metadidonai as ethical principle on material possessions

METADIDONAI AS ETHICAL PRINCIPLE ON MATERIAL POSSESSIONS ACCORDING TO THE GOSPEL OF LUKE (3:10-14) AND THE BOOK OF ACTS

By

FILIMAO MANUEL CHAMBO

DISSERTATION

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

Of

DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

in BIBLICAL STUDIES (NEW TESTAMENT)

in the

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

of the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

PROMOTER: PROF. J. A. DU RAND

OCTOBER 2008

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements 5

Abstract 7

Chapter 1

ORIENTATION

1.1 Background and Purpose 11

1.2 The Church of the Nazarene 18

1.3 Luke-Acts: Material Possessions 29

1.4 Importance of the Research: Reading the Text from Within Tradition 34

1.5 Research Method and Structure 42

1.5.1 Research Method 42

1.5.2 Research Structure 46

1.5.3 Data Sources 50

1.5.4 Interview Questions 54

1.6 Conclusion 56

Chapter 2

LUKE’S STANCE ON MATERIAL POSSESSIONS

2.1 Introduction 58

2.2 Introductory Background to Luke and Acts 62

2.3 The Discipleship Motif of Luke – Acts 67

2.4 Honour and Shame and its Relation to the Theological Motif of

Material Possessions of Luke-Acts 74

2.5 μεταδιδόναι as Ethical Principle According to Luke – Acts 79

3

2.5.1 Repentance and the Work of the Holy Spirit as the Foundation for

Ethics in Luke-Acts 83

2.5.2 The Spirit in Christ’s Mission According to Luke 85

2.5.3 Deviant Social Behaviour Under God’s Judgment 93

2.5.4 μεταδιδόναι–in (Luke 3:10-14) 97

2.5.5 Sharing in the Book of Acts 107

2.6 Conclusion and Observations 117

Chapter 3

THE SYNTHETIC TASK – FINDING COHERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD AND

NEW TESTAMENT

3.1 Introduction 122

3.2 Material Possessions in the Old Testament 127

3.2.1 The Causes of Poverty According to the Old Testament 132

3.2.2 The Imperatives of the Law Codes of the Old Testament 143

3.3 Ethical Principles on Material Possessions in the New Testament 149

3.3.1 Material Possessions in the New Testament 153

3.3.2 Jesus’ Ethics on Material Possessions 156


Chapter 4

APPROPRIATION OF LUKE-ACTS ETHICAL PRINCIPLES TO

THE CHURCH IN MOZAMBIQUE


4.2 Background of Socio Systems in Mozambique 166

4

4.3 The Effects of the Holiness Nazarene Movement in Mozambique 175

4.4 Ethical Principles on Material Possessions – The Reality

of Mozambique 183

4.5 Hermeneutical Task 197


Chapter 5

THE PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO “METADIDONAI” ACCORDING TO LUKE-

ACTS, AS NORMATIVE TO THE

CHURCH TODAY


5.2 Sharing Material Possessions: Biblical Normative Principle

for the Christian Community in Mozambique 217

5.3 How Can the Church be Enabled to Resist the Perverted Influences

that Make Corruption Seem Inevitable and Acceptable Practice? 225

Bibliography 233

5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Lord for His enabling grace that has seen me through

in all the stages of this study.

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to

complete this study. I value the support that I received from the first stage of this

dissertation, the opportunity to research provided by the students at the Seminário

Nazareno em Moçambique and church members of the Church of the Nazarene in

Matola Cidade, Mozambique, prayers, and encouragement from colleagues at the

Church of the Nazarene Africa Region.

My gratitude also goes to my family and friends for loving support.

I am grateful to Linda Braaten and Margaret Scott, for editing my work,

giving moral support and encouraging me to stay focused on the task. I value their

friendship and the assistance that they provided in numerous ways to see this task

accomplished.

I am profoundly indebted to my supervisor, Prof. Jan du Rand, whose help,

guidance, stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me to complete this

dissertation.

I am deeply grateful to my wife Samantha Chambo, my daughter Tsakani

Gabriella Chambo and my son Emanuel Chambo. They lost a lot due to my research.

6

Without their support, prayers, encouragement and understanding, it would have been

impossible for me to finish this dissertation. Thank you.

7

ABSTRACT

This study began with a premise that there is a need to guide the Christian

community in Mozambique to know and put in practice biblical principles to address

the scourge of corruption. This is motivated by the belief that the functional moral

concerns should be shaped in accordance with the New Testament vision of Christian

discipleship. The Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique serves as case study to

understand the views and needs of the Christian community in the area of teaching

and preaching on issues of material possessions.

The intent was to come to exegetical answer on the question posed in this

study of the meaning and function of metadidonai and related concepts in the Lukan

corpus, not only in theological terms but also in a broader economical framework.

There are many people who live in dire poverty in Africa, many through no fault of

their own. Most of the poverty is the result of systematic and structural evils. These

evils result from human policies designed to increase the profit and power to

controlling individuals and corporate bodies.

Corruption is one of the major setbacks for alleviation of poverty in Africa.

There is no greater scourge that affects the proper functioning of any economic

system than corruption. The effects of corruption also have legal ramifications, often

undermining the rule of law. But fundamentally, corruption falls squarely in the moral

realm because it is symptomatic of the original sin that marks the heart of every

person (Gregg and Schenone 2003).

8

I argue in this study that these systematic evils (greed and corruption) are the

result of depravation of the heart. Therefore, to address these issues it is necessary to

interpret the biblical text with the soteriological agenda. To accomplish this I contend

that social scientific approach is vital because it allows the current read to access

meaning of the text that can only be understood in light of social context of the

original audience and the author of the text. However, beyond the unveiling of the

meaning within its canonical context the current exegete must reinterpret the meaning

for today. This will require not only the understanding of the meaning of the text in its

original context but also the understanding of the current social systems that influence

and impact the lives of the people in a particular community. Furthermore the

interpreter must be true to his/her theological heritage. Thus, as a Nazarene with a

Wesleyan theological heritage I sought to reinterpret metadidonai principle as found

in Luke-Acts from a Wesleyan perspective. I emphasise in the study that human kind

can not free themselves from depravation of the heart, but by God’s grace humanity

has hope for deliverance from sin and from the power of sin (original sin). This is

what Africa needs to be freed from corruption. In Luke-Acts text salvation is central

motif for discipleship. The soteriological tone sets the frame within which the

metadidonai is to be done.

The discourse between John the Baptist and those seeking to be baptized

(Luke 3:10-14) presents socio-ethical principles that are normative for the disciples of

Jesus. According to John the Baptist, the disciples of Jesus must repent – abandon the

former patterns and way of life and embrace the new patterns; “People should share

and not exploit one another and accept social outcasts. This ethic integrates with the

merciful attitude which Luke communicates in the rest of the Gospel towards all kind

9

of suffering” (Scheffler, E. H. 1990 24(1): 21). The Baptist’s discourse set a central

stage for Luke’s message of full salvation, which advocates for change of behaviour

on how we view and administer material possessions (Phillips, T. 2001:111-121;

Scheffler, E. H. 1990 24(1): 21-36). “Taken as a whole, the pericope (Luke 3:10-14)

communicates an economical message. People should positively share material goods

with the poor. However, economical sharing, economical justice and the prevention of

greed go hand in hand. Hence, the Baptist’s exhortation against over-collection and

the obtaining of money by violence or false accusation” (Scheffler, E. H. 1990 24(1):

27).

“Luke-Acts is not merely concerned with emphasizing the universality of

salvation, he is also concerned with emphasizing the required change in thinking and

living that will enable diverse individuals to receive the salvation of God and to live

together as community of God’s people” (Nave, G. D. 2002:146). The Gospel of Luke

and Acts “represent fundamental change in thinking that enables diverse individuals

to receive the salvation of God and to live together as a community of God’s people,

and according to the author, it is an essential element in the preaching of John the

Baptist, Jesus and the apostles” (Nave, G. D. 2002:146). The Church has a role to

play in this wounded world; to give Biblical interpretations on moral issues especially

those related to material possessions.

My goal is to encourage the Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique to become

a scripture shaped community, to allow its life to be more fitly conformed to the

Word of God, especially on the subject of material possessions (Hays 1996:463). If

indeed our goal is formation of Christian community in Mozambique and beyond, the

10

preaching and teaching of moral issues with no exception of a particular subject must

be of utmost importance. One of the reasons why people fail in the moral issues of

material possessions is because of lack of clarity and assimilation of the Word of God.

Similar to John the Baptist we must continuously preach and teach on moral issues.

The ministerial training should go beyond pragmatic approach and focus on

producing scholars who will be the voice of the Church in Africa, well equipped and

trained to effectively address socio-economic, political, religious issues that face the

Church and the community today.

11

Chapter 1

ORIENTATION

1.1 Background and Purpose

This study will focus on metadidonai as the ethical principle on material

possessions according to the gospel of Luke (3:10-14) and the book of Acts. There are

numerous readings of Luke-Acts on this subject but this will be conducted from a

Nazarene Wesleyan tradition/perspective in Africa. I contend that this principle,

metadidonai, is what Africa needs to address the issue of corruption. The context for

the study will be the Church of the Nazarene in Africa, with special focus on

Mozambique. The applicability of the study may be to a much wider readership.

There is a high degree of consensus that corruption is one of the major

setbacks for alleviation of poverty1 in Africa. In a continent plagued with a high rate

of poverty and HIV/AIDS, corruption is prevalent. Corruption manifests itself in a

wide variety of ways across the continent. It is found on the part of public officials

who delay the processing of public documents unless a monetary inducement is

offered. It is found in the typical mismanagement and misappropriation of national

budgets towards the personal gain of political leaders. The tools and means that are

put in place to eradicate the situation are costing the world a lot of money, and yet

there are few success stories of actually reducing corruption in a sustainable way. It is

regrettable that corruption is obstinate in Africa, considering the fact that this immoral

behaviour is contrary to the accepted or expected practices in the African cultures.

1 There are people who live in dire poverty in Africa; many through no fault of their own, but as a result of systemic and structural evils.

12

The symbolic moral systems of the African society are based on Ubuntu2, a

“comprehensive ancient African worldview based on the values of intense

humanness, caring, sharing, respect, compassion and associated values, ensuring a

happy and qualitative communal way of life, in the spirit of family” (Broodryk

2006:22). Ubuntu de-emphasises individualism and fosters mutual support, integrity

and respect.

The South African Nobel Laureate Archbishop Desmond Tutu describes

Ubuntu as: "the essence of being human. It speaks of the fact that my humanity is

caught up and is inextricably bound up in yours. I am human because I belong”3.

Ubuntu speaks about wholeness, it speaks about compassion. A person with Ubuntu is

welcoming, hospitable, warm and generous, willing to share. Such people are open

and available to others, willing to be vulnerable, affirming of others, to not feel

threatened that others are able and good for they have a proper self-assurance that

comes from knowing that they belong in a greater whole. They know that they are

diminished when others are humiliated, diminished when others are oppressed,

diminished when others are treated as if they were less than who they are. The quality

of Ubuntu gives people resilience, enabling them to survive and emerge still human

2 The word Ubuntu originates from one of the Bantu dialects of Africa and in essence it means that a person is a person through other persons. We affirm our humanity when we acknowledge that of others. This concept of Ubuntu is found in most African cultures and languages, for example in Akan (Ghana) it is known as “Biakoye”, Shona (Zimbabwe) “Nunhu”, in Kiswahili (Tanzania) as “Ujamaa”. In Africa people generally refer to the continent as “Mother Africa”, i.e. as belonging to all the human beings living in Africa in the spirit of familyhood. Ubuntu is humanism, and human beings take priority in all human conduct: “the value, dignity, safety, welfare, health, beauty, love and development of the human being, and respect for the human being are to come first, and should be promoted to first rank before all other considerations, particularly, in our time, before economic, financial, and political factors are taken into consideration. That is the essence of humanism; it is the essence of Ubuntu/Botho” (Vilikazi 1991:70). 3 “Ubuntu ungamuntu ngabanye abantu”, Xhosa proverb meaning, “people are people through other people” and the same would apply for kings and leaders in the community (a king is a king through his followers).

13

despite all efforts to dehumanize them. One would not think it necessary to have a

new set of policies (anti-corruption policies) to regulate African affairs if the moral

values depicted here were embraced. So, what is the problem? Why is the problem of

corruption continuing to be an enigma in Africa in spite of the esteem given to

Ubuntu?4

This perversity is even more intriguing when we take into account the fact that

in the 21st Century, especially with the rapid growth of African

independent/indigenous Christian Churches, Africa is quickly becoming the most

Christian continent. Christianity in Africa can be traced as far back as the first century

in the continent (e.g. Jesus in Egypt). But in Sub-Saharan Africa, which is my

immediate context, the story of Christianity begins in the fifteenth century with the

arrival of the Roman Catholic missionaries, and centuries later the Protestant

missionaries. With such a great number of those who profess to be Christians it seems

appropriate to expect the Christian Church to have a role to play in the struggle

against the scourge of corruption. Christians should not conform to the patterns of the

world (Rom. 12:2), instead they should be the salt and the light of the world (Matt.

5:13-16). The praxis of the Church should be shaped by ethical principles of the

Kingdom of God. In other words, even though Christians will continue to live in this

world, they will live up to biblical principles.

The opportunity to travel across the continent has afforded me an opportunity

to converse and to listen to various perspectives on the subject. Unfortunately, what I

have learned and observed leads me to deduce that some Christians see corruption as 4 Africa is not the only continent that is faced with the challenge of corruption, but for the purpose of this paper my focus will be Africa.

14

an acceptable way of life. They feel hopeless in the face of this scourge; in some cases

some get involved in petty corruption activities because of need and/or greed.

In Mozambique there is a popular saying used to describe the current political

situation: “o cabrito come onde está amarrado” (the goat eats where it is tied).

Traditionally, goats are not left to graze freely. Instead, the goat herder finds a cool

shade under the tree where the soil is covered with green grass. On that spot the goat

herder ties the goats with ropes. That is where the goats will eat for the day. Hence the

saying is used allegorically to sanction the (mis)use or abuse of one’s workplace or

office for one’s own benefit – that is, to justify corruption, particularly bribery and

theft of public resources. As a result, senior public servants have come to be known as

goats. With this atmosphere in Mozambique where the goats eat everything including

the ropes that tie them, things become more complicated. It is difficult. Senior public

servants are also accused of being selfish – of holding various jobs in four or five

companies alone. They (public figures) want to eat alone (Matsinhe 2004:117).

The greatest challenge is the fact that most of the people who would be

classified as part of the first group to introduce the philosophy of “the goat eats where

it is tied” were educated in schools of Catholic and Protestant missions. One would

have expected that since the education in these schools included teachings on

Christian moral values or Christian ethics, these people would uphold biblical

principles in the workplace. The big question is, “Did the Gospel communicate within

the changing social system in Mozambique?” The fear is that this immoral lifestyle is

being passed on from generation to generation. If this is not addressed, there is a great

chance that the Gospel will not have an impact on the lives of the people who call

15

themselves Christians. The Church will become a club of associates that have a

denominational name that unifies them and a few principles to which they hold, but

will fail to be Christlike.

Corruption falls squarely in the moral realm because it is symptomatic of the

original sin (Schenone & Gregg 2003)5. We need to strive to reinterpret the meaning

of the “Scripture’s timeless and trustworthy truth” for today (Wall 2004:41). The

Gospel should be preached to effect change in all spheres of life. My aim is not to

negatively criticize the Church and to suggest that the Christian Church in Africa is

not effective in her work. There are wonderful things that the Church has

accomplished in the continent, and there are thousands of Christlike people in Africa.

My goal is to challenge those thousands of disciples of Jesus to be the agents of

change, to be the prophets in their nations and to be the instruments that God can use

to shape the Church in Africa to be a Scripture shaped community, living a life that is

more fitly conformed to the Word of God, especially on the subject of material

possessions.

“The challenge of the New Testament is clear from Matthew to Revelation,

the New Testament writers bear witness passionately about the economic imperatives

of discipleship…writers manifest a pervasive concern for just use of money and for

sharing with the needy” (Hays 1996:462). The writings of Luke (Luke-Acts) stand out

because of his special understanding and interpretation of the soteriological work of

God and its implication for a community of believers and society in general.

5 A Theory of Corruption (Schenone & Gregg 2003) offers a theological and economic examination that puts into question many of the uncritically accepted assumptions held about corruption. I recommend this book for further reading on the subject.

16

Luke reconstructs the soteriological account to bring to the attention of his

auditors that discipleship6 should affect all spheres of life, rather than a narrow private

realm. Luke challenges the obdurate, greedy, corruption, injustice; he condemns lack

of compassion, marginalization and discrimination of others amongst those who call

themselves religious people. He calls them to repentance and to embrace a new life,

one that is characterized by compassion, justice and integrity. In the person of Jesus

and his public ministry, “the future long awaited kingdom where the rule and reign of

God would be actualized on earth” (Ogden 2003:28) was fulfilled. “A new authority

or regime is established in the hearts of Jesus’ followers. That authority affects all that

we are in all that we do in all spheres of life. The motif of the Kingdom, means that

there is not a scintilla of life that does not come under the authority of Jesus Christ”

(Ogden 2003:28).

The Lukan community was obviously knowledgeable7 on what kind of social

behaviour would be acceptable and expected in their community, but the message of

John the Baptist (Luke 3:10-14) suggests that they were not living up to the call! In a

similar way I find that African tradition which is rooted in a “conviction that we are

all related to each other … in the moral universe of Ubuntu8, in which humanity is

6 Discipleship means to learn and to be attached to one’s teacher and to become his follower in doctrine and conduct of life. Thus, a disciple adheres and adopts the instruction given to him/her and makes it his/her rule or conduct (Matt. 11:2; Luke 5:33; 7:18). The disciples of Jesus should make his teachings the basis of their conduct (Matt. 5:1; 9:19; 14:22; Luke 14:26-27, 33; John 9:27; 15:8) (Zodhiates1992:936). 7“The Baptist’s requirements, as represented in the third gospel, are less severe than those of the Qumran community, but affirm the traditional Jewish values, of generosity toward those in need (sharing food and clothes) and refraining from greed (taking no more than is due and being content with wages)… the third gospel draws upon traditional Jewish soteriological language, including language laden with economic metaphors, in order to confirm the importance of Messianic event which has been announced” (Phillips 2001:94-95). 8 In Let Africa Lead - African Transformational Leadership for 21st Century Business Khoza (2006) argues that we should carry the spirit of African humanism, or Ubunto, into the business world because

17

conceived of as one large family that is bonded together by reciprocal ties of love and

loyalty…caring, reciprocity, sharing, compassion, hospitality, cohabitation,

cooperation and tolerance…, is “an ideal conception, towards which we should strive

rather than a state of affairs that exists already. Human weakness makes it impossible

to realize the utopia state of the ideal community” (Khoza 2006:58-59). Being

conversant in the law of God, anti-corruption policies and the Ubuntu philosophy of

life does not guarantee moral behaviour. Thus the Church shaped by the Word of God

and endowed by the Spirit of God is expected to have an ethical influence on the life

of the people. In Luke-Acts, “the spirit is not simply the agent of the inspiration of

prophetic speech but instrumental in renewing and liberating God’s people” (Wenk

2000:151).

Though I think it is important to further the progress of anti-corruption

policies, to create and establish tools to alleviate corruption and to encourage those

who campaign for a renaissance of Ubuntu, I contend that this should not substitute

the role of the Church to be “salt” and “light” of the world. “God’s salvific act is

normative and foundational for community ethics” (Wenk 2000:201). The Baptist

implores his listeners to go beyond being conversant with the law, to embed this

message in their own lives. He is requiring change in thinking and behaviour that will

enable people to live together as a community of God’s people as demonstrated in the

book of Acts.

it has great moral values that are needed in the business world today. I highly recommend this book for further understanding of Ubunto and how it shaped Southern Africa in the past as well as how these principles would be applied into our African worldview today. While Ubuntu was grounded in the philosophy of interdependency, “I am because you are and you are because we are”, today this communal worldview is being replaced by individualistic culture.

18

1.2 The Church of the Nazarene

The applicability of this study might be to several denominations of Christian

faith in Africa; however, I have chosen to focus on the Church of the Nazarene to

serve as a case study because of my affiliation to this denomination. The Church of

the Nazarene9 will soon be celebrating a hundred years of her existence and ministry

around the world. “The Church of the Nazarene had an international dimension from

its beginning10

. By the uniting assembly of 1908, Nazarenes served and witnessed not

only in North America but also as missionaries in Mexico, the Cape Verde Islands,

India, Japan, and South Africa – living testimony to the impact of the 19th-century

missions movement upon the religious bodies that formed the present-day Church of

the Nazarene” (Manual of the Church of the Nazarene 2005-2009:24). The founders

of the Church of the Nazarene “held that Christians sanctified by faith should follow

Christ’s example and preach the Gospel to the poor. They felt called especially to this

work. They believed that unnecessary elegance and adornment of houses of worship

did not represent the spirit of Christ but the spirit of the world, and that their

expenditures of time and money should be given to Christ like ministries for the

salvation of the souls and the relief of the needy” (Manual 2005-2009:20-21). Today,

the Church of the Nazarene has successfully established its ministry in 151 countries

around the word.

9 The Church of the Nazarene exists to serve as an instrument for advancing the kingdom of God through the preaching and teaching of the Gospel throughout the world. Our well-defined commission is to preserve and propagate Christian holiness as set forth in the Scriptures, through the conversion of sinners, the reclamation of backsliders, and the entire sanctification of believers (Manual of the Church of the Nazarene 2005-2009:7). 10 The Church of the Nazarene. In October 1895, Phineas F. Bresee, D.D., and Joseph P. Widney, M.D., with 100 others… organized the Church of the Nazarene at Los Angeles (2005-2009:20).

19

At the end of the year 2007, the Church of the Nazarene in Africa reported

three hundred and sixty eight thousand, four hundred and fifty one (368,451) total

membership.11

The Church has put in place steps that individuals desiring to become

members of the Church should follow. These are the membership classes, in which

the individuals are exposed to doctrinal issues of the Church as well as to basic

Christian beliefs. The purpose of this process is to initiate the discipleship process

and also to familiarize the person with the doctrine of the Church before the person

decides whether he/she wants to be a member. The pastor or any authorized leader

“explains to them the privileges and responsibilities of membership in the Church, the

Articles of Faith, the requirements of the Covenant of Christian Character and the

Covenant of Christian Conduct, and the purpose and mission of the Church of the

Nazarene” (Manual of the Church of the Nazarene. 2005-2009 paragraph:107.1)12

.

The echoing of the moral stance of the Church is to ensure that those who join the

Church understand what it means to be a Christ-like disciple in the Wesleyan

Nazarene tradition. However, I want to submit that it is debatable if the Church has

been successful in contextualizing the discipleship resources and methodology to

make them fitting to each individual setting in Africa. The discipleship resources for

11 Full Membership. All persons who have been organized into a local Church by those authorized so to do, and all who have been publicly received by the pastor… after having declared their experience of salvation, and their belief in the doctrines of the Church of the Nazarene, and their willingness to submit to the government, shall compose the full membership of the local Church (Paragraph # 107 of the Manual of the Church of the Nazarene 2005-2009). 12 The ritual of reception of Church members (Manual of the Church 2005-2009: Paragraph # 801) reads: “Desiring to unite with the Church of the Nazarene, do you covenant to give yourself to the fellowship and work of God in connection with it, as set forth in the Covenant of Christian Character and the Covenant of Christian Conduct of the Church of the Nazarene? Will you endeavor in every way to glorify God, by a humble walk, godly conversation, and holy service; by devotedly giving of your means; by faithful attendance upon the means of grace; and abstaining from all evil, will you seek earnestly to perfect holiness of heart and life in the fear of the Lord?” The response from those desiring to be members of the Church is often “Yes I do”. In fact as far as I can remember since my childhood I have never heard anyone say “NO”. Of course at times it has been questionable in my own mind how true the prospects to membership are to this covenant.

20

Africa should be written for the African context, taking into account social, political,

economical and traditional religious issues. The Church of the Nazarene, like other

evangelical missions, has done a good job of bringing people into membership in the

denominational family, but has lacked in discipleship, particularly in the subject of

stewardship13

.

It must be appreciated that, in the midst of this apparent shortcoming in

discipleship, the Church of the Nazarene in Africa has impacted a huge number of

communities and individuals through evangelism, compassionate ministry, education

and other ministries. The Nazarene Board of General Superintendents recently issued

a booklet that reemphasizes the core values14

of the denomination and rightfully

13

The reasons for shortcomings in discipleship are of various natures. (1) Lack of adequate resources, this includes the huge number of pastors who have no library resources to enhance their preparation of sermons and lessons to feed their churches spiritually. All those pastors have is the Bible and few notes that they have received at the Bible College. The result is that they are not growing themselves and there is no way for them to guide others. On the other hand a few of those who have access to Christian literature often find that the books available to them address contexts that are foreign to Africa. (2) Africa is an oral culture. This undisputed aspect of culture impacts missions. It is true that there are several Africans who are literate and highly educated, but the greatest percentage is still of those who are non-literate or semi-literate, and highly dependent on oral culture. According to Scott (2001:2) “because it is ‘oral’, the key question to ask about learners is not “what are they reading?” but rather “what are they saying?” Applying this to pedagogy, this means that learners need to say concepts, say Scripture, discuss how truth applies to their tribe/church/village, tell their conclusions, and repeat out loud anything the instructor wants them to learn. This pedagogic characteristic applies particularly to non-literate or semi-literate learners but not only. As Mozambicans progress in their schooling, they become more and more proficient in the abstract skill of reading (deciphering written codes). However, talking continues to be an important daily activity.” Thus, it would not be enough to have contextual written resources to disseminate biblical principles on material possessions because some may not have access to them or may not be able to use them. The discipleship methodology in Africa will take into consideration the oral culture techniques to impact the masses. (3) There is a growing number of pastors who have no formal ministerial training or any formal schooling and a huge number of Christians who do not possess a Bible, either because they cannot read or because the Word is not yet available in their own language. These are challenges that need to be addressed; the Church in Africa needs to establish a strategy that will make certain that as people respond readily to the Gospel there are appropriate discipleship methods and resources that meet the individual context. 14 Nazarenes uphold the following Core Values: (1) We are Christian people: “As members of the Church Universal, we join with all true believers in proclaiming the Lordship of Jesus Christ and in embracing the historical Trinitarian creedal statements of Christian faith. We value our Wesleyan-Holiness heritage and believe it to be a way of understanding the faith that is true to Scripture, reason, tradition and experience. (2) We are Holiness people: God, who is holy, calls us to a life of holiness. We believe that the Holy Spirit seeks to do in us a second work of grace, called by various terms

21

points out that, “every organization that endures over time is based on a deeply shared

combination of purpose, belief, and values. This is the case with the Church of the

Nazarene. It was founded to transform the world by spreading scriptural holiness. It is

both a Great Commission Church and a Holiness Church at the same time. The

mission of the Church of the Nazarene is to make Christlike disciples in the nations”

(Bond, et al 2001:1).

In keeping with the vision of the Church of the Nazarene to transform the

world through the preaching and teaching of scriputal holiness, this study will suggest

a reading that is contextual for the Church in Mozambique as well as reflecting the

beliefs and values that are upheld in the Nazarene-Wesleyan tradition. A study of the

Lukan ethical principle on the subject of material possessions will prove to be

invaluable to the Church in Africa. One of the main questions to be addressed is how

is sharing of material possessions understood in Southern Africa, partcularly in

Mozambique? How does the African understanding and interpretation of this priciple

influences how Lukan text on the subject is interpretated today? That is, since one of

the chief purpose of the Church of the Nazarene is to lead individuals and

communities to holy living as found in the Word of God it is crucial that those in

positions of leadership understand the Bible so that they can disciple others.

including “entire sanctification” and “baptism with the Holy Spirit” – cleansing us from all sin: renewing us in the image of God; empowering us to love God with our whole heart, soul, mind and strength, and our neighbours as ourselves; and producing in us the character of Christ. Holiness in the life of believers is most clearly understood as Christ likeness. (3) We are a Missional People: We are a “sent people,” responding to the call of Christ and empowered by the Holy Spirit to go into all the world, witnessing to the Lordship of Christ and participating with God in the building of the Church and the extension of His Kingdom (2 Corinthians 6:1). Our mission (a) begins in worship, (b) ministers to the world in evangelism and compassion, (c) encourages believers toward Christian maturity through discipleship, and (d) prepares women and men for Christian service through Christian higher education” (Bond, et al 2001:2).

22

The Church intends to make disciples for Christ that know biblical standards

and principles. Yet more important is that the praxis of the disciple of Christ should

reflect embodiment or be shaped by the ethical principles of the Word of God. That

is, even though the disciples of Jesus will continue to live in this world with evil and

corruption, they will live up to biblical principles; they will not conform to the

standards of this world.

In the year 2003 the Church of the Nazarene in Africa held the first Africa

Nazarene Theology Conference. The African Nazarene Church addressed issues

facing the Church in Africa in a theological forum for the first time. Dr. E. Litswele15

(2003:117-130), in his presentation of A Memory of the Church of the Nazarene in

Africa, stated “there are some challenges that our African Church has not yet resolved

in almost 100 years of its history. The following issues, ancestral belief/worship,

demons, polygamy and other cultural practices related to marriage and death are not

dealt with in Nazarene Manual” (2003:124-125). Litswele was echoing Ted

Esselstyn’s16

concern that the Manual of the Church of the Nazarene, as the official

document17

of the Church, should address issues that face Nazarenes in all areas of

15 Dr. Enoch Litswele is a well respected leader in the Church of the Nazarene in Africa and the Church in general. He has served in various countries in Africa. He has been a principal of a Bible College, Pastor, District Superintendent (DS), Mission Coordinator in Malawi and Zimbabwe, and has also served as Assistant to the Africa Regional Director. 16 Dr. Ted Esselstyn was a missionary for the Church of the Nazarene in Africa Region for 33 years and grew up in Africa as his parents were missionaries. In his paper presented to the Global Nazarene Theology Conference, 2002 he discussed the development of the Church over the past 100 years: “National leaders address major conflicts with traditional African culture during the first and second periods, developing practices still followed in Southern Africa: Charms, witchcraft and ancestral worship were rejected; men who practiced polygamy could not be full members (despite Old Testament precedents). Because these issues are not directly addressed in the Manual, there are no uniform procedures, and procedural challenges regularly arise. Should the issues of all areas of International Church be addressed in its official documents?” (2003:125). 17 The Manual of the Church of the Nazarene includes a brief historical statement of the Church; the constitution, which defines our Articles of Faith, our understanding of the Church, the Covenant of

23

the World. However, beyond an official statement on the Manual of the Church,

further contextualization of the text should become a priority for the theologians and

Bible scholars that are developing in the continent.

I agree with Litswele’s (2003:125) conclusion that the solution to address this

mistake of the past lies in the hands of African Nazarene theologians, Bible scholars,

and students. He challenged the African Nazarenes to engage in investigation and

writing on these issues including socio-economic issues as they relate to dependency

syndrome. I concur with Litswele’s conclusion that these issues must be addressed

within context. We are all shaped in different contexts or social systems. For example,

socio-economic challenges for most Africans would automatically be linked to

thinking about poverty, unemployment, corruption, poor health and other public

services to meet the people’s needs; on the other hand, to some, economical

challenges would be linked to loss of funds because of inflation, a missed opportunity

for business and/or loss of profit. This is because the social system in which we are

brought up influences our thinking and the way we view and express things.

In the same conference, I proposed that we need to order our economic

practices in the Church in such a way that we give a powerful testimony of the

holiness message that we proclaim (Chambo 2003:131-136). I argued that although Christian Character of holy living, and principles of organization and government; the Covenant of Christian conduct, which addresses key issues of contemporary society; and policies of church government dealing with the local, the district, and general church organization The Manual of the Church of the Nazarene contains the decisions and judgements of ministerial and lay delegates to the General Assembly (which is the supreme doctrine-formulating and lawmaking body of the Church of the Nazarene), and is therefore authoritative as a guide for action. Because it is the official statement of the faith and practices of the Church and is consistent with the teaching of the Scriptures, we expect our people everywhere to accept the tenets of doctrine and the guides and helps to holy living contained in it. To fail to do so after formally taking the membership vows of the Church of the Nazarene injures the witness of the Church, violates her conscience, and dissipates the fellowship of the people called Nazarenes (2005-2009:7-8).

24

we seemed to be doing well in preaching and teaching holiness we needed to improve

as a Church to inculcate biblical ethical principles on issues of wealth and poverty. I

implore the Church of the Nazarene in Africa to instil the values of the Gospel that

must compel us to speak out against injustice of any kind in all spheres of life in

which it is found.

The need for praxis was also voiced by Rev. Walter Motaung who argued that

“even though the Church of the Nazarene in Africa was coming into contact with

serious structural and social challenges which beset the people we are trying to win

for Christ, the Church failed to understand sin in socio-economic and political

structural terms” (2003:228-229). Instead, the Church chose “to supply bandages for

wounds inflicted by unjust socio-political structures, rather than confront, challenge,

change and remove them”. The Church lacked the capacity to understand,

acknowledge and talk about socio-economic sins. He believes that the Church used

the Gospel selectively, however, the Gospel truth is not only concerned with the

spiritual life of the followers of Jesus, it is equally concerned with the social, political

and economic aspects. According to Motaung, in prioritizing spiritual freedom over

earthly liberation, the Church of the Nazarene is guilty of advocating heresy because

the Word of God suggests that life in the flesh is just as important as life in the Spirit

(2003:228-232).

Unlike the issues presented by Litswele and Esselstyn, the particular issues

related to material possession are recorded in the official document of the Church.

The Manual of the Church of the Nazarene (2001-2005: Paragraph 904.5) lists the

following as the responsibilities of the Church to the poor: “The Church of the

25

Nazarene believes that Jesus commanded His disciples to have a special relationship

to the poor of this world; that Christ’s Church ought, first, to keep itself simple and

free from an emphasis on wealth and extravagance and, second, to give itself to the

care, feeding, clothing, and shelter of the poor. Throughout the Bible and in the life

and example of Jesus, God identifies with and assists the poor, the oppressed, and

those in society who cannot speak for themselves. In the same way, we, too, are called

to identify with and to enter into solidarity with the poor and not simply to offer

charity from positions of comfort18

. We hold that compassionate ministry to the poor

includes acts of charity as well as providing opportunity, equality, and justice for the

poor”. I do not believe that the Church enters into solidarity with the poor to advocate

for economic justice although we are quite good in giving alms. A classic example of

this problem is depicted in Matthew 23:23. Jesus said, “Woe to you, Scribes and

Pharisees, hypocrites! For you pay tithe of mint and anise and cumin, and have

neglected the weightier matters of the law: justice and mercy and faith. These you

ought to have done, without leaving the others undone.”

This very message may well apply to our current context, but it must be

acknowledged that our problem is complex since it is related to understanding the

text, contextual interpretation and praxis. Thus the inclusion of a statement in the

official document of the Church does not effect the change. There are very few people

who have access to this document, and very little interpretation of the values thereof.

Christian Education and discipleship are vital to disseminate biblical principles that

should shape Christ-like disciples’ life style to be more fitly in line with the Scriptural 18 In my opinion, compassion activities in the Church of the Nazarene have been more focused on charity from a position of comfort. Very little, if anything, has been done on dealing with issues of equality and justice for the poor. We need to continue with our charity activities but we need not neglect the issues of justice and mercy.

26

ethics. Faithful interpretation and preaching of the Scriptures should be motivated by

a soteriological purpose if the ultimate goal is to transform the world by propagating

scriptural holiness. I contend that in Africa there is great urgency and need for

propagation of scriptural holiness as it relates to material possessions.

The hypotheses that in some parts of Africa the Christian praxis on issues of

material possessions are not shaped by the Word of God should not be overlooked.

Though the disciples of Jesus are expected to live in accordance with the Word of

God it is shameful to notice that some, instead of transforming the world, have

become so well adjusted and/or conformed to culture, they fit into it without even

questioning it. It is unfortunate that corruption, paying or accepting bribes, fraud, and

other systemic evils have become a way of life for thousands of people in Africa.

What should be the response of the Christians in the face of these systemic evils? Is it

possible to escape participation in this plague of corruption if it is so wide spread

across the continent? It is not easy to get rid of corruption; it is a complex issue with

various ramifications that affect both Christians and non-Christians.

There is an increasing awareness amongst our Church leaders across the

continent of a need to address issues of material possessions and the challenges

created by the use or abuse thereof. I believe that there is a call for the Church to

unveil biblical principles that will go beyond a descriptive task (the unveiling of the

original meaning); it will be the means of grace to call the believers and those who

join the Church to live out the text. It is important that the Word of God be seen as

God’s means of grace through which He reveals Himself afresh every time the

message is read. This is not to diminish the scientific methods of interpreting the

27

Word, but rather to enforce that God’s Word is living and dynamic, and God speaks

through His Word even today. The biblical guidelines on material possessions are

Kingdom imperatives for the disciples of Jesus today. Thus, the Word must guide the

Church in Africa in its quest for a Church that embodies Christian praxis according to

the Scriptures on issues of material possessions.

To a certain degree it can be stated that the Church has failed to communicate

effectively the biblical ethical principles on material possessions to guide the disciples

of Jesus within the African context. Seeking the lost and preaching repentance from

sin has been confined to adultery, idolatry, substance abuse, entertainment that

compromises the ethics of the Church, dress code, theft, lies and slander. Repentance

was and is understood to be a change of lifestyle as it relates to these examples.

Understanding sin in socio-economic terms was and is foreign in the preaching of the

Church. The conspicuous silence of the Church in the midst of socio-economic

injustice and inequality compromises the integrity of the biblical truth, which should

be presented in a holistic approach and not selectively (Motaung 2003:229-230).

According to Nees (1996:14-15) the main reason for the failure of the Church

to give appropriate guidance is that “mainline churches crusaded for government

intervention to end poverty, while the conservative, mostly fundamentalist churches

turned from the social responsibility they once advocated. They claimed that Christian

social action diverted attention and resources from the Church’s primary evangelistic

responsibility. Nowhere was this retrenchment clearer than in the Church of the

Nazarene.” Hence, both missionaries and indigenous Nazarene leaders distanced

themselves from socio–economic and political issue in Africa. In addition to Nees’

28

observation, I contend that the complexity of the matter in Africa was also

ethnocentric related.

Nees argues that according to the New Testament, “Good news meant healing,

feeding, teaching, and forgiving. The weak and unfortunate were touched at the point

of their need with the compassion of Jesus and were invited to become followers of

Jesus. The good news of what Jesus was doing and saying was directed to people

from all walks of life. Even the rich and powerful were offered freedom from the

clutches of their materialism and invited to a life of service” (1996:21). It is

unfortunate that the Church’s methods of making converts, evangelism was separated

from its full New Testament context of proclaiming good news to the poor and needy

and challenging economic and political injustices.

The selective approaches to biblical truth need to be corrected. The Church

must advocate for socio-economic justice, the Church must care for the needy in a

way that goes beyond that which they have known in the past. However, to do so

requires the Church to clearly understand and articulate the biblical ethical principles

on material possessions. The New Testament offers ethical principles on material

possessions that are grounded on the concept of sharing with the needy. The sharing

of possessions is a biblical imperative for the Church. This ethical principle is found

throughout the Bible and is also related to the social systems of the Mediterranean

world in which the New Testament was developed.

The purpose of this study is to unveil ethical principles on material

possessions according to the Scriptures with special focus to the concept of

29

metadidonai (Luke 3:10-14) and consider how the principle of sharing was applied in

other parts of Luke and Acts text and to suggest a reading approach that will guide the

Church in Africa to instil ethical principles that are biblical and sustainable for the

Church today. I contend that the Spirit of God is needed to transform a community.

The Spirit of God in the Word of God is the agent that effects ethical renewal,

sharing, compassion, caring and life of righteousness (Wenk 2000). My study focuses

on the use of the principle of sharing which is found in Luke and Acts, however, a

brief survey of the concept of sharing in relation to material possessions in the Bible

in general will be discussed to discern possible unity of the text on this ethical

principle.

1.3 Luke-Acts: Material Possessions

Many Bible scholars, theologians and historians have been attracted to the

Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts to investigate appropriate Christian responses to

material possessions. There are several readings of Luke-Acts on issues of wealth and

poverty; the interpretation often speaks to the context of the particular writer. “The

New Testament is always read by interpreters under the formative influence of some

particular tradition, using the light of reason and experience and attempting to relate

the Bible to a particular historical situation. Thus, the hermeneutical task in New

Testament ethics requires an attempt to specify as clearly as possible the relationship

between Scriptures and other sources of authority” (Hays 1996:209-210). There are

numerous readings of Luke-Acts on this subject but it will be appreciated that this is

the first study done from a Nazarene Wesleyan tradition/perspective with special

focus to social systems in Mozambique.

30

According to Phillips (2003:231), “With the rise of modern critical scholarship

in the nineteenth and twentieth century, several scholars began to suggest that social

and economic factors played a decisive role in the message of Jesus and the early

church”. The interpreters of Luke observed that particular attention was given to

issues of wealth and poverty in the Gospel and strived to unveil the truth in and

behind the text. In the Gospel of Luke, the text spells out the ethical principles of the

disciples of Jesus on issues of material possessions. It was also observed that socio-

economic themes dominated the exemplification of appropriate response of the

disciples of Jesus to issues of wealth and poverty. The reflections on economic

implications of the community of goods of Acts 2:43-45 and 4:32-35 have further

fuelled the quest for appropriate ethical principals on issues of wealth and poverty in

Luke-Acts (Phillips 2003:232-233).

Like most African communities, the communities in Luke and Acts were

predominantly agrarians. It was a society of small farmers or farm labourers of low

social rank, uneducated with little financial means (Conzelman 1982:18). Although it

was a predominantly poor society, there were those who were wealthy and owned the

land. The landowners were very influential people in the decision making process of

the empire. Unfortunately the decisions taken were biased as they were taken with the

personal interest of the landowners in mind. They did not reflect the needs, interests,

values and concerns of the poor. In most cases the landowners had inherited the land

from their ancestors. The land was handed down as inheritance so that it would be

kept under the control of a few wealthy and powerful families. The landowner

provided the landless with land, tools and seed to work it in return for a specified

share of the harvest and labour. The landowner or the rich were also moneylenders.

31

The majority of the poor borrowed the money, and the rich set high interest rates.

This perpetuated the situation of the class of the poor people who lived from hand to

mouth each day. The poor people sought day labour to be able to survive. The

biggest financial burden of the New Testament society was a result of excessive tax,

corruption and extortion in collection procedures (Hoyt 1980: 293-318; Phillips .

2001:111-121; Pilgrim 1990:142-144; Stegeman 1999:12-36; Scheffer 1990:21-36;

Green 1995:113-115).

Luke challenged the recipients of his message to allow God to transform them

with the power of the Holy Spirit so that they would be compassionate and share with

the needy their possessions without expecting anything in return as well as to be freed

by God’s power from greed and acts of injustice.

The issue of attaining and use of material possessions is one of the greatest

challenges in the African continent. There are many people who live in dire poverty,

many through no fault of their own. Most of the poverty is the result of systemic and

structural evils. These evils result from human policies designed to increase the profit

and power of controlling individuals, bodies. In most cases poverty results from the

evil desire for power, prestige and property of one group or individual at the expense

of another. This evil desire often gives birth to corruption in both secular and religious

communities. Thus, Carnes (2005) argues, “Unless Africa tames corruption, new aid

effort will fail.” He correctly points out that the $1 trillion in foreign assistance

poured over the last 50 years on the African continent has not yielded the desired

result; it has not transformed the poverty situation in Africa. Hence, he asks, “Will

billions of dollars of new help, promised by the world’s wealthier nations, make a

32

difference or make things worse?” It is debatable if the aid will bear positive fruits.

Unfortunately, most of the nations and heads of states were heavily evangelized by

Christians for decades, but the nations are as poor and corrupt as ever. What went

wrong in the process of evangelism? Why would people who were trained in mission

schools live unethical life styles? Why would they abuse the material resources? How

can corruption prevail in such nations that claim to be Christian?

The socio-ethical principles in Luke 3:10-14 are normative for the disciples of

Jesus. These principles were important for the disciples of Jesus in the Lukan

community but they are equally relevant and povital for the followers of Jesus today.

Hence the study advocates that these must be inculcated into the lives of the disciples

of Jesus in Mozambique and beyond to effect change and bring hope to the hopeless.

The disciples of Jesus are called to embrace a new lifestyle described as fruits of

repentance associated with ethical social behaviour that enables once alienated people

to live together as a God’s people.

The assimilation of the economical sharing, justice and prevention of greed

(Luke 3;10-14) requires a change of thinking and living, which is an ephasis in Luke-

Acts text. This is, salvation as understood by Luke should bring transformation in all

aspects of ones life, thus resulting in diverse people living together as a community of

God’s people. (Nave 2002:146). Luke illustrated one of the ways in which this might

look like in practice by recording the response of the community of Acts 2:43-45 and

4:32-35 which parallels the response required in Luke 3:10-14.

33

Christian churches should strive to present the message of full salvation,

which includes the message and teachings of social ethical principles on material

possessions. According to Luke-Acts, “Responding to the call of Jesus is not simply

about following Jesus or having some sort of physical affiliation with Jesus. In Luke,

Jesus is not simply calling sinners to follow him; he is calling them to repentance.

Responding to the call of Jesus is not about following Jesus while trying to maintain

one’s present way of thinking and living. Responding to the call of Jesus includes

following Jesus, but it also includes forsaking everything” (Nave 2002:168). This

appears not to be the case with some of the converts to Christianity. As already

indicated in this study, it seems correct to assume that there are some people who call

themselves Christians and yet they struggle to repent and forsake their old ways or

patterns of living. These people supposedly though they call themselves Christians,

people who have responded to the call to follow Christ and are indeed affiliated with a

Christian movement unfortunately they maintaining their old “way of thinking and

living” in relation to material possessions.19

Hence, this investigation argues with

sense of urgency for the unveiling of the biblical ethical principles on this subject and

dissemination thereof through preaching, teaching, Bible study groups and any other

discipleship programs or method that is useful within context to inculcate the truth

from the Word of God. This is desperately needed in Africa and other parts of the

world. The prophetic voice of the Church should not grow still!

19 For example: “Nigeria is even more shocking. Awash in billions of oil and gas dollars and 3.5 billion in aid between 1980 and 2000, Nigeria remains a field of destitution, with open sewers, foul tap water, garbage-strewn roads, tribal violence and corruption in both state and Church… Bishop Bejnamin Kwashi argues that the only way the Church can stomp out corruption is to begin from within” (Can we Defeat Poverty?:2005).

34

In a continent plagued by high rates of corruption, where the majority of

people live in dire poverty, economic disparity, misappropriation of resources,

extortion and lack of basic personal financial skills, it is imperative that the message

of salvation be intentionally preached and taught to effect behaviour change on issues

of material possessions. Luke-Acts “represents fundamental change in thinking that

enables diverse individuals to receive the salvation of God and to live together as a

community of God’s people, and, according to the author, it is an essential element in

the preaching of John the Baptist, Jesus and the apostles” (Nave 2002:146). The great

business of the Church is to reform the world, to put away every kind of sin and to

build a community whose character is commensurate with Kingdom principles. I am

hoping that through the study of the principle of sharing material possessions as found

in Luke (3:10-14) and the book of Acts, this can be reinterpreted anew to express

biblical meaning that applies to the context of the Church in Mozambique.

1.4 Importance of the Research: Reading the Text from Within Tradition

The desired outcome of this study is to present a framework within which the

Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique and other parts of Africa might pursue the

Lukan ethical principle of sharing material possessions as normative theology and

praxis for the Church today. This is, sharing which is divine in nature, that which

does not have any association in nature and/or structure with corruptive lifestyle. As

already hinted a study such as this would seem less important because there have been

so many readings on issues of material possessions, with special focuse on wealth and

poverty in Luke – Acts. Although it will inevitably consider wealth and poverty, the

focus of this investigation is on material possessions in relation to the subject of

35

corruption. The call to share material possessions is as important as the call to obey

God’s commandments on how possessions are obtained. Secondly, it is important to

note that “Scripture’s timeless and trustworthy truths find their way into the

community’s life only by every new effort to reinterpret their meaning for today”

(Wall 2004:41). Since the ultimate goal of this interpretation is the formation of the

Christian community it will be appreciated that the task will be considered both

scientific and sacred.

The interpretation of Luke-Acts herewith will explore the original meaning of

the text. The socio-scientific research done by Malina, Neyrey and Elliot will be

valuable on social aspects of Lukan community because it clarifies the meaning of the

text in relation to its original audience. But the exegetical and theological aspects as it

relates to the community today will be of importance to this study. It will be

appreciated that an attempt to explain the meaning of the text for today’s generation

will be the guiding quest. This requires more than scientific task but rather

acknowledgement of the sacredness of interpretation and dependency upon the

leading of the Holy Spirit. It is unfortunate that numerous “modern scholars too often

ignore the sacred dimension and approach the Bible purely as literature, considering

the sacred aspect to be almost a genre. Yet human efforts can never properly divine

the true message of the Word of God” (Osborne 1991:5).

The contribution of this study will be to stand on high shoulders of the above-

mentioned scholars but to further the research with regard to the exegetical and

theological aspects of Luke-Acts. Another question to be answered is what the

relationship is between the Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts concerning material

possessions. After this has been done some valuable ethical conclusions will be

36

drawn. However, “there is always the danger that in our complex hermeneutical

deliberation about New Testament ethics, we might construct an elaborated system of

rationalizations that simply justify the way we already live our lives. On no other

topic is this danger so acute as on the issue of sharing possessions” (Hays 1996:464).

Therefore, it is anticipated that the emphasis on metadidonai as the leading

principle will also give a new perspective to work from in evaluating the Lukan ethos

on material possessions. The study will also encourage the use of biblical

interpretation in a faithful manner to initiate its reader into a life with God, for the

“normative role of the Scriptures within the Church is to ‘teach, reprove, correct and

train’ believers to know God’s wisdom more completely and to serve God’s purpose

more earnestly’ (2 Tim 3:15-17), yet the interpretation of Scripture that targets a

knowing and faithful relationship with God is no less ‘critical’ than the academy’s

intentions, since the knowing and faithful reader must still ask direction to a faith that

is truly Christian in content and practice” (Wall 2004:91)20

. Thus, the findings of this

investigation will be applied to the Church of the Nazarene in Africa, especially

Mozambique to encourage the Church to become a Scripture shaped community of

believers who’s life is more fitly conformed to the Word of God, especially on the

subject of material possessions as it relates to the subject of addressing the scourge of

corruption and subsequently alliviation of poverty.

The challenge to respond to the ethical issues facing our world is not only for

the “secular” organizations, but the world is also looking to the Church for answers.

We cannot ignore the fact that material possessions influence the ministry of the

20 Furthermore, Wall argues that the aim of biblical interpretation is to make more clear and viable the divine truth and to excite a robust experience of God’s grace, especially for those who have turned to God for salvation through, in, and because of Christ Jesus.

37

Church in a great way. As the Church grows and expands throughout the continent we

are made aware of ethical questions related to material possessions, which requires a

fresh investigation of the Scripture. This study will be influenced by Wesleyan accent

as understood in the Church of the Nazarene. It must be admitted that the reader does

not approach the reading of Luke-Acts on material possessions as neutral and

objective as it would probably be desired. I unashamedly approach this reading with a

desire to interpret the passage of Luke (3:10-14) and related passages in the book of

Luke and Acts for pastoral and prophetic intent (reform) for the Christian life of those

with who I share faith and life (the Church of the Nazarene), thus present a reading

that will have effect in their lives and result in formation of community of Christlike

disciples. (Wall 2004:95).

The Gospel of Luke reveals many instances where the preaching of salvation

confronts the social and economic realities of the day of Luke and his audience.

Therefore, the socio-economic challenges addressed by Luke-Acts were directly

related to the social systems of the day. Material possessions issues, such as the poor

and the rich, and corruption have been a complex subjects to address throughout

history. Like the community of Luke-Acts, today we need to understand dynamics of

material possessions within our socio-religious context. This study advocates for new

clarity and contemporary understanding of God’s word to address such issues. A

clarity and understanding that is Wesleyan in perspective, which, “presses for more

collaborative notion of salvation so that in partnership with Christ and mediated

through the sacraments (primarily of prayer, Scripture and Holy communion). God’s

grace forgives, heals, transforms, and ultimately sanctifies the believer to respond in

active and ever perfecting love toward God and neighbour. Indeed, only in response

38

to God’s saving grace can the believer fully experience God’s promised blessings,

now and in the age to come” (Wall 2004: 102-103).

The study is mindful of the concerns about the state of thousands of members

who belong to the Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique and other African

countries where civil war, natural calamities and ilnesses such as Malaria and

HIV/AIDS have contributed greately to the current socio-economic challeges both

within the Church and the communities in general. Like John Wesley21

and Phineas

Bresee,22

I desire a holiness theology that expresses the Gospel mandate to respond to

the socio-economic plight of the people today. Wesley’s theology was influenced by

socio-economic and politics of the day and age in which he lived. He could not accept

that there are those that are less important in the eyes of the Lord and destined to

suffer with no future to anticipate. He believed that through the spreading of

Scriptural holiness he would make an impact in influencing others to love God and

neighbour (Tracy 1992:30-53). A great number of the Nazarene constituency have

great concerns on issues of material possessions. Therefore, I want to suggest that an

investigation and dissemination of biblical and applicable ethical principles on

21 “Gain all you can; save all you can; give all you can” was Wesley’s most famous statement on the problem of handling worldly goods. Wesley was committed to eradication of poverty. He advocated for the poor, in fact he emptied himself for the sake of the poor. He gave much from his own belongings. He organized relief projects, introduced a loan funds (interest free could be secured up to three months), and involved himself in searching for jobs for the poor. It is interesting that Wesley would advocate for wealth creation for the sake of the poor and well being of individuals and the society as a whole. Wesley’s writings did not challenge his followers to voluntarily surrender all earthly goods, rather to earn as much money as possible; this was limited however, by emphasizing essential honesty in profit making. He also exhorted the people to save or put away earned money and refrain from unnecessary expenditures. Wesley believed that money as such is neither good nor evil. In the hands of God’s children it becomes ‘nourishment for the hungry, drink for the thirsty, and clothing for the naked’. All that money could achieve, good or evil, depended on how people used it (Marquadt 1992:29-36). 22 Identification with the Lord’s own mission had led Wesley to England’s prisons, slums, and mining communities. Now it was the Nazarene founder’s concern. Holiness builds a Church with a heart for the poor and broken (Tracy & Ingersol 1998:12-13).

39

material possessions is not only necessary but also long overdue for the Church in

Africa. Although the investigation is primarily intended to impact the Church of the

Nazarene, I believe that this will be a useful tool to other Churches, too, in particular

those of Wesleyan background.

Since its beginning the Church of the Nazarene has made it a priority to respond

to the plight of the oppressed, marginalized, and the hurting people around the world,

often through relief projects and programs which are welcome, but aim mostly to

address the survival of the victims of war, disaster, and prolonged injustice. They are

short-term solutions and most of the time treat the symptoms and not the disease

(Chambo 2003:133). The Church needs a biblical theology that will guide its

members into a lifestyle of “sharing material possessions” that is transformational and

empowering in nature.

The inequality in distribution of resources and injustice are major concerns in

our world today. The concentration of resources and availability of public services to

benefit the elite are amongst the most common practices that perpetuate corruption in

Africa. Power plays a major role in creation of individual wealth. There are several

people who face major challenges in the area of material possessions because they

lack power. They are victims of the social systems in which they live. The unfortunate

thing is that victims often turn to victimizing each other. This is one of the reasons

why it is not easy to address the scourge of corruption.

I contend that the Church’s mission should be holistic. It is crucial to address

the spiritual needs of the individuals or community as a whole. However, to meet the

spiritual needs of the individuals or communities includes identifying with the

40

pressing needs of the people and striving to bring transformation to benefit the whole

person. The Church should not only address corruption and other social injustices

because it affects the majority of its constituency but rather because this is a mandate

from God’s Word for those who are true disciples. Both the Old and New Testaments

point to God’s imperatives towards material possessions. The Church is obliged to

follow biblical guidelines but must imaginatively suggest possible applications of the

text, which are contextual to the African constituency.

I do not intend to suggest that the guidelines and strategies outlined by the

government and other specialists on the subject are less important, rather I want to

impress that the problem of corruption transcends material needs and embraces the

spiritual being of people. The ethics of material possessions must be embedded in the

soteriological vision for discipleship. Therefore, the prophetic voice of the Church

should never be stilled. We need a message that will empower the Church to be the

voice of the Lord to bring liberation to the oppressed and marginalized. Jesus has set

the example and his disciples are to follow his footprints. Instead of fleeing from the

pain, poverty and brokenness of the world, we (should) find ourselves being drawn in

following Christ right into the middle of the hurting world. The followers of Christ

have a charge “to preach the Gospel to the poor; to heal the broken-hearted, to

proclaim liberty to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to set at liberty

those who are oppressed; to proclaim the jubilee” (Luke 4:18-19).

Those contending that the solution of the issues facing the Church in Africa is

to be resolved by providing a guiding statement in the Church’s official documents

41

are not mistaken23

; this is important. But we need to hear the prophetic message as

clearly as possible from the Word of God. The official documents of the Church do

not replace the Word of God, but they do offer a comprehensive synopsis of the

Biblical interpretation of principles of the Kingdom of God and how they might apply

to those who turn to the Church of the Nazarene for spiritual guidance in their

Christian walk. Thus, constantly and with great commitment, the Church of the

Nazarene must purpose to relate the timeless biblical principles to contemporary

society in such a way that the doctrine and covenants of the Church may be known

and understood in many parts of the world and within a variety of cultures.

The Church of the Nazarene holds that the Ten Commandments, as reaffirmed

in the New Testament, constitute the basic Christian ethic and ought to be obeyed in

all particulars. Oswalt (1991:41-42) rightfully wrote, “The fundamental human

problems are neither ignorance nor faulty of distribution of wealth, as serious as those

problems are, and as worthy as they are of careful attention. Education will not make

a person noble, or self-denying, or generous. It simply gives him or her more efficient

ways of achieving his or her self-serving ends. Likewise, enforced economic equality

does not cause the state to wither away or to decrease the occurrence of violent

oppression. In fact, as time passes both of these, the state and violent oppressions

become the more necessary in order to maintain the purposed equality.” This

investigation contends that the applicability of sharing material possessions as an

ethical principle that shaped the community of Luke-Acts depended on the response

23 The law is not an assurance that those who read the Bible would automatically be God’s children. For instance, “The Hebrew people recognized the essential good of the TORAH, but were unable to obey it. There was something within them that preferred darkness to light, and evil to good. They would rather have bondage under the illusion of freedom than to have freedom within the confines of service” (Oswalt 1991:43).

42

of the people to the call to repentance. Therefore, it is important for the Church to

address the issues of corruption by disseminating the Word of God. This requires

contextual interpretation of the text to effect the hearts of the people in Africa.

The Church of the Nazarene in Africa must embody and advocate for biblical,

socio-ethical principles to effect both to the Nazarene constituency as well as the

ongoing search for solutions to the problem of suffering and corruption in the

continent. As already argued in this study, it must be upheld that the kingdom ethics

on the principle of sharing of material possessions, the economic justice and

prevention of greed go hand in hand.

1.5 Research Method and Structure

1.5.1 Research Method

The nature of this study requires a use of social scientific reading approaches.

The author of Luke-Acts and his original audience were cultured and socialized in a

specific social system at a given time and place that differs from our setting and time.

The message conveyed by Luke-Acts is embedded “within the symbolic moral system

of his society, not in contrast with it. Jesus did not step out of the moral world of his

society and design his own, new symbolic moral system. Rather, he developed and

articulated his own perspective within this symbolic system and put specific emphasis

on some dimension of it” (Malina 1996:45). Therefore, the exegesis of Luke 3:10-14

and interpretation of the parallel response recorded in Acts 2:43-45 and 4:32-35 on

ethics of material possession cannot be completed without considering the social

systems or meaning being expressed in the Luke-Acts text as a whole.

43

The survey and articulation of the sharing as an ethical principle on material

possessions according to Luke-Acts should not only be informed by collection of

geographical, historical and literary details. A comprehensive understanding and

interpretation of any biblical passage requires that the exegete learn about the culture

and social systems that held the community of the text together. What did they value?

What were the most important cultural and moral values? How are those values being

expressed in the biblical text? According to Malina (1991:5-6), “people use language

to have an effect on others in terms of the meanings of the social systems. And people

learn those meanings along with language of their society in the process of growing

up.” Thus, this study will employ methods of cultural anthropology to unravel the

culture of Luke-Acts world. This perspective of social sciences criticism will enhance

the comprehension of the principle of sharing material possessions in the Luke-Acts

text and other texts of the Old and New Testament.

“Social scientific criticism is a sub-discipline of exegetical and inseparably

related to other operations of the exegetical enterprise” (Elliott 1992:7). The choice of

this method for this investigation is motivated by a desire to develop awareness of

behavioural patterns, values, social structures, cultural scripts, and social processes of

the biblical world, the world within which and from which the sacred tradition drew

their vitality and meaning (Elliott 1986:3). “Luke begins his story about Jesus and the

Jesus movement by situating it within a specific social matrix involving not only

Jesus’ family but world and local events (Luke 1-3) … Luke makes explicit what is

implicit throughout the New Testament: the lives, ministry and message, actions and

impact of Jesus and his followers are all rooted in a matrix of social and cultural

forces. As these factors are essential to the narrating of this story and the concretizing

44

of its implications so the study of these factors are essential to a grasp of the story’s

meaning” (Elliott 1993:7). This approach will yield the understanding of the current

reader to both the reflection and response of John the Baptist, Jesus, the Apostles and

the early church to issues of material possessions within the social and cultural

settings in which the Luke-Acts text was produced.

The social scientific criticism applies insights and methods from the fields of

sociology, anthropology and ethnography to unveil aspects of ancient social life

manifested in Luke-Acts. This offers resources for the reader to reconstruct the social

worlds behind the texts. Several readers of Luke-Acts have already applied the social

scientific task to gain valid understanding of the text, but most of these Luke-Acts

scholars have done this with the aim or goal to interpret the message as it relates to

their immediate context.24

As a result of this, various bible scholars have presented a

comprehensive study of the social world of Luke-Acts to which I will refer in further

discussions of this investigation. These studies are important for this exegetical work

because they provide me with valuable information regarding the meaning expressed

in the wording of the text, in its original context; “the cultural background not only

deepens our understanding of the original text but also provides a bridge to the current

significance of the text. A delineation of the customs presupposed or addressed in the

text enable us to separate the underlying principles (the doctrines used to address the

24 For instance, “in 1986 a group of scholars, who call themselves The Context Group, formed a seminar to apply the social sciences for interpretation of biblical texts…In their use of the social sciences for interpretation, the members of this group aimed to produce a comprehensive volume of Luke-Acts studies that might serve as a representative collection of material and models needed for understanding biblical texts within the cultures of the people who produced them” (Neyrey 1991:ix-x). The reading of Neyrey, Malina, Richard L. Rohrbaugh, Elliott and other scholars represented in this book and other further research clearly state that their goal is to understand the social setting of the text with the aim to find a way to interpret the text so that it meets the needs of the church today in the US” (Neyrey 1991:1-23).

45

original context) from the surface commands (the contextualization of the deeper

principles from the original situation). Next, we can identify similar situations today

and allow those deep principles to address us anew” (Osborne 1991:134). As already

indicated the aim of this study is to interpret the text anew for the Church of the

Nazarene in Mozambique, in the 21st century, which in turn requires that the reader be

knowledgeable about the culture and social systems of the intended (new) audience.

Therefore, I will give a brief background of the social and cultural structure of the

people of Mozambique. Since, I intend for this work to reach a wider readership, I

will be as descriptive as possible about the social systems in Mozambique, as it relates

to this investigation.

In sum, the Luke-Acts text was authored within a context of Eastern

Mediterranean and Palestinian Jewish social systems. A number of scholars (e.g.

Neyrey 1991) have investigated and reconstructed the social setting of Luke-Acts

with the aim to interpret the text for the US readers.25

The current reader was cultured

in Mozambique and South African context, with theological training within the

Wesleyan tradition. Therefore, this exegetical work will consider the scenario model

or adequate scenario26

of the Luke-Acts social context based on the work of Malina,

25 As they categorically state: “Thus modern readers of Luke-Acts are presumably contextualized US readers with a sense of history. They read and/hear these documents in social setting such as church or school in public or in private. US fairness, therefore, requires that the reader’s first step be to strive to understand what the author says and means to say to his Mediterranean hearers in terms of their culture and within their social setting” (Neyrey 1991:22). 26 Malina, recommends what he calls scenario model for a better understanding of the text’s message: this model’s focus is on the ‘why-what it meant to the lives of the people when the text was produced’. This scenario requires from the reader a consideration of some appropriate scenes or models within the Biblical text and use those to situate the meaning proposed in the text as far as it is possible. This model argues that ‘considerate authors attempt to understand their readers; they will take up and elaborate the scenarios shared by their readers. And more than this, considerate authors will always strive to develop their scenarios by beginning with what the reader knows and coupling to that new, unknown features they wish to impart to readers and hearers’ (Neyrey 1991: 14-16).

46

Neyrey and other Bible scholars; while at the same time lean on Wesleyan Nazarene

heritage and theological persuasion to interpret the passages of Luke 3:10-14, Acts

2:41-47 and 4:32-35 to meet the needs of the people in the social cultural context of

Mozambique and other parts of the African continent.

1.5.2 Research Structure

The first chapter will present an overview of the study. This overview will be

comprised by the following aspects: background and purpose, the importance and

relevance of the study to the Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique, the research

method and design as well as the importance of reading the Text from within tradition

(reading the Bible in Wesleyan ways). The chapter also includes a brief discussion of

the socio-scientific method of research to be used in this study, the structure of the

research and how and what information will be used/analized to inform the study.

The second chapter offers a brief survey of the social world of Luke-Acts and

an introduction to the study of the principle of metadidonai as an ethical principle

according to the Gospel of Luke 3:10-14 and give special consideration to its relation

and/or application in the life of the early church describe as community of sharing in

Acts 2:41-47 and 4:32-37. In this chapter I will investigate how the social systems of

the world of the author and his original audience impact the meaning of the Luke-

Acts stance on material possessions. Thus, peculiar findings of prominent readers of

cultural and social systems of Luke-Acts will be considered. Following the

introductory background to Luke-Acts and its discipleship motif I will investigate

how honour and shame relate to the theological motif of material possessions in Luke-

Acts. Thereafter, I will strive to discuss sharing possessions as it was heard in the

47

Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts. Although I view Luke-Acts as my text, an

attempt will be made to allow individual voices of these two volumes of work of Luke

to be heard and their distinctiveness on ethical issues of material possessions to be

appreciated.

As already mentioned the interpretation of sharing material possessions as an

ethical principle according to Luke-Acts will be embellished with a Wesleyan accent.

This is, the reading will be from a Wesleyan soteriological27

accent with the

understanding that Scriptures must be interpreted and heard with the goal to effect

change in the lives of its recipients. The aim of the exegesis here is to lead people into

the way and experience of salvation (Wall 2004:39-55). Hence, the descriptive task of

the social world of Luke-Acts and of the understanding of the original meaning of the

text should not be viewed as the end in itself, but I rather view this as the necessary

step that enables the current reader to enter the text to discern a new meaning of the

text for today’s social world.

The third chapter will be dedicated to answering the question of coherence

among the Old and New Testament witnesses to discern a wholeness or unity among

individual voices as it relates to ethical stance on material possessions (Hays

1996:168). This investigation will include an attempt to discern how the people of

Israel in the Old Testament understood and applied the principle of sharing material

possessions. Furthermore the study will consider how the Jewish understanding

27 The beneficiaries of sound interpretation are to be liberated from their sins and its destructive results. The soteriological cast of Wesleyan hermeneutics is both theological and practical (Wall 2004:51). “The preaching of Scripture intends certain results – conversion, repentance, changed life, moral action, deeper devotion, community building. Wesley never measured the orthodoxy of a sermon by theological proposition alone but by practical result as well” (Wall 2004:54).

48

influenced the New Testament’s interpretation of the principle and its application in

the context of the ethics of the Kingdom of God inaugurated in Christ Jesus. The goal

is to discern how the principle of sharing material possessions found in Luke-Acts fits

in the canon of the Bible as a unity.

Chapter four will offer a brief survey of cultural and social systems of the

people of Mozambique as well as the effects that the Nazarene holiness movement

has had on the people of Mozambique in socio-economic ethics. The social scientific

method will be one more time applied in order to understand the Nazarene holiness

movement and the effects on cultural and social systems of the people of

Mozambique.

To reconstruct this historical scenario it will be necessary to conduct

interviews, analyze case studies and review available literature on the subject, with

the intent to unveil how the Church has responded over the decades to biblical

principles on material possessions (Mouton, J. & Marais 1993:7-25). The main

question is: “How do we appropriate the Lukan ethical principles on material

possessions as a message addressed to us?” In this chapter, I will also propose a set of

hermeneutical guidelines for critical evaluation of normative appeals to Luke – Acts;

this includes analyzing metadidonai.

The fifth chapter will focus on the question of embodying of the Lukan

imperatives in the contemporary Church and society in Mozambique. The embodying

of the Scripture’s imperatives in the life of the Christian community is the ultimate

goal; for without this living embodiment of the Word, none of the above deliberations

matters (Hays 1996:6). The Church is a countercultural community of discipleship,

49

and this community is the primary addressee of God’s imperatives. “The biblical

story focuses on God’s design for forming a covenant people. Thus the primary

sphere of moral concern is not the character of the individual but the corporate

obedience of the Church… The community in its corporate life is called to embody an

alternative order that stands as a sign of God’s redemptive purpose in the world”

(Hays 1996:196).

The embodiment of normative theology of Luke-Acts requires a paradigm

shift which entails willingness to follow Christ right into the middle of the suffering

people of Mozambique. This is, obeying the call to take up the cross and follow in the

way that his death defines. To be Jesus’ disciple is to be obedient to His call to bear

the cross. However, those who hold power in order to ensure the acquiescent suffering

of the powerless should not use the image of the cross. Instead, the New Testament

insists that the community as a whole is called to follow in the way of Jesus’

suffering. It is crucial to note that consistently the New Testament calls those who

possess power and privilege to surrender it for the sake of the weak28

(Hays, R.

1996:19).

The ultimate goal is to prove that Lukan ethics on material possessions is

normative for the Church today. The issue of corruption cannot be divorced from the

28 “But Jesus called them to Himself and said to them, ‘You know that those who are considered rulers over the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones exercise authority over them. Yet it shall not be so among you. Instead, whoever wants to be great among you shall be your servant. And whoever of you desires to be first shall be slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give His life a ransom for many” (Mark. 10:42-45). The disciples of Jesus are called to renounce worldly practices that are contrary to the Kingdom’s norms and embrace the source of life that flows from heaven.

50

subject of wealth and poverty, because corruption is a result of injustices and

distortion of God’s commandments concerning the obtention and use of material

possessions. Therefore, it is hoped that this investigation will inform and equip the

Church on how to deal with the fast spreading corruptive activities on the African

continent.

1.5.3 Data Sources

I will critically read a variety of resources on issues of material possessions.

These will include scholarly documents, journals, books and articles that address

biblical ethics on material possessions, with special focus to the principle of sharing

possessions found in Luke-Acts. I will review documents related to the Church that

are relevant to this subject and resources that describe and address social systems of

the people of Mozambique. The other source of information will result from formal

and informal interviews, conversations, class discussions, focus groups and personal

experience/observation of behavioural and cultural patterns of the people in

Mozambique and other parts of Africa

The interviews will give me first-hand insight into the background of people.

In this way, I shall have a hint of the impact of corruption and how it relates to issues

of poverty and wealth. I will also personally observe the conditions of the people. I

will listen to the points of view of the people on the concept of corruption and issues

of material possessions in general. Lastly, the interviews will serve as a foundation for

a case study on how some Christians view the issue of corruption in relation to their

call to be disciples of Jesus. The interviews will supplement data collected from

written documents, especially on issues of corruption and material possessions in

51

general in Mozambique. A personal confrontation with the poor people of

Mozambique will also serve as inspiration and motivation for the researcher to

advocate for justice and for the cause of the poor.

Two hundred and fifty (250) respondents will be selected to undergo an

individual or group interviews. The group will include those who are being trained at

the Nazarene Seminary in Mozambique to be pastors. This group will be considered a

group of future pastors. The second group will include pastors and lay leaders in the

Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique. The last group will include members of the

Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique as well as a few non-Nazarene members, but

those who have worked with Nazarenes and are in some ways conversant with the

teachings of the Church even though they do not associate themselves with these

teachings.

The interviews shall cover the respondents’ family background, point of view

in life, religious orientation, social status, current condition and a description of

his/her environment. I will attempt to not influence the views of the respondents and

maintain objectivity to get the best out of my respondents, because their views and

interpretation of the issues are crucial for this study. I have tried to maintain short but

concise questions to create an environment where my interviewees do not see this

investigation as an interrogation, but rather an attempt to understand the issues in

order to produce guidelines that might be applicable to the much needed solutions to

address the issues of corruption in Mozambique.

52

It will be appreciated that the interviews were conducted in Portuguese,

Tsonga and Ronga, then interpreted to English. The knowledge of these languages has

proven to be important for this study because there is a lot of interpretation of social

system that can be found in the words that people use. Language is a vital tool for

understanding the cultural context. Conversing in the language in use in the context

gave me better access to the culture. This helped me to access information and aspects

of the culture that would otherwise be difficult to gain if I was perceived an outsider.

However, it is important to note that some meaning found in the first language of the

people is difficult to interpret or translate into a second language. Therefore, even

though I have attempted to capture what is essential, it is possible that some meaning

may have been lost in the process of interpretation. This is one of the weaknesses of

the process of research that is often to be presented in a language other than the one

that was used to collect the data on the field.

Although, the language gave me better access to the people, my job title did

cause some reservations on the part of my interviewees since I was the principal and

lecturer as well as pastor of a church. At the school I had already dealt with some

students because of their involvement in situations that could be seen as condoning

bribe and other corruptive activities in the country. For instance, one young man who

argued in the interview that there is no way that we can live without getting involved

in corruption for it is a way of life in Mozambique was both my student and also an

intern under me in Matola Church where I was pastoring. He also had an issue in the

past in which he had paid a bribe to get a job as a night guard. He also knew what my

position in relation to the subject was. Because of all of this, there were times when

53

he seemed perturbed that I took notes of what he and others were saying in our

conversations.

In those instances, most of the time almost everyone would try to be

“politically correct”. Another student had difficulty participating in the discussions

because he had a job in which he used a false name to keep the job and a salary. He

worked as Steven Masiquela who had graduated from the college. Unfortunately, one

evening when he was on duty, the place was robbed. The following day the

management came looking for him. When they came to my office and reported that

they were looking for Massiquela, I told them that I think that there is a mistake

because the person they were looking for had graduated a year ago. Not only had he

graduated a year ago, but Massiquela, when he returned home, got sick and passed on.

Then it was later revealed that one of my students had secured the job of Massiquela

by paying a bribe. This was another case of a student that had difficulty in being open

and truthful in the focus group. Because of circumstances such as these, I had to be

very careful to not give an impression that I was interrogating my respondents. I soon

realized that it was important for my respondent to be assured that I would keep

confidential what I did not get permission to use, including the use of names. I also

informed my respondent that my desire was to find biblical solutions that can assist us

as the Church to participate meaningfully in the fight against corruption, poverty and

injustice.

In this study I will observe the confidentiality of the information and the

identity of the provider of the information as well. The interviews were structured and

sometimes semi-structured depending on the circumstances in which they took place.

54

I have pre-determined questions to be asked, but these were not necessarily discussed

fully in all the conversations. The questions were means to understand the scenarios

of social systems of the people in Mozambique, especially on how they view and

address ethics of material possessions. Since Mozambique is one of the poorest

countries in the world, several questions begin with the issue of poverty and how it is

perceived to be impacting the development of the country as well as its relation to

corruption. Since, the respondents are Christians, thus expected to live according to

the ethics of the Bible, the impact of the Church in dealing with this problem is

brought to the picture.

The goal is not to present verbatim the comments of the respondents. I use the

survey to give me access to scenarios of ethics of material possessions within the

philosophy of ubuntu, to enhance my understanding of the literature that addresses

this subject. I also use this information to compare with scenarios of the world of

Luke-Acts and to reinterpret the Luke-Acts text to respond to the needs of the Church

today. Therefore, the questionnaire that follows raises diverse questions that in the

last chapter will influence the discussion of how the ethos of sharing possessions as

found in Luke-Acts should be applied within the context in order to shape the ethos of

the Church today in Africa.

1.5.4 Interview Questions

1. What is your opinion about wealth and poverty?

2. Can you describe your environment, in terms of its social, political, cultural

and economic aspects?

55

3. Do you believe that you are really experiencing poverty? What about the

country as a whole? Is poverty widespread?’

4. What do you think are the causes of poverty?

5. Do you know any of the programs embraced by the government to alleviate

poverty? What impact do these programs have in the country?

6. What is the role of the government officials/politicians in triggering poverty?

7. How do you rate the graft and corruption in this country?

8. Do you think that poverty and corruption are related matters?

9. Is social justice recognized in your country? Equality?

10. What do you think are the solutions to eliminate poverty?

11. Do you know the Church of the Nazarene? Are you a member of this church?

How long have you been a part of this movement? Why?

12. Can you explain the message of salvation and holiness as proclaimed by the

Church of the Nazarene?

13. Do you know any of the programs embraced by the Church of the Nazarene to

alleviate poverty and corruption?

14. Can you list a few ethical principles in relation to graft and corruption that are

part of your community (traditional and religious teachings)?

15. How practical are these principles when considering the situation that you

described earlier?

16. In your own ways, how can you help eliminate corruption?

17. Do you think that the Church can help in the alleviation of corruption? In what

way?

18. Does your church adhere to any specific programs or policies in relation to

poverty and corruption?

56

19. Is sharing of possessions a potential solution to poverty? How does sharing of

possessions translate into your cultural beliefs?

20. What do you know about Ubuntu? How does a philosophy of humanism

known as Ubuntu relate into the message of sharing possessions?

21. The New Testament calls for just use of money and for sharing with the

needy. How is this carried out in your local church?

1.6 Conclusion

This chapter gives an overall orientation to the study of the principle of

“metadidonai” according to Luke 3:10-14 and the book of Acts. The investigation on

how this principle might be applied to address the current issues on material

possessions in Mozambique, with special focus to issues of corruption, is central to

this study. I seek to examine how sharing has been used to address material

possessions issues in the Bible and how we might interpret anew the biblical text on

this subject for the formation of the Christian community in Mozambique today. The

discussions around the Church of the Nazarene serve as a case study for this

investigation, but it is hoped that the applicability will be for a wider Christian

community.

The research methodology that will be used in this study seeks to first and

foremost assist the reader to understand the meaning of the text. The meaning of the

text does not reside in words, but rather in the socio-cultural context of the author of

the text and of the original audience. Thus it is crucial to apply socio-scientific

methods to have a fresh understanding of meaning that cannot be attained otherwise.

The understanding of the meaning of the text will in turn guide the reader to interpret

57

the passage in its canonical context while at the same time attempting to discern how

it might be reinterpreted to address today’s needs.

I argue in this chapter that my Wesleyan Nazarene heritage will also play a

major role on my hermeneutical approach to Luke-Acts principle of sharing material

possessions. In addition, the understanding of the socio-cultural context of the people

of Mozambique, especially the Church of the Nazarene is of utmost importance for

this interpretation, hence, I recommend and use an ethnographic method. The next

chapter will begin the process of putting in practice the socio-scientific method

recommended by Neyrey (1991) to unveil the meaning of Luke-Acts Text, and

attempt to discern the meaning that is found in the teachings, the theology and ethics

of the text with focus on the use of principle of sharing material possessions in Luke

3:10-14 and parallel response thereof in Acts 2:41-47 and 4:32-37.

58

Chapter 2

Luke’s Stance on Material Possessions

2.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to offer a brief introduction to the social world of

Luke-Acts and examine Lukan’s stance on material possessions in light of the sharing

(metadidonai) principle found in Luke 3:10-14. It is crucial to indicate right at the

beginning of this chapter that metadidonai per se is only used once in the Gospel of

Luke (3:11). In fact in the entire New Testament ��, “to share” is

only used in Luke 3:11; Rom. 1:11, 12:8; Eph. 4:28; 1 Thes. 2:8; the principle is used

for both sharing material possessions and the Good News. The book of Acts does not

use the word ��, but its parallel both in expression and action. The

word used in Acts to express the act of sharing possessions is koinos, which means

sharing with someone else in a possession or a relationship implying mutual interest.

It is noteworthy that the principle of sharing material possessions is expressed in a

variety of ways and words both in the Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts. The call

to sell possessions and give alms to the poor as well as the life style adopted by the

Acts community in chapter 2 and 4, to relinquish private or individual ownership of

possession is all rooted in the concept of sharing possessions. Hence, the study argues

that Luke-Acts applies sharing, as the principle of the Kingdom Ethics, to address the

issues of how material possessions are obtained, used and distributed.

One of Luke’s motifs is to instruct his readers on the right use of material

possessions. Throughout his writings in both the Gospel of Luke and the book of

Acts, he emphasises that material possessions are God’s resources entrusted to human

care. According to Luke, humans are stewards of God’s resources; God’s resources

59

are to be used in accordance with biblical directives. Sharing material possessions

with those in need is a sign of acknowledgement that these resources are not meant

for personal accumulation but rather to share with those in need and to care for God’s

children (Kim 1998: 131-167).

However, Lukan stance on material possessions is embedded in the ethos of

both the first century eastern Mediterranean context and Palestinian Jewish tradition;

therefore the background information of the social systems of Luke-Acts community

is vital for this study. The understanding of the social systems29

in which the text was

developed is important because, “people are always wrapped in social roles, sets of

social rights and obligations relative to others. These symbolic roles situate people in

relation to others and give them social status, for example, the status of mother,

father, son, daughter, rich, poor, and the like. The social systems then turns out to be a

patterned arrangement of role sets, status sets, and status sequences consciously

recognized and regularly at work in a given society. Social structures thus keep

people apart, bring them together, define differences, point up similarities and

constrain and facilitate action” (Malina 2001:23). Intern, this is important for the

understanding of the original meaning of the text, and also to provide the basis for a

new interpretation of the sharing principle according to Luke-Acts for the

Mozambican context.

29 “Social system refers to the general ways in which a society provides its members with a socially meaningful way of living. The social system includes: (1) culture, i.e.; the accepted ways of interpreting the world and everything in it; (2) social structures, e.g. the accepted ways of marrying, having children, working, governing, worshipping and understanding God; and accepted ways of being a person (including self-understanding). People use language to have an effect on others in terms of the meanings of the social system. And people learn these meanings along with the language of their society in the process of growing up” (Malina 1991:5-6).

60

The investigations of the Luke-Acts’ social context will provide the current

reader with details of the social systems that impacted the lives of both the writer and

his original audience. It will be appreciated that honour was the most important

commodity that people within this society had to constantly guard, maintain and or

strive to acquire. Thus, honour served “as a register which entitles a person to interact

in specific ways with equals, superiors and subordinates, according to the prescribed

cultural cues of the society” (Neyrey 1991:26). As a result of this, “honour and

shame” scenarios will dominate the discussions on the teachings of Luke-Acts, on

sharing of material possessions. Honour as a value in this context will be examined to

provide some background information about what “the text meant” to its original

audience in the context of “honour and shame” community. The scenario of

“honour and shame” will serve as a frame within which to situate the meaning of

Luke-Acts text as it relates to the original cultural context. It will be observed later,

how this scenario relates to the cultural values in Mozambique, consideration of this

will be in direct relation to issues of material possessions.

The exegete of Luke 3:10-14 and Acts of the Apostles requires an

understanding of the meaning that is hidden in the language of the text which is found

in the culture of the community during that period of time. This is, culture and value

expressed in the language codes of the first century Eastern Mediterranean and

Palestine Jewish tradition do not easily make sense to today’s reader. These language

codes do not automatically translate meaning to the cultural values of Africans. This

is due to a combination of reasons: first, the cultural context of the first century

Mediterranean world is different from the 21st century African world. Second, a great

deal of the interpretation we have of biblical texts is Western or Eurocentric.

61

The culture and values are often hidden within the text because of limitations

on the understanding of the language in which the text was developed and presented.

“Language is the framework in which we live; it is the structure that gives meaning to

our existence. People in different sociological environments operate with different

linguistic forms. The interaction between their sociolinguistic perspective and the

language of a text results in a unique understanding about the power and meaning of

the text. One therefore should not expect that persons in one sociolinguistic

framework will interpret a text in the same way as people living in a different one”

(Blount 1995:4). As an educator and student I have observed that resources written in

a different culture and setting need to be read and/or reintepreted within context for

one to gain a comprehensive understanding of the message of the text. This is an

important aspect for understanding any written text or even an oral speech, but in my

opinion it is even more compeling for Biblical interpretation wich aims at Christian

formation. It is unfortunate that in various part of Africa there are several preachers,

educators and students who are drawn to assimilate sociological and liguistic

framework of Eurocentric cultures and interpretation of the Scriptures and equate this

with being a disciple of Jesus Christ. The Eurocentric Bible interpretation resources

and Bible aids are valuable for Bible student in Africa, however this interpretation

might not address issues that African are faced with. Thus, contextual interpretation

and application of the biblical text is of utmost importance.

The background overview of Luke-Acts will include discussion of the purpose

and theology of the text, within its context with primary focus to sharing material

possessions as an ethical principle of the Kingdom of God. I am aware of the

scholarly debate about the Lukan authorship, however, it is not the intent of this

62

investigation to examine the authenticity of Lukan’s authorship, and hence attempt to

discus authorship will be concise. The purpose of this study is to establish the

meaning, to find out what the text did mean to the original audience, and how we can

apply it today as a normative Word from God to us, even though we do not reside in

the Mediterranean world.

In sum, the guiding question to this investigation is “What social system and

social meaning is the Luke - Acts text on issues of material possessions expressing?”

and not “Who was the author of Luke-Acts?” The understanding of the original

intended meaning requires access to the social system of the place and time of the

audience of Luke - Acts as suggested by Neyrey and Malina (1991:5-11). What is

crucial for this investigation is to unveil the world that shaped the author and his

auditors’ thought patterns, writing style, use of language as well as the issues that

constituted an ethical challenge at that particular time. This will enhance the

understanding of the ethical principles found in Luke and Acts on material

possessions for the contemporary reader in Mozambique.

2.2 Introductory Background to Luke and Acts

Convention argues that the Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts of the

Apostles are products of the same author. Both Luke and Acts were intended to

provide Theophilus and other readers with certainty and assurance or credibility of the

biblical teachings or in other words, the credibility of the kingdom principles given by

the Lord Jesus to shape the lives of the people in this world. The language, the

coherence of ethical principles found in Luke and Acts, and the cross-references

between the two volumes are some of the bases conventionally used to indicate that

63

this work was produced by the same author who is designated by tradition as “Luke.”

I follow convention in this matter and refer to Luke as the author of both the Gospel

according to Luke and the book of the Acts of the Apostles. Luke has been described

as Gentile, well educated in Greek and culture, physician and travelling companion of

Paul (Col. 4:10-14; 2 Tim 4:11; Philemon v. 24).

The author of Luke – Acts was not one of the chosen twelve apostles of Jesus

who were considered eyewitnesses. However, his passion and desire to unveil the

truth compelled him to write a prophetic text and to model through it what he

considered acceptable responses to the call to repentance and forgiveness of sin. Luke

investigated the truth from those who participated in Jesus’ ministry from the

beginning. According to the author, Luke 1:1-4, his main sources were autoptes,

“eyewitnesses is composed of autos, ‘oneself,’ and the perfect tense of horao, ‘see’.

So it signifies ‘one who has seen for himself’... Luke had probably never seen Jesus,

but he had consulted with many eyewitnesses in Palestine” (Earle 1994:50) and had

also investigated them for accuracy and coherence.

The apostles of Jesus, according to Acts, were eyewitnesses; they had

travelled with Jesus; they were witnesses of Jesus’ life and ministry as well as death

and resurrection, for instance, replacement of Judas was not open to those who had

not been eyewitnesses (Meeks 2003:153). The qualification for the candidate was that

he should be from among the “men who have been travelling with us during the

whole time that the Lord Jesus went in and out with us, beginning from the baptism of

John until the day when he was taken up from us” (Acts 1:21-23). He clearly

indicates that the apostles of Jesus were eyewitnesses of all that Jesus began to do, but

64

he makes no claim of being one of them. “Nevertheless, the aim of Luke’s project is

not to describe that formative beginning as some golden age to be enshrined in pious

nostalgia, but to continue the witness30

” (Meeks 2003:153).

Although Luke was not an eyewitness he understood his role of a prophetic

voice to the people of his time to require of him investigation, reconstruction and

rhetorical force to influence positively the ethics of his time with greater confidence.

Paul, who also continued the witness, displays similar confidence; like Luke, he was

not an eyewitness, as a matter of fact he attempted to halt all the plans to continue

witness by intensifying persecution to the followers of Christ. But when he was

transformed and endued with the power of God he became a witness of the

resurrection of Jesus Christ and preacher of forgiveness of sins and repentance31

. “For

Luke’s own project, Paul is a bridge figure, between the arch of the eyewitness in

Galilee and Judea and the author’s own ‘belated’ generation, who can be witnesses

only by investigation, reconstruction and rhetorical force” (Meeks 2003:154). Hence,

Meeks concludes, it is a shame that the Church today lacks confidence; Luke “was

30 Luke had outstanding command of Greek language. He conformed his writings to the requirements of ancient historiography; “this is indicated at the outset by his choice of words and by his, stress on accuracy, careful research, and truth” (Hur 2001:19). Luke, like other ancient writers, aimed to convince his audience with the truth, hence he applied the literal style and methods that would communicate with his constituency. Robbins, is correct to point out that the Luke-Acts witness is situated on the biblical heritage or great tradition of Israel events. He argues that Luke places his witness on the great tradition of Israel located in the Torah and prophets. (Neyrey 1991:305-314). Hence, I will argue later that there is some coherence on the teachings of Luke-Acts on material possessions and those of the Old Testament and New Testament. This is because, I believe through the reading of the text that the biblical heritage and historical tradition of the people of Israel played a major role in his project of rewriting the account on ethics of the Kingdom for his context. Of course this may mean that Luke’s witnesses were not all written documents, but also people that knew the greater tradition of the biblical heritage and that have witnessed the ministry of Jesus Christ. Luke does a good job of linking the events of the great tradition of Israel to the current events of his audience, with a Christocentric focus. 31 “Paul did not belong to the apostolic eyewitnesses, who had foundational position determined by their belonging to the beginning of the whole story, yet he is both hyperetes (assistant) and martys (witness)” (Meeks 2003:154).

65

confident that his own investigation of the tradition could discern ‘what is absolutely

reliable’”.

In Acts, Luke reminds the reader of his two volume work that the endowment

by the Holy Spirit was crucial for the fulfilment of the calling to be witnesses.

Although Luke was a skilled writer and had followed the appropriate methodology of

reading and investigating the Scriptures and the impact of the life and ministry of

Jesus, he underscores the fact that witnesses need to be endued with the Holy Spirit to

discern God’s will. Thus, according to Luke, words and methodologies are not

sufficient, not even having been one who walked with Jesus as eyewitness would lead

to fulfilment of the great commission, but a changed life style would be necessary to

bear witness about Christ’s power to transform behaviour, life style and moral values

of individuals as well as community of those who believe in him.

I believe that Luke-Acts is intended to be means of grace and to effect ethical

change in the lives of the readers, both the original and current. But who were the

original audience of Luke-Acts? Luke identifies “Theophilus” as the recipient of

these two volumes (Luke 1:3 and Acts 1:1), with the purpose to present to him a

reconstructed, trustworthy and fresh interpretation of the plan of God that was

fulfilled through Jesus Christ in the world and is to be continued through Christ’s

witnesses. According to Acts 1:1-9 and the ending statement of the Gospel of Luke

(24:36-53), the disciples of Jesus are commissioned to preach repentance and

forgiveness of sin but before this becomes a reality they were to be endued with the

power of the Holy Spirit to sanctify and empower them to do the work of the Lord.

66

For Luke the knowledge of historical facts about the life and teachings of

Jesus is not all that matters. He retells the story of salvation with the hope that change

of behaviour would take place. Hence, he states, “Inasmuch as many people have

tried to compose a narrative about the things that have come to fulfilment among us,

according to the tradition that those who from the beginning of the matter were its

eyewitnesses and assistants have handed down to us, it occurred to me too, your

Excellency32

, that because I had made an accurate investigation of everything from its

outset, I was in a position to write for you, Theophilus, a sequential account, so that

you know what is absolutely reliable in the report about which you have been

informed (Luke 1:1-4).33

We can deduce from these verses that Luke’s auditors were

in some way informed about Christ, his life and ministry. Of course, “we can not be

certain as to whether (the implied recipient) Theophilus was already a convicted

Christian, but what is clear is that he was well informed about the Christian Gospel.

We might go so far as to label him a ‘God-fearer’, many of whom in the days of the

early church became Christians when the good news was proclaimed to them” (Du

Plessis 1989:154).

I contend that this could very well be a similar situation in Mozambique and

other parts of Africa where millions of people have responded to a call to be

Christians but thousands have not made a full commitment to be Christ’s disciples

(“convicted Christians” to use the language of Du Plessis) and to forsake everything.

Although sharing possessions is part of the kinship groups in Africa, this principle is

32 According to du Plessis (1989:154) the use of “most excellent” may be an indication that this person referred to was highly respected within the social structure of the time and Luke may have enlisted him as a sort of publisher, who could assist with the costs of distribution of his work as it was part of the costume of the day. 33 Translation of Professor Emeritus of Biblical Studies at Yale University, Meek 2003:152.

67

often disconnected from the ethics of attention and use of those possessions. The

ethics of the Kingdom of God requires that the sharing of the material possessions go

hand in hand with how they are obtained and used, this is, justice, love and peace are

important ingredients for the fulfilment of the ethics of the Kingdom. This will be

examined later in this study, especially when I turn to the issues of emerging culture

of corruption. It is hoped that this investigation will assure the Christians in

Mozambique and beyond about the authenticity of “metadidonai” as an ethical

principles on material possessions according to Luke-Acts, for the Church today;

furthermore, this would influence the readers to discard any ideology that is contrary

to the Word of God by focusing on the discipleship motif of text.

2.3 The Discipleship Motif of Luke-Acts

“Luke - Acts was written to convey the truth as Luke saw it, to instruct” (Hur

2001:19) with the aim, “both to correct erroneous ideas so that his readers will know

‘the truth’ and also to reassure doubters that the teaching is well-founded… For Luke,

to be an adequate witness one must be properly taught” (Hur 2001:261). I mentioned

in the first chapter of this work, that there have been many readings of Luke - Acts;

these readers convey the truth as they see it to accomplish a given aim. These

readings have merit in their own context, however, likewise it will be appreciated that

this reading is embedded in the context of the social world of the Christian Church in

Mozambique, with the aim to influence change and correct erroneous ideologies on

issues of sharing material possessions.

Luke not only wrote to give an orderly account and to correct erroneous

ideologies, he also intended for his writing to be a persuasive message to those who

68

call themselves Christians to live according to Christ’s standards so that they may be

witnesses of the transforming power of God. The embodiment of the text (“living out

the text”) should compel the Christian community to spread Christian testimony

through exemplary living even in the midst of a community that is faced with so many

challenges. In Luke - Acts the Christian community is not asked to be separated from

their own communities, but rather to be separated from sinful actions. Consequently

becoming witnesses of the living Christ, and the preaching of “repentance and

forgiveness of sins in his name to all nations” (Luke 24:47-48); but the fulfilment of

this will be consumed when “you receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you”

(Acts 1:8). The transformation, purification, sanctification or cleansing of the heart

must take place so that, that which has been seen and heard becomes a personal

experience that leads to change of thinking and behaviour.

Luke - Acts revokes the ideology that God’s people are chosen according to

race and tribe which would be more in line with the honour and shame cultural

context. Throughout the text the author enacts that God’s people are those who have

repented from their sins; and as a result of this their behaviour has changed and

reflects fruits (deeds) of repentance that are in accordance with the ethics of the

Kingdom of God. e.g. In Luke 18:9-14, Jesus “told this parable to some people who

trusted in themselves and were confident that they were righteous (that they were

upright and in right standing with God) and scorned and made nothing of all the rest

of men: two men went up into the temple to pray, the one a Pharisee and the other a

tax collector. The Pharisee took his stand ostentatiously and began to pray thus before

and with himself: God, I thank you that I am not like the rest of men – extortionist

(robbers), swindlers (unrighteous in heart and life), adulterers – or even like this tax

69

collector here. I fast twice a week; I give tithes of all that I gain. But the tax collector,

(merely) standing at a distance, would not even lift up his eyes to heaven, but kept

striking his breast, saying, O God, be favourable (be gracious, be merciful) to me, the

especially wicked sinner that I am! I tell you, this man went down to his home

justified (forgiven and made upright and in right standing with God), rather than the

other man; for everyone who exalts himself will be humbled, but he who humbles

himself will be exalted.”

The Pharisee’s prayer here portrays a man who knew the law and a person

well respected (honourable) because of his position and religious practices, but the

pride and superiority that accompanies his prayer do not quite match the requirements

for the followers of Christ. The Pharisee is described here, as a person who observed

the law and actually did beyond what was normally required. The Pharisee was

dedicated to fasting and tithing. He considered himself to be pure and without sin

because he was committed to observance of the law. On the other hand, a man who

would be considered a social outcast, the tax collector, returned home justified by the

Lord because he humbled himself and confessed his sins. The Jews considered

themselves to be clean because they were the chosen nation; they went as far as to

reject and prohibit non–Jews, people who were physically imperfect, as well as

women and children, to participate in sacrificial worship (Shellard 2002:49-53).

A notable feature of Luke’s Gospel is its special concern for those who in

society at that time were relegated to the bottom of the social scale: the poor (1:52;

6:20, etc.) … this is such an important aspect of this gospel that Luke has been called

‘the evangelist of the poor’ (Du Plessis 1989:149). Thus, investigation of ethical

70

principles according to Luke–Acts, and testing its applicability for the Christian

Community in Mozambique, requires a brief survey and discussion of the social

world of Luke–Acts. It is assumed that understanding of the social aspects of the

Lukan world will not only enhance our understanding of the original text (the text and

the world as Luke saw it), but also will augment value to interpretation and

applicability of the text as it relates to the social world of the Mozambican

community34

.

Two groups, a group of poor and a group of wealthy people, characterize the

world of Luke and Acts in relation to material possessions. But it is important to note

that the term “poor” as used in Luke and Acts does not always have association with

material possessions. “According to Luke, both non-Jews – a needy widow and

powerful, wealthy military commander-qualify as ‘poor’. Here, then we see the broad

meaning of the word ‘poor’ in Luke’s vocabulary; one may be socially or

economically poor in the sense of being without a husband, food and/or shelter, or be

helpless and dependent upon the mercy of another without being economically

destitute. Naaman is an example of one who was rich in worldly wealth, but he was

utterly dependent upon the mercy of God and the prophet” (Shoemaker 2007:5).

Unfortunately those in dire poverty were often the victims of the landowners, the

honourable and powerful, because these constituted the group of the decision makers

34 I should say at this point that I refer to social world of the people of Mozambique as I see it. I have been exposed to both rural and urban life and practices in this context, especially through the pastoral ministry of my parents and later my own involvement. This exposed me to diverse cultural and behavioural patterns of the people in Mozambique, both Christians and non Christians. My ministry as a pastor and lecturer at the Nazarene Seminary in Mozambique (Bible School), privileged me to interact with students and leaders from all the provinces of Mozambique. The exposure and first hand information (both formal and informal) has greatly impacted my views in regard to the social world that I hereof refer as the world of the people of Mozambique. It will be appreciated that my views are validated through research and interviews that I have conducted.

71

for the rest of the community, and normally their decisions were not in favour of the

less fortunate people.

The audience of Luke were new believers (early Christians) who needed to be

strengthened in their faith as Christ’s disciples. Luke reconstructs this account to

bring to the attention of his auditors that discipleship35

should affect all spheres of

life, rather than a narrow private realm. Luke challenges the obdurate, greedy,

corruption, injustice; he condemns lack of compassion, marginalization and

discrimination of others amongst those who call themselves religious people. He calls

them to repentance and to embrace a new life that is characterized by life of

compassion, justice and integrity. Accordingly, the disciples of Jesus should give him

unreserved authrority of their lives (Ogden 2003:28).

The Gospel is equally concerned with social status and social stratification in

which the social world was defined around power and privilege, and is measured by a

complex of phenomena – religious, purity, family heritage, landownership, vocation,

ethnicity, gender, education and age (Green 2001: 7-10). Community of goods, on the

other hand, characterizes the book of Acts; in Acts 2:41-47, 4:32-35 and 5:12-16 the

author has combined the classic Hellenistic definition of friendship with the biblical

term for the inner person. The picture that emerges is one of a community of friends

perfectly united in mind and heart. The natural and inevitable expression of this unity

is the sharing of possessions.

35 Disciples are expected to learn and be attached to their teacher and to become followers in doctrine and conduct of life. To qualify as a disciple one must adhere and adopt the instruction given to him/her and makes it his/her rule or conduct (Matt 11:2; Luke 5:33; 7:18). Thus, it is hoped that the disciples of Jesus should make his teachings the basis of their conduct (Matt 5:1; 9:19; 14:22; Luke 14:26-27, 33; John 9:27; 15:8), (Zodhiates 1992:936).

72

Different to the Qumran community legally fixed form of joint ownership, the

picture we have in the book of Acts of joint ownership and communal sharing was a

sign of conversion. The community in Acts was not required to transfer their property

to the community, neither were they required to sell their possessions and distribute

this to the needy (Kraybill 1983). These actions were birthed from the cleansed hearts

of the individuals and early Christian community as a collective. The people then

became economically inter-dependent; in fact there is less reference to social classes

like poor and rich because they were one. By renouncing the key linkage to their

previous social identity, they mortify their old selves and allow the movement to

shape a new identity for them.

I concur with Kyrabill that “the sharing of possessions in Acts does not imply

a total loss of them as it did earlier (in the Gospel). Now they become an investment

in one’s own group and they are used to achieve the goals that are part of the common

cause and hence also the giver’s own cause. In the Gospel renunciation of the

possessions meant the loss of power and the rejection of potential influence. In

Jerusalem they involved the use of power to build up and maintain the community.

Previously detachment from possessions was the symbol of one’s loyalty to the call of

the charismatic leader whereas now it is a sign of one’s allegiance and commitment to

the group” (Kraybill 1983:238) 36

. Both the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts

36 According to Kraybill (1983:215-239), the two volumes of Luke represent two different stages and settings. The Gospel represents a group of people who were betwixt and between Judaism and a new community inaugurated by Christ. This early stage of this movement was characterized by low level of internal organization. The second volume is characterized by people who have settled down, they are organized and have leadership for various activities of this new structure. Thus, it is no surprise that in Luke the followers of Christ are challenged to detach themselves from earthly honour and possessions, e.g. Luke 5:1-11, 27-32; 18:18-30. In this early stage of the movement the disciples are called to join a new community, die to self and be shaped into a new identity in Christ. “The repudiation and renunciation of the past is essential in the early phase of a movement as it establishes its own identity in opposition to the old structure. We hear of disciples who have left all… and prospective disciples

73

demonstrate that discipleship is only possible when an individual or community of

believers is willing to die to self. The disciples of Jesus are called to strip off their

membership or allegiancy from old structures; they are to embrace the new structure

which finds its meaning in Jesus and not on self or possessions.

The disciples of Jesus in both the Gospel according to Luke and the Book of

Acts are expected to share their resources to care for those in need. The principle is

applied differently in the stages of the development of Jesus’ movement and the

contextual need of the time. However, in both instances, Luke strives to lead his

readers to understand that material possessions are from God and should be used for

His honour and purposes. All humans are but stewards of these possessions of the

riches of this world they are stewards. This principle was not new to the audience of

Luke-Acts, but it needed to be conformed to the biblical interpretation of how this is

to work amongst the Kingdom people. It is obvious from this study that knowledge of

the law or ethical principles does not necessarily mean that one would live in

accordance to it.

The Israelites knew God’s commandments in relation to caring for the poor

and justice, but they did not always uphold those principles. Similarly, Africans know

the African philosophy of humanism (ubuntu) very well; however, this is just an ideal

theory in most cases. Change of thinking and behaviour requires the work of the Spirit

of God to convict, cleanse and enable individuals and communities to live out the

who are asked to renounce all. Leaving all may not mean becoming a penniless beggar but it does imply a symbolic and literal detachment from structure which is at variance with anti-structure. Followers who have left all find themselves in the company of others, who, with the trapping of their old distinction gone, can interact as equals in spontaneous communities” (1983:237). In Acts, the words rich and poor disappear because the new community is equal and share all their possessions (Acts 4:32).

74

ethics of the Kingdom of God, which Christ has come to fulfil. But how is this

supposed change of behaviour to look like in a context of honour and shame?

2.4 Honour and Shame and its Relation to the Theological Motif on Material

Possessions of Luke – Acts

According to Malina and Neyrey (1991:25-65), honour and shame were

pivotal values in the Mediterranean world. These values certainly impacted all aspects

of life within this cultural context. Since Luke – Acts text was developed within this

context, it is important to consider how honour and shame influenced Lukan’s stance

of sharing material possessions. Honour and shame were values that defined the status

of the people of the Mediterranean world. Honour is a worth or respect that people

commanded from the public as a result of how they saw themselves. It is a value that

people see in themselves, however no one would be foolish to consider himself or

herself honourable if the public did not think in the same manner about them; public

confirmation was vital for people to be considered honourable.

In this context “honour” was more important than the actual accumulation of

possessions. Honour was a claim to positive worth accompanied by the

acknowledgement that is given by the society as a response to one’s worthiness. The

Mediterranean world had two systems that determined a person’s honour. First,

honour is considered inheritable, through birth, being born in a honourable family,

town and having right family connections. In this context honour derives from kinship

and it is described as an ascribed honour (Neyrey 1991:27-28). Second, acquired

honour is obtained by demonstrating how worthy the person is. This kind of honour is

75

“actively sought and achieved, most often at the expense of one’s equals in the social

context of challenge and riposte” (Neyrey 1991:28).

The honour of the people that Luke – Acts is addressing would then depend on

their faithfulness to perform their duties within the appropriate guidelines on what is

culturally acceptable in their world, and shame, on the other hand, would result from

failure to carry out those duties. Thus, “knowledge of honor and shame, both as value

and as behavior, are essential elements of an adequate scenario for interpreting Luke –

Acts. If this is the way first-century Mediterraneans perceive their world and act in

accord with that perception, then a considerate reader must strive to acquire just such

a scenario, for only in this way can a reader begin to appreciate the pervasive social

dynamics explained… as honor and shame, pivotal values of the Mediterranean

world” (Neyrey 1991:65).

If indeed “to honor a person is to acknowledge publicly that his or her actions

conform with social oughts” (Malina 1998:28), what then were the actions, related to

material possessions the people that Luke-Acts is addressing would have been

expected to carry out within their social context? Was “sharing” one of the expected

principles within these groups of people? If so, how did “sharing material

possessions” look in the Mediterranean cultural context or what were the guidelines

that regulated how this should be done? The answer to this is as follows, the people in

this context valued sharing material possessions, however this was to be done in

accordance with principles of challenge and riposte, benefication and patron and

client relationships. Another aspect that needs to be taken into account is the fact that

this community of honour and shame also was known as community of limited good.

76

The Mediterranean community was a society of “limited good”. Therefore, People

aspiring profit and more wealth were considered a threat to a society of limited good,

since it was perceived that the only way to increase material resources is at the

expense of others. In general rich people could be viewed as unjust people or the heir

of unjust persons.

However, in this same context there was provision or expectation for families,

friends and peer groups to network and exchange commodities and services in

reciprocity or patron-client relationships. This is, in the Mediterranean world there

was a sort of contract in which a person would select or be selected by another person

for a series of ongoing, unspecified acts of mutual support. This could be persons of

equal status (challenge and riposte) or patron-client relationship (Malina 1993:90-

105). The “patron – client systems were socially fixed relations of generalized

reciprocity between social unequal’s in which a lower-status person in need (called a

client) has his needs met by having recourse for favours to a higher-status, well-

situated person (called patron). By being granted favour, the client implicitly promises

to pay back the patron whenever and however the patron determines. By granting the

favour, the patron, in turn, implicitly promises to be open for further requests at

unspecified later times” (Malina, & Rohrbaugh 2003:389).

The context of this study requires a description of Luke-Acts’ context and text,

with special focus on how “metadidonai” was used to address the ethics of material

possessions in a community where honour was regarded as the most important status

that people desired and often strived for. Luke’s text reflects some reversal to what

was acceptable to both the Mediterranean and Jewsish Palestinian tradition. Luke

77

reflects a new order of doing things; in Jesus’ ethos, those who were reduced to

nothing in the society because of poverty or loss of honour, are said to be honourable

(e.g. Luke 1:52-53). When the crowds came out to hear John the Baptist preach, the

stance is the same; no one will inherit (ascribe honour) the kingdom of God because

of linkage to Abraham (Luke 3:7-9). The message of Luke seems to be contrary to

what was known, e.g. the self dependency on inherited honour such as association to

Abraham’s name. This first chapter of the Gospel of Luke sets a new paradigm

through which the followers of Jesus Christ should view and interpret honour and

shame and the related ethical values such as sharing material possessions.

In the Jesus movement, all have to repent from their sins and bear fruits

worthy of repentance. The fruits of repentance as described by John the Baptist will

entail sharing with the needy, relinquishing greed and abuse of power. It includes

viewing oneself as a mere steward of God’s resources not exclusively for personal

gratification and name building, but to show love to the neighbour. The ethics of John

the Baptist on the subject will be a guiding principle for this study because of his

focus to sharing material possessions as a sign of repentance. When sharing is a result

of a transformed heart and behaviour, it ceases to be done with the aim to maintain or

acquire honour, but rather it is done in the context of love to the neighbour; a

transformed heart denounces acts of injustices that manifest themselves in corruptive

actions and lack of regard for the neighbours’ needs. Sharing is at the heart of the

fruits that are required from the disciples of Jesus. Thus, the key ethical principle on

material possession advocated throughout Luke-Acts is “sharing”, the sharing of

material possessions with those in need.

78

However, our world is somewhat different from Luke – Acts; it is rather

becoming individualistic and materialistic, even when African humanism – Ubunto –

is claimed to be the guiding philosophy of life. The individualistic and materialistic

culture is, in my view, what leads to corruption. I would find it hard to believe that

those involved in corruption care for those in need. It would rather appear as they

rejoice in the wider gap between the rich and the poor, for as they enrich themselves

they demand more respect and honour because they are the most powerful and

respected in the community. Thus, I contend that material possessions are a

determining factor for those who are seen as honourable in our communities today.

The rich today are treated with respect and often given preferential service and

treatment, both in public and private circles; they often undermine the judicial law

because they can manipulate the judiciary in their own favour and in detriment of the

poor. The poor (those who lack material resources), on the other hand, are often

despised. It is true that the use of the terms “poor” and “rich” in Luke-Acts were not

always associated with material possessions but they were always linked to lacking or

having honour. Life was defined in the honour and shame scenarios. Honour was like

wealth, inherited or obtained through one’s efforts (Neyrey 1991:26-28). For instance,

“vertical dyadic relations, i.e. patron-client relations, between individuals of highly

unequal status, power or resources involve the exchange of favour and help of a

qualitatively different sort: material for immaterial, goods for honour and praise, force

for status support and the like” (Malina 1996:144). It is obvious that sharing of

possessions was a vital part of the life of this community. But as Luke-Acts presents it

all these needed to result from a repentant heart rather than legalistic interests. In

79

other words it must be a normative theological practice and not legal acclaimed

praxis.

2.5 μεταδιδόναι as Ethical Principle According to Luke - Acts

I have argued throughout this study that “sharing” material possessions was

part of the cultural system in the Mediterranean world. Thus, the use of this principle

in Luke – Acts was embedded in the context of his listeners. There are several words

used in Luke – Acts to emphasize the importance of sharing possessions, especially

with those in need. This study gives special focus to the following principle,

“metadidonai”. a word that is only used in Luke 3:11 in the Lukan text, but its use

and application parallels Lukan’s vision for a new community of believers who share

possessions with one another and rejects all forms of exploitation or social injustices.

John the Baptist expresses the economic cost of discipleship in a concise way (Luke

3:10-14) as preparatory to Jesus’ ministry. This sets the central stage for the writings

of Luke-Acts on economic imperatives of discipleship. Luke seems to challenge his

listeners to go beyond what is seen as appropriate ways of sharing material

possessions in the first century Mediterranean community as well as the Palestinian

traditional praxis of almsgiving.

μεταδιδόναι is a present active infinitive of μεταδιδωµι which means to

share with someone. The prefix meta = with denotes association with and didomi,

meaning to give; this word denotes the idea of sharing what one has with someone

else. It begins with a premise that one has something that he or she can impart or give

a share to someone else, especially the one who is lacking. (Low 1996; Thomas

1998). This study investigates how people were to give a share of what they had to

80

those who were lacking it as a principle to address the issues of material possessions

from a biblical point of view within cultural context. This is, sharing possessions with

great joy and kindness without patronizing or exploiting; sharing that results from a

changed life and behaviour.

The step that will follow will seek to hear Luke 3:10-14 (μεταδιδόναι – to give

a share of) and the application thereof in Acts 2:42-47 and 4:32-37 in its original

context and to be cognisant of God’s response to the challenges of the Mediterranean

and Jewish Palestinian socio-economic issues. But this task is not intended to be an

end in itself, as Wall (1998:104) said, the Scriptures are the Church’s normative rule

of faith intended for Christian formation. Therefore, it should be approached at “its

current address…and do so in light of its current ecclesial role… to bear witness to

God’s word and work in history and so to form theological understanding of those

who in faith submit to Scripture as ‘the word of the Lord Almighty’ for today.”

A vital part of this study is the insight of the original meaning of the Luke-

Acts text on material possessions and the survey of how the earlier Wesleyan-holiness

leaders interpreted and applied the biblical truth to shape their lives and theology,

especially on the subject of material possessions. But the accomplishment of the study

will require that I strive to make the Luke-Acts stance on material possessions

comprehensible for the readers in Mozambique and beyond in the light of their

current experiences of living in a society in which corruption is pervasive.37

37 The goal of biblical interpretation should be to “strive to make Scripture’s message intelligible for its new readers in light of their current experiences” (Walls, R. 1998:113). Similarly to Walls, R, Green, J and Morton, R the paradigm that I am proposing is “one of engaging in dialogue with the best and most responsible critical scholarship, but doing so self conscious as a servant of and accountable to the Church and Wesleyan/Holiness tradition. At the same time, while we subject Scripture to the rigors of

81

The interpretation of the Luke-Acts text will be an interdisciplinary endeavour

or task because of the nature of this study. This will be a vital step to make the text

theologically sound for the Church today while at the same time will be critically

validated by use of social scientific methods of investigation and interpretation. As a

Nazarene Wesleyan reader of the Bible, my reading will inevitably have

soteriological accent as understood in the Wesleyan theology and will reflect an

integration of biblical studies with theology (the rule of faith), ethics and the other

disciplines of theology.

I contend that humanity is incapable of saving itself from depravation which

leads to actions that are contrary to the biblical imperatives for humanity. Therefore, I

approach my investigation of Luke-Acts with the hope that this study will be

soteriological, because I believe that “the primary task of biblical scholars and

theologians is to read grace into the complex and ambiguous affairs of human

existence” (Phillips 2003:125) and not just to explain the meaning of the text. Biblical

interpretation that leads to salvation from depravation is what I yearn for, and this

seems to have been on top of Luke’s agenda; Luke 2:10-1138

, 2:30-31, 3:3-6, 4:18-19,

10:1-23, 24:46-4739

, Acts 2:38-39, 4:8-1240

.

I value the anti-corruption policies and other movements to fight for justice

and eradication of poverty, however, I contend that human-made policies are not critical scholarship, we recognize that we are under the authority of Scripture and answerable to God for our faithful interpretation of the sacred text” (Morton 1999:249-250). 38 “…I bring you good news of great joy that will be for ALL THE PEOPLE. Today in the town of David a SAVIOUR HAS BEEN BORN TO YOU; HE IS CHRIST THE LORD.” 39 “…repentance and forgiveness of sins will be preached in his name to all nations…” 40 “…Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved.”

82

enough to bring the transformation, change of behaviour and formation of the people,

but biblical truth, which is God’s means of grace for the salvation of the world, has

power to lead people to God and to the transformation of the lives of the believers and

communities. This is not to say that the knowledge of the law of God will

automatically lead people and communities to live out the ethics of the Kingdom of

God, it rather means that it provides the light and directives that if followed

corruption or irresponsible use of material possessions can be curbed. The benefits of

curbing corruption would be far reaching, it would result in acceleration of projects

for alliviation of poverty.

The ethics of the Kingdom of God place an emphasis on the righteousness of

the heart (Ladd 1998:126-131) and are normative for the followers of Christ, a picture

that is depicted in the Luke-Acts ethical stance, hence a constant challenge to deviant

behaviour and call to repentance. The reading of Luke – Acts seems to indicate that

the Mediterranean and Jewish tradition or social system did not succeed to curb

corruption and other forms of injustice which resulted in hardening the life of the

poor, hence a new emphasis on how the principle of sharing might work. The new

context in which sharing material possessions should happen is in a justified and

sanctified life. Repentance and the work of the Holy Spirit are foundational for

implementation of a new order of life. It is only in this life style that people will

relinquish their honour and self pride, comprehend and embrace the fact that material

possessions and everything else are from God and belong to Him. We as humans are

stewards of God’s material possessions and we are to give a share of it to those in

need.

83

2.5.1 Repentance and the Work of the Holy Spirit as the Foundation for Ethics

in Luke-Acts

In Luke-Acts, Jesus is introduced as the fulfilment of God’s promise of

covenant justice and deliverance of the oppressed and the poor (Luke 1:54-55). “The

repeated stress on promise and fulfilment is a distinctive and foundational motif of

Luke - Acts; consequently, Luke’s ethics becomes comprehensible only as an aspect

of his larger vision for the people of God as the bearers of the fulfilled promise”

(Hays 1996:114). In Christ a new era was inaugurated; an era where the ethics of the

Kingdom of God places great emphasis upon the righteousness of the heart41

.

Christ calls his followers to embody Kingdom ethics. “It is true that most of

Jesus’ ethical maxims can be paralleled in Jewish teachings; but no collection of

Jewish ethics makes the impact upon the reader that Jesus’ ethics do. To read a

passage from the Mishnai is a different experience from reading the Sermon on the

Mount. The unique element in Jesus’ teaching is that in his person, history and people

are not only placed under the ethical demand of the reign of God, but by virtue of the

very experience of God’s reign are also enabled to realize a new measure of

righteousness” (Ladd 1998:126). Hence, I argue those human-made principles for

caring for the poor, sharing resources and the anti-corruption bills are doomed to fail

because they seem to be of the sphere of outward conduct. A change of behaviour

according to Luke should result from a repentant heart (Luke 3:8). Christ is the

41 Ladd’s (1993:127-128) examination of the ethics of the Kingdom of God is noteworthy. Ladd argues that ethics of the reign of God place emphasis upon righteousness of the heart. “The primary emphasis is on the inner character that underlies outward conduct. The law condemned murder; Jesus condemned anger as sin (Mat. 5:21-26)… Legislation has to do with conduct that can be controlled; anger belongs not to the sphere of outward conduct but to that of inner attitude and character.”

84

ultimate hope for things to change. Humans on their own cannot change the way

people think and interact with others.

Luke’s Jesus is portrayed as liberator of the oppressed; he declares himself as

the Messiah who will create a restored Israel in which justice and compassion for the

poor will prevail by the power of the Holy Spirit (Hays 1996). This restoration is not

merely founded on physical affiliation with Jesus as it would have been perceived by

Israel42

, it is rather a result of fundamental change in thinking and behaviour; a deeper

commitment and radical change in the way things used to be.

Nave (2002:147) rightfully observes, “In Luke - Acts, when change involves a

change in the way people think about and interact with others, such a change is

commonly demonstrated by ethical social behaviour. As a result of the preaching of

John the Baptist, the author immediately establishes that he wants his implied reader

to associate repentance with ethical social behaviour that enables once alienated

people to live together as a community of God’s people.”43

Therefore, the starting

point for examination of the ethical principles on material possession in Luke - Acts

must include a clear understanding of the meaning of the word “repentance” and

Jesus’ mission to liberate the world, as it relates to socio-economic principles (ethics)

of the social world in Luke – Acts.

42 The people of Israel prided themselves as chosen people of God, a special nation … descendants of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and David. This affiliation was crucial to them. 43 Throughout the first three chapters of the Gospel of Luke it is clear that Christ is the fulfilment of the moral vision of Luke (Luke 1:31-36; 1:46-55, 2;11; 2:29-32; 3:6; 3:16-17); In Christ God has revealed his salvation for the world.

85

The Baptist’s ethical stance and the fruits worthy of repentance modeled in the

community of Acts cannot be detached from the mission of Jesus found in Luke 4:18-

19. That is, Jesus’ mission to liberate the world and freedom for the oppressed cannot

be realized without repentance. On the other hand, repentance results from conviction

of a need to change behaviour and thinking, a state which humankind cannot attain

without the intervention of the Spirit of God. The role of the Spirit is crucial for

transformation to take place. Throughout the Bible the Spirit represents a positive

influence in people’s lives. The Spirit has soteriological and ethical functions that

need to be examined in this study (Wenk 2000:83-97). The ministries of John the

Baptist and Jesus were endowed by the Spirit with the goal of proclamation of Good

News to the poor, prophetic voice for the world and influence positively an ethical

transformation of the people of God. The Spirit is not simply the agent of the

inspiration of prophetic speech but instrumental in renewing and liberating God’s

people (Wenk 2000:151).

2.5.2 The Spirit in Christ’s Mission According to Luke

The Spirit of God represents both God’s presence as well as the influence in

the prophetic voice. “The mighty deeds were as much part of Jesus’ prophetic

message as the verbal proclamation … Jesus’ prophetic message was not only

communicated in a verbal form but also in his actions and it was sometimes

recognized because of its effects among the audience (mainly in terms of acts of

power). Similarly, the prophetic proclamation of Good News is also expressed by

actions realized good news (Luke 4:17-19)” (Wenk 2000:128-129).

86

The Spirit is the agent of God that engages the community in a transformative

experience. Thus, Luke’s Jesus is quoted emphasising that his ministry is endowed

by the Spirit as both, verbal message and soteriological actions that are in agreement

with the ethics of the Kingdom of God. “The Spirit of the Lord is on me because he

has anointed me to preach good news to the poor, He has sent me to proclaim

freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed,

to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour” (Luke 4:18-19).44

In Christ, through the

power of the Spirit, the reader and hearer of the Good News “are not only placed

under the ethical demand of the reign of God, but by virtue of the very experience of

God’s reign are also enabled to realize a new measure of righteousness” (Ladd

1993:126).

Jesus identified his mission and ministry with the impoverished multitudes

with the goal to uplift them, a task that would seem impossible in the world. Jesus

announces that he has Good News for those whose life has been diminished in the

society – the poor45

. As mentioned previously, the poor referred to by Luke were not

necessarily lacking in material needs. It is true that the majority of the people lacked

material resources and were economically poor, but Jesus’ mission was not only to

44 John Wesley interpreted Luke 4:18 in the following way, “He hath anointed me” - With the Spirit. He hath by the power of his Spirit which dwelleth in me, set me apart for these offices. To preach the Gospel to the poor - Literally and spiritually. How is the doctrine of the ever - blessed trinity interwoven, even in those scriptures where one would least expect it? How clear a declaration of the great Three - One is there in those very words, The Spirit - of the Lord is upon me! To proclaim deliverance to the captives, and recovery of sight to the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised - Here is a beautiful gradation, in comparing the spiritual state of men to the miserable state of those captives, who are not only cast into prison, but, like Zedekiah, had their eyes put out, and were laden and bruised with chains of iron (Isa 61:1). 45 In Luke the poor are poor in material possession, captive, blind, oppressed, hungry, mournful, persecuted, lame, leper, deaf, dead, maimed and ulcerated (Luke 4:18, 6:20, 7:22, 14:13, 14:21, 16:20,22).

87

the economically deprived. It was for both the economically and spiritually needy, but

also for the outcast, the diminished in the society.

In the Mediterranean world ascribed status was esteemed; status was “imputed

on the basis of family heritage, one’s sex, and other inherited/genetic attributes … and

performance, whereby status would be granted as a consequence of one’s actions, say,

by means of education or conformity to prescribed behaviours” (Green 1995: 80-81).

The poor were those who did not fit the description of the above-ascribed status.

However, in Christ these poor people who were once excluded are now welcomed to

hear the Good News and to experience the transformative power of God. Christ

overturned the previous measures of status. But this is through the power of God and

not through some kind of a legalistic law introduced to overturn the previous

acceptable way of life.

Jesus has been empowered by the Spirit to mark a new beginning. He is to

inaugurate liberation of all people from sin and its bondage. “Unlike the priestly and

Qumran46

communities – indeed, unlike the wider Jewish world of Luke’s Gospel –

people are not to be predetermined as insiders or outsiders by their sex, family

heritage, financial position, location in the city or in rural environment, religious

purity, and so on. The message of Jesus is that such status markers are no longer

binding. Anyone may freely receive the grace of God. Anyone may join the

community of Jesus’ followers. All are welcome” (Green 1995:82-84). Jesus’ saving

power intends the formation of new community, transformed and conformed to the 46 “The ideal of Qumran community was ‘love all sons of light’ the members of the community (1QS 1:9-10) and ‘hate all the sons of darkness’ – all who were outside the community. In Christ (Luke 10:29), love for God must express itself in love for neighbours, this is, beyond the borders of your immediate family to include even one’s enemies. It is love that includes all” (Ladd 1993:131).

88

principles of the Kingdom. The community portrayed in Acts 2:42-47 and Acts 4:32-

35 models a distinctive form of life that is a result of the saving power of Jesus and

work of the Holy Spirit in the lives of individuals that form this new community of

believers (Hays 1996:112-118).

The Good News entails the announcement of the final jubilee, the new era of

salvation, the breaking in of God’s Kingdom. Good News entails freedom for the

debtors that might have been imprisoned for lack of resources to repay their debts. It

entails freedom for the debtors who might have become slaves as a way of repaying

their debts. Debtors were often put in prison as a form of extortion since it was their

families that would have to pay for their release. The release proclaimed is that of the

Jubilee year in which all debts were cancelled (see Leviticus 25). The year of the

Lord’s favour (v.19) would be a Jubilee47

year, a yearlong Sabbath!” (Malina &

Rohrbaugh 2003:243). According to Luke, Jesus has come as a Saviour who grants

forgiveness of sins.

In his mission to grant forgiveness of sins, Jesus identifies with the poor in

their struggle against the evil forces that entrap them and impoverish them. The

tendency of sin is to multiply and intensify its destructive power. It is true that socio-

economic challenges do not always result from corruptive activities, there are

challenges that are related to natural calamities and other related matters. But it is

important to realize that so often sinful behaviour is at the center stage of economic

47 The creditors had two choices; they could force the debtors to work for them until the debt was paid off or they could chose to put the debtor in prison until the family of the debtor paid off the debt. However, through God’s provision there was a year of forgiveness of the debt. Lev. 25:10 “Consecrate the fiftieth year and proclaim liberty through the land to all its inhabitants, it shall be a jubilee for you; each one of you is to return to his family property and each to his own claim.”

89

depression experienced by individuals and/or group of people. Unfortunately it is the

defenseless people in the community who so often suffer the most. For instance, why

was jubilee so important in the Bible? Jubilee was necessary to relieve the people

from debt, but why so many debts? Why did the communities described in the Bible

have so many debts? Debt is a huge problem even today, but the process by which

people fell into debts in Luke-Acts day and today are not necessarily the same: “The

processes by which peasants fell into debts were many. Population growth affected

some: more mouths to feed reduced a farmer’s margin of livelihood and made

borrowing more likely in lean years. Unreliable rainfall contributed as well. Two

significant famines occurred in the period of Christian origins, one in 25 B.C. during

the reign of Herod the Great, and the other in 46 C.E. under Claudius; cf. Acts 11:28.

The chief reason for indebtedness, however, was the excessive demand placed on

peasant resources. Demands for tithes, taxes, tribute, and the endless variety of tools

kept small landowners under heavy pressure (evidence suggests that 35-40 percent of

the total agricultural production was usually extracted in various taxes). Peasants

unable to repay loans of seeds or capital frequently became tenant sharecroppers on

their own land” (Malina & Rohrbaugh, 2003:349).

Jesus Christ died as the sacrifice, not only of sins of individuals, but also as

the sacrifice of systematized wrongdoing, the oppression, exploitation, usury and

corruption. His death was part of the fulfilment of God’s plan to bring liberation to

the lost. The fulfilment of God’s plan required from Jesus’ obedience to the voice of

the Father as he sent him to the world. Because of His love and grace he gave his life

to deliver the captives and died on the cross. The glorious and mysterious thing is that

Jesus arose as a victor over all the forces of sin, death and hell. Paul writes, “Death

90

has been swallowed up in victory.” “Where, O death is your victory? Where, O death

is your sting? The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law. But thanks be

to God! He gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor. 15:54-57).

Jesