilingualismSegregation and Bilingualism

• 2000s, too many Mexican American 2000s, too many Mexican American children placed in learning-disabled children placed in learning-disabled classes, textbooks still neglect Mexican classes, textbooks still neglect Mexican American history, and American history, and de factode facto racial racial segregation persistssegregation persists

• Children with limited English proficiency Children with limited English proficiency become discouraged, develop low self-become discouraged, develop low self-confidence, and fail to keep pace with confidence, and fail to keep pace with English speakersEnglish speakers

• Myth propagated by nativists is that Myth propagated by nativists is that bilingual education is ineffectivebilingual education is ineffective

Educational AchievementEducational Achievement• Mexican American attainment lowest of Mexican American attainment lowest of

three Latino groupsthree Latino groups• Dropout / “Dropout / “pushoutpushout”” rate is high rate is high

• Poverty and need to earn money to help Poverty and need to earn money to help relatives is an obstaclerelatives is an obstacle

• Education highly valued by students and Education highly valued by students and their familiestheir families• 9 out of 10 believe college education important9 out of 10 believe college education important

• Steps to improve public educationSteps to improve public education• Include Spanish language and Mexican Include Spanish language and Mexican

American culture, involve parents, increase American culture, involve parents, increase meaningful interaction between teachers and meaningful interaction between teachers and studentsstudents

ASSIMILATION OR INTERNAL ASSIMILATION OR INTERNAL COLONIALISMCOLONIALISM

• Assimilation theoristsAssimilation theorists• 10,000 initially brought by U.S. conquest10,000 initially brought by U.S. conquest• Most arrived later voluntarily and generally Most arrived later voluntarily and generally

improved their economic circumstances improved their economic circumstances relative to those in Mexicorelative to those in Mexico

• Aspects of traditional culture have begun to Aspects of traditional culture have begun to disappear as acculturation proceededdisappear as acculturation proceeded

• Yet, substantial degree of Mexican cultural Yet, substantial degree of Mexican cultural heritage persistsheritage persists

• BilingualismBilingualism• The ability to speak two languagesThe ability to speak two languages

• One U.S. problem is structuralOne U.S. problem is structural• Private and public organizations do not now Private and public organizations do not now

provide enough language trainingprovide enough language training• Widespread use of English among immigrants Widespread use of English among immigrants

underscores error of xenophobic calls for underscores error of xenophobic calls for English-only laws and school policiesEnglish-only laws and school policies

• Structural assimilation, especially Structural assimilation, especially economic upward mobility, has come economic upward mobility, has come slowly for manyslowly for many

• Behavior-receptional and attitude-Behavior-receptional and attitude-receptional assimilation have varied receptional assimilation have varied considerablyconsiderably

The Limits and Pacing of AssimilationThe Limits and Pacing of Assimilation• Structural assimilation or marital Structural assimilation or marital

assimilation reached a high levelassimilation reached a high level• 1970s study revealed some intergroup 1970s study revealed some intergroup

friendship contactsfriendship contacts• Significant numbers demonstrate Significant numbers demonstrate

movement toward identificational movement toward identificational assimilationassimilation• Indicates diversity of opinionIndicates diversity of opinion

• Racial and ethnic identification varies Racial and ethnic identification varies with class, age, experience and whether with class, age, experience and whether self-defined or imposedself-defined or imposed

• Structural socioeconomic incorporation Structural socioeconomic incorporation also limitedalso limited• Ease of movement and incorporation into Ease of movement and incorporation into

white institutions varies with perceived class white institutions varies with perceived class and skin colorand skin color

• As long as there are major immigration As long as there are major immigration streams from Mexico into Mexican streams from Mexico into Mexican American communities, traditional American communities, traditional assimilation will be slowedassimilation will be slowed

• Latinos interested in developing or viewing Latinos interested in developing or viewing their own mass mediatheir own mass media• Fastest growing television audience in 2000sFastest growing television audience in 2000s

Applying a Power-Conflict PerspectiveApplying a Power-Conflict Perspective• Internal colonialism analysisInternal colonialism analysis

• Mexican American history began with Mexican American history began with ruthless conquest of northern Mexicoruthless conquest of northern Mexico

• Problem in applying traditional colonialism Problem in applying traditional colonialism perspectiveperspective

• Most entered as voluntary immigrants after Most entered as voluntary immigrants after initial conquestinitial conquest

• Most significant difference between Most significant difference between Mexican and European immigrant Mexican and European immigrant experienceexperience• Intensive discrimination and cultural Intensive discrimination and cultural

subordination of later Mexican immigrants subordination of later Mexican immigrants in U.S.in U.S.

• Mexican immigrants entered environment Mexican immigrants entered environment in which progress and mobility generally in which progress and mobility generally limitedlimited• Low wages, inferior schools, and various Low wages, inferior schools, and various

types of racialized discriminationtypes of racialized discrimination

• Internal colonialism analystsInternal colonialism analysts• White employers intentionally created a split White employers intentionally created a split

labor market from which they received labor market from which they received enormous profitsenormous profits

• Power-conflict analystsPower-conflict analysts• Emphasize continuing reality that majority of Emphasize continuing reality that majority of

whites still see Mexicans as not whitewhites still see Mexicans as not white

A Pan-Latino IdentityA Pan-Latino Identity

• Anti-Latino discrimination has led many Anti-Latino discrimination has led many Mexican Americans to adopt a broader Mexican Americans to adopt a broader Hispanic or Latino identityHispanic or Latino identity

• Collective Latino/Hispanic Collective Latino/Hispanic consciousness developed since 1960sconsciousness developed since 1960s

• Pan-LatinoPan-Latino process emerged as a process emerged as a political strategy to accomplish political political strategy to accomplish political goals shared by component groupsgoals shared by component groups• Facilitated by shared language and similar Facilitated by shared language and similar

home cultureshome cultures

Further Reading:

Acuna, Rodolfo F. (2011), Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (7th ed.), Boston: Longman