METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (TEXT PAGE 24)

Describe the characteristics of case studies, surveys,correlational research and experimental research, andthe strengths and weaknesses of each research method(text pp. 24-31).

Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observations involve watching animals

or people in their natural environments, but havethe disadvantage of lack of control.

The observer bias is related to the reality thatobservers often “see what they expect to see.” Case Studies Case studies are detailed investigations of one

person or a few persons. Researchers conductingcase studies use a variety of methods to collectdata that yields a detailed, in-depth portrait ofthe individual(s) being studied.

In addition to the possibility of observer bias,another concern is the generalizability of the results.

Surveys Surveys involve asking standardized questions of large

groups of people who represent a sample of thepopulation of interest.

Concerns include response bias and accuracy ofresponses.

Correlational Research Correlations cannot be used to prove cause-and-effect relationships. Correlation is a statistical technique that allowsresearchers to discover and predict relationshipsbetween variables of interest.

Describe the differences between independent anddependent variables and between control groups andexperimental groups (text p. 28).

Experimental Research In an experiment, one or more variables aresystematically manipulated, and the effect of thatmanipulation on other variables is studied. Due to the control exercised by researchers whenthey conduct an experiment, conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships can be drawn. The independent variable in an experiment is the variablethat is deliberately manipulated by the experimenter tosee if related changes occur in the behavior orresponses of the participants, and is given to theexperimental group. For comparison purposes, a second groupis also included in an experiment, but it is not exposedto the manipulation of the independent variable. Thissecond group is called the control group.

The dependent variable in an experiment is the measuredbehavior or responses of the participants. Confounding variables are any other variables thatcould interfere with the results. Concerns about experiments center on theartificiality of the research setting and how this mightinfluence participants’ behavior.

The expectations that the experimenter has –experimenter bias – might also influence theresults of the experiment.

Multimethod ResearchSome research programs might involve several differentresearch methodologies to gain a greater understandingof a certain behavior or cognitive process. Forexample, creativity could be observed in a naturalisticsetting; a creativity training program could be testedexperimentally; correlations between creativity testscores and grades on an art project could be calculated;and surveys or interviews about the circumstances underwhich people feel most creative could be administered.All of these methods yield different insights abouthuman creativity.

Explain the importance of sampling in psychologicalresearch. Differentiate between random andrepresentative samples (text pp. 29-30).

The Importance of Sampling Researchers inevitably measure a small subgroup ofthe total population, called a sample. In order forresearchers to be able to generalize the results of anystudy to people in the broader population, the peoplebeing studied (the sample) must share the samecharacteristics as the people in the rest of thepopulation. The most effective way to ensure that the sampleshares the characteristics of the population is toselect participants at random from the population,thereby creating what is called a random sample.

Researchers can also pick a representative sample of thepopulation by carefully selecting a sample that containsthe same proportion of individuals (e.g., male-to-femaleratio) as that found in the broader population. Greatcare must be taken to avoid sampling errors because non-representative samples can produce research findingsthat are not typical of the population, leadingresearchers to draw inaccurate conclusions.

Experiments in which the subjects do not know ifthey are in the experimental or control groups aresingle-blind studies, while experiments in which neitherthe experimenters nor the subjects know this informationare called double-blind studies. These procedures aredesigned to minimize experimenter effects and placeboeffects.

Explain how unintended biases can affect the results ofresearch (text pp. 30-31).Human Diversity and Research Psychologists are questioning whether researchconducted with White male participants will also applyto women, people of other racial and ethnic groups, andto people of different cultures. Research indicates that people’s gender, race,ethnic background, and culture can have profound effectson their behavior.

Unintended Biases in Research – the gender, race, orethnicity of the experimenter may also affect thebehavior or performance of participants. For example: The conformity to social pressure exhibited by womenlowers when the experimenter is also female. African Americans score higher on tests ofintelligence when the test administrator is also AfricanAmerican.

A.Although psychologists would like to measure representativesamples, obtaining them can often be a tall order

1.Much research is based on convenience samples

B.Case studies1.Detailed descriptions of individuals2. A drawback is that the person studied may not be

representative of the population, therefore strongconclusions can’t be drawn using only this method

C.Observational studies involve non-obtrusive, systematicmeasurement of behavior

1. Naturalistic observation takes place in the organism’snormal environment

2.A laboratory observation allows the researcher to controlthe environment

3. A drawback is that we can’t infer cause and effectbecause we don’t know why the people or animals are actingthe way they are based only on observation

D.Tests are procedures for measuring traits, states, interests,abilities, and values

1.Objective tests measure characteristics of which theindividual is aware

2.Projective tests tap unconscious feelings or motives3.Qualities of a good test

a.Standardizedb.Normedc.Reliabled.Valid

E.Surveys are questionnaires and interviews that ask peopleabout themselves directly

1. A representative sample is essential--watch out forvolunteer bias

2. People sometimes lie, especially if the information ifsensitive and anonymity is not guaranteed

3. Think about how the questions are phrased

V.CORRELATIONAL STUDIES: LOOKING FOR RELATIONSHIPSA.A positive correlation means that high values of one

variable tend to go with high values of theother

B.A negative correlation means that high values of onevariable tend to go with low values of theother

C.The coefficient of correlation varies between +1.00 (perfectpositive) and -1.00 (perfect negative)

D. Correlation does not mean causation

VI. THE EXPERIMENT: HUNTING FOR CAUSESA.All studies must meet ethical guidelines

1.Informed consent, humane treatment, etc., are all goodideas

B.Experimental variables1.Independent variables are manipulated by the researcher2.Dependent variables are a measure of the reaction of the

participants to the independent variable3.Everything but the independent variable is held constant

(to as great an extent as possible)C.Experimental and control conditions

1.In the control condition, participants are not exposed tothe treatment, whereas they are when in the experimentalcondition

2.In the control condition, participants may receive aplacebo--a fake treatment (e.g., no active ingredients)

3.Control groups are important for both experimental andnonexperimental studies

D.Experimenter effects1.Participants’ responses may be influenced by the

experimenter’s subtle cues2.One solution is to use double-blind studies

VII.EVALUATING THE FINDINGSA.Why psychologists use statistics1.Descriptive statistics summarize the data

a.The arithmetic mean is the sum of scores divided by thenumber of scores

b.The standard deviation tells how clustered or spread outthe scores are

2.Inferential statistics allow the researcher to drawinferences about the results.

a.If the likelihood of getting the result by chance is verylow, the result is statistically significant

B. From the laboratory to the real world1. Choosing the best explanation--the hypothesis may needto be tested in different ways (e.g., cross-sectionally and longitudinally)

2.Judging the result’s importancea.Researchers may disagree on its relevance for theory or

practiceb.Meta-analysis is a technique that combines data from

many studies

Taking Psychology with You: What Psychology Can Do for You--and What It Can’tA.What psychology can do for you

1.Make you a more informed person2.Satisfy your curiosity about human nature3.Help you increase control over your life4.Help you on the job5.Give you insights into political and social issues6.Help you become a more critical thinker

B.What psychology can’t do for you1.Tell you the meaning of life2.Relieve you of responsibility for your actions3.Provide simple answers to complex questions

Handout Master 1.1 Find the Flaw

Each of the statements below violates at least one of theguidelines for critical thinking. Identify the guideline thatwas violated and give a brief explanation for your choice. Theeight guidelines cited in Chapter One are:

1. Ask questions; be willing to wonder.2. Define the problem.3. Examine the evidence.4. Analyze assumptions and biases.5. Avoid emotional reasoning.6. Don’t oversimplify (either/or thinking or

overgeneralization).

7. Consider other interpretations.8. Tolerate uncertainty.

1.In a research proposal, a student said that he was going to doresearch on “meditation and mental illness.”

Explanation:

2.I joined this group to find meaning in my life and a purposefor living. Our leader has answers that your parents andteachers could not give you. He will free your mind from thetrivialities of existence and make the path of truth andvirtue easy to follow.

Explanation:

3.A number of great authors and artists have suffered frommanic-depressive disorder, proving the proposition that highlyintelligent people are especially susceptible to mentaldisorders.

Explanation:

4. Child abuse and neglect have increased as more mothers havefound jobs outside of the home. These problems will probablybe with us until society recognizes the truth of the oldsaying that “a woman’s place is in the home.”

Explanation:

5. I don’t understand why people are so terrified of nuclearwarfare. There has been a succession of new and more deadlyweapons throughout history, and humanity has survived in spite

of it.Explanation:

Handout Master 1.2 Applying Critical Thinking Guidelines

The following are some guidelines for critical thinking.

1. Ask questions; be willing to wonder. 6. Don’t oversimplify(either/or thinking or 2. Define the problem. overgeneralization).3. Examine the evidence. 7. Consider other interpretations.

4. Analyze assumptions and biases. 8. Tolerate uncertainty.5. Avoid emotional reasoning.

Each of the statements below violates at least one of the guidelines forcritical thinking. Identify the guideline that was violated and give abrief explanation for your choice.

1. A political editorial supporting severe penalties for the productionand sale of pornography pointed out that all societies are repressive tosome extent, and that it was Freud who pointed out that repression isthe price we pay for civilization.Explanation:

2. Because we have never been visited by extraterrestrials, and have hadno communication from outer space, we can safely assume that intelligentlife exists only on our own planet.Explanation:

3. It is pretty obvious that smoking marijuana causes people to cravemore potent drugs, such as cocaine and heroin. Statistics show thatalmost all the people who become addicted to drugs smoked marijuanabefore they began using more potent drugs.Explanation:

4. Jezebel bought a bottle of pain reliever because a TV commercialclaimed that most hospitals prescribe it.Explanation:

5. You’re either for us or against us.Explanation:

6. I get disgusted with my science classes. We study the “principle ofthis” and the “theory of that.” Aren’t there any laws? Why can’tscientists make up their minds and stop acting like they don’t knowanything for sure?Explanation:

7. People tend to become forgetful as they get older. This is just oneof the natural consequences of aging, and it would be a waste of time tolook for specific causes or ways to prevent the problem.Explanation:

8. People of different ethnic backgrounds just can’t live harmoniously inthe same neighborhood. Almost everyone I’ve talked to thinks the sameway. This is a gut feeling, and we aren’t likely to be wrong.Explanation:

9. The increase in violence by adolescent gangs in this country is justanother result of the liberal thinking that has more sympathy forcriminals than for their victims.Explanation:

10. Why are the people in this class so much better looking andintelligent than people in other introductory classes?Explanation:

11. You can tell that Alice is a lot smarter than her brother. She wearsthose thick glasses and has a high forehead.Explanation:

12. A mother was trying to dissuade her son from marrying a girl he hadmet just three weeks before. The son’s response was, “But I know she’sthe one; the first time I saw her I began to tremble and see spotsbefore my eyes, and I had flutters in my chest and strange sensations inmy stomach. When I’m with her, I feel like I could just take off andfly.”Explanation:

13.I looked at several issues of the Journal of Parapsychology, a periodicalthat publishes research on psychic phenomena. Every article confirmedthe existence of ESP, so I don’t understand why most psychologists areskeptical about it.Explanation:

14.Let’s just make up our minds and buy one or the other of the houses.I’m tired of thinking about it, and all this investigation andindecision is making me nervous.Explanation:

Handout Master 1.1 Find the Flaw

Each of the statements below violates at least one of the guidelines forcritical thinking. Identify the guideline that was violated and give abrief explanation for your choice. The eight guidelines cited in ChapterOne are:

1. Ask questions; be willing to wonder.2. Define the problem.3. Examine the evidence.4. Analyze assumptions and biases.5. Avoid emotional reasoning.6. Don’t oversimplify (either/or thinking or overgeneralization).7. Consider other interpretations.8. Tolerate uncertainty.

1. In a research proposal, a student said that he was going to do researchon “meditation and mental illness.”

Explanation:

2. I joined this group to find meaning in my life and a purpose for living.Our leader has answers that your parents and teachers could not give you.He will free your mind from the trivialities of existence and make thepath of truth and virtue easy to follow.

Explanation:

3.A number of great authors and artists have suffered frommanic-depressive disorder, proving the proposition that highlyintelligent people are especially susceptible to mentaldisorders.

Explanation:

4. Child abuse and neglect have increased as more mothers havefound jobs outside of the home. These problems will probablybe with us until society recognizes the truth of the oldsaying that “a woman’s place is in the home.”

Explanation:

5. I don’t understand why people are so terrified of nuclearwarfare. There has been a succession of new and more deadlyweapons throughout history, and humanity has survived in spiteof it.

Explanation:

Handout Master 1.2 Applying Critical Thinking Guidelines

The following are some guidelines for critical thinking.

1. Ask questions; be willing to wonder. 6.Don’t oversimplify(either/or thinking or 2. Define the problem. overgeneralization).

3. Examine the evidence. 7. Consider otherinterpretations.4. Analyze assumptions and biases. 8. Tolerateuncertainty.5. Avoid emotional reasoning.

Each of the statements below violates at least one of theguidelines for critical thinking. Identify the guideline thatwas violated and give a brief explanation for your choice.

1. A political editorial supporting severe penalties for theproduction and sale of pornography pointed out that allsocieties are repressive to some extent, and that it was Freudwho pointed out that repression is the price we pay forcivilization.Explanation:

2. Because we have never been visited by extraterrestrials, andhave had no communication from outer space, we can safelyassume that intelligent life exists only on our own planet.Explanation:

3. It is pretty obvious that smoking marijuana causes people tocrave more potent drugs, such as cocaine and heroin.

Statistics show that almost all the people who become addictedto drugs smoked marijuana before they began using more potentdrugs.Explanation:

4. Jezebel bought a bottle of pain reliever because a TVcommercial claimed that most hospitals prescribe it.Explanation:

5. You’re either for us or against us.Explanation:

6. I get disgusted with my science classes. We study the“principle of this” and the “theory of that.” Aren’t thereany laws? Why can’t scientists make up their minds and stopacting like they don’t know anything for sure?Explanation:

7. People tend to become forgetful as they get older. This isjust one of the natural consequences of aging, and it would bea waste of time to look for specific causes or ways to preventthe problem.Explanation:

8. People of different ethnic backgrounds just can’t liveharmoniously in the same neighborhood. Almost everyone I’vetalked to thinks the same way. This is a gut feeling, and wearen’t likely to be wrong.Explanation:

9. The increase in violence by adolescent gangs in this country

is just another result of the liberal thinking that has moresympathy for criminals than for their victims.Explanation:

10. Why are the people in this class so much better looking andintelligent than people in other introductory classes?Explanation:

11. You can tell that Alice is a lot smarter than her brother.She wears those thick glasses and has a high forehead.Explanation:

12. A mother was trying to dissuade her son from marrying agirl he had met just three weeks before. The son’s responsewas, “But I know she’s the one; the first time I saw her Ibegan to tremble and see spots before my eyes, and I hadflutters in my chest and strange sensations in my stomach.When I’m with her, I feel like I could just take off and fly.”Explanation:

13. I looked at several issues of the Journal of Parapsychology, aperiodical that publishes research on psychic phenomena.Every article confirmed the existence of ESP, so I don’tunderstand why most psychologists are skeptical about it.Explanation:

14. Let’s just make up our minds and buy one or the other of thehouses. I’m tired of thinking about it, and all thisinvestigation and indecision is making me nervous.Explanation:

Handout Master 1.4 Understanding Correlations

Correlational studies show relationships between variables. Ifhigh scores on one variable predict high scores on the othervariable, the correlation is positive. If high scores on onevariable predict low scores on the other variable, thecorrelation is negative.

variable 1variable 2 variable 1 variable 2Positive Correlation Negative Correlation

Showing that two variables are related does not justify claimingthat a causal relationship exists. There may be a causalrelationship, but other explanations usually exist. Forexample, the variables may be related because both have a causalrelationship with a third variable.

causes causes causesA B B A A

CB

For each of the correlational studies described below, decidewhether the correlation is positive or negative and give twoalternative explanations for each finding.

1. A study of married couples showed that the longer they hadbeen married, the more similar their opinions on social andpolitical issues were.Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

2. An intelligence test was given to all the children in anorphanage. The results showed that the longer children hadlived in the orphanage, the lower their IQ scores.Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

3. In a study of American cities, a relationship was foundbetween the number of violent crimes and the number of storesselling violence-depicting pornography.Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

4. A college professor found that the more class absencesstudents have, the lower their grade in the course tends tobe.Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

5. A politician running against a candidate who had been inoffice for eight years pointed out that violent crime hadincreased steadily during those eight years even though theadministration appropriated more and more money to fightcrime.Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

6. It was found that elementary-school children who made highscores on a vocabulary test also tended to make high scores ona test of physical strength and muscular coordination.Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

Handout Master 1.5Operational Definitions of Handedness

Indicate whether you use your right or left hand to completeeach of the following tasks by circling the appropriate numberon the five-point scale below each task.

1. To write a letter legibly.1 2 3 4 5

always left usually left left = right usually rightalways right

2. To throw a ball at a target.1 2 3 4 5

always left usually left left = right usually rightalways right

3. To hold scissors to cut paper.1 2 3 4 5always left usually left left = right usually right

always right

4. To deal playing cards.1 2 3 4 5always left usually left left = right usually right

always right

5. To hold a toothbrush while cleaning teeth.1 2 3 4 5

always left usually left left = right usually rightalways right

6. To unscrew the lid of a jar.1 2 3 4 5

always left usually left left = right usually rightalways right

Total your scores for these 6 items. A total of 18 points wouldindicate equal use of right and left hands. Scores between 19and 30 indicate some degree of preference for use of your righthand. The closer your score is to 30, the stronger yourpreference for using your right hand. Scores between 6 and 17indicate a preference for using your left hand. The closer yourscore is to 6, the stronger your preference for using your lefthand. Using these criteria, are you more right-handed, moreleft-handed, or ambidextrous?right-handed __________ left-handed __________ ambidextrous__________

Now turn to the next page for another way of determininghandedness.

Hold a pencil in your right hand. Wait until your instructortells you to begin. At the word “go,” tap the middle of eachbox immediately below in sequence from left to right. Stop whenyour instructor tells you to do so. You will have 30 seconds.

Right Hand

Now hold a pencil in your left hand. Wait until your instructortells you to begin. At the word “go,” tap the middle of eachbox immediately below in sequence from left to right. Stop whenyour instructor tells you to do so. You will have 30 seconds.

Left Hand

Score the number of taps you made with each hand. Pencil marksmust be inside the box; on the lines does not count.

Right hand __________ Left hand __________

The hand with the higher score is defined as your dominant hand.Does this measure of dominance agree with your “self-report”measures of dominance on the previous page?

Handout Master 1.6 Making Statistics Relevant

Student Data Sheet

Please furnish ALL of the information requested.

Circle one to indicate whether you are: male female

State your height in inches (e.g., a person who is 5’5” is 65inches tall) ________ inches

State your shoe size ________

How many hours per week do you exercise on average? __________

Think of how “stressed out” you have felt on average over the pasttwo weeks and circle the answer that best represents your stresslevel.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9no stress medium stress extreme stress

Think of what your mood has been like on average over the past twoweeks and circle the answer that best represents your mood.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9very happy neutral very depressed

Think of what your anxiety levels have been like on average overthe past two weeks and circle the answer that best representsyour anxiety levels.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9very calm medium extreme anxiety

Handout Master 1.7 Inference or Observation?

Decide whether each statement is objective (O) or whether itincludes an inference or interpretation (I) made by theobserver.

_____ 1. Marvin coughed three times before resuming hismonologue on the feats he performed on the football teamwhen he was in high school.

_____ 2. The noise from outside caught the rat’s attention and ithesitated before deciding which alley to take in themaze.

____ 3. As she began to talk about her mother’s death, her griefmanifested itself in tears.

_____ 4. He had his notebook open on the desk in front of him buthe took no notes and during the lecture he looked at hiswatch 23 times.

_____ 5. After Sandra left to go to class, he continued to situnder the tree daydreaming.

_____ 6. Sammy indicated his preference for his father byapproaching him whenever he wanted to be reassured.

_____ 7. When the group therapy session was over, she was soanxious to get away from the others that she forgot herpurse and umbrella.

_____ 8. Sue ate her hamburger and salad rapidly, and entered theconversation at the table only once during the meal.

_____ 9. Billy became more frightened of Prissy every time shetried to hug and kiss him.

_____ 10.While Allison told the therapist about her affair withTed, she looked at her feet and held the arms of thechair tightly.

_____ 11.He knocked, then he rang the doorbell and waited for 87seconds before he finally decided that there was no onehome.

_____ 12.Kenny was too shy to join the other children in the sandpile, but I could tell that just watching them was apleasant experience for him.

_____ 13.The man on the other side of the street fell after thethird shot was fired by the woman standing in front ofthe bakery.

_____ 14.The child looked from the stick to the bread severaltimes before she picked up the stick and used it tobring the bread within her reach.

Handout Master 1.8 Name That Research Method

Here are the major research methods used by psychologists.Match each with one of the following examples of research.

a. case historyb. naturalistic observationc. laboratory observationd. surveye. psychological testsf. experiment

1. Frank is a full professor who is interested in the factorsthat affect the performance of rats who are learning to findtheir way through a complex maze. Every afternoon he giveseach of his 50 rats ten trials in the maze, counting thenumber of wrong turns each rat makes on its way through themaze.

2. Ben is counseling with Fennimore Jones in a small room inthe neuropsychiatric hospital. Ben is a graduate student inclinical psychology and Fennimore is his client. Fennimorewas admitted to the neuropsychiatric hospital when he came tothe student health clinic complaining that he hears voicesshouting obscenities at him, and confiding that he thinks heis going through a spontaneous sex change. After each sessionwith Fennimore, Ben writes a report describing Fennimore’sverbal and nonverbal behavior and his interpretations of thebehavior.

3. Carl is a graduate student who plans to become apsychometrician. He, like Ben, is working at theneuropsychiatric hospital. His job is to administer a batteryof tests to new patients. He will send the test results,along with his summary and interpretation of them, to the

patient’s clinical psychologist or psychiatrist.

4. Ada is testing the hypothesis that color preference can beinfluenced by associating a color with a pleasant experience,such as eating. This afternoon she is delivering a supply ofred, yellow, blue, green, and white nursing bottles to themothers of newborns who have consented to let their infants besubjects in her research.

5. Dee is an assistant professor who will teach introductorypsychology for the first time next term. She has chosen somefilms to show to her class of more than 200 students, and isnow preparing a questionnaire to administer to her studentsafter each film. She thinks getting student reactions to thefilms will be helpful next time she teaches the class.

6. Ed is an undergraduate psychology major. For his seniorthesis he is investigating the nature of the audience forpornography. This afternoon he is sitting in his car acrossthe street from one of the pornographic bookstores in thearea. He is taking notes on the sex, approximate age, andethnicity of the patrons as they enter and leave the store.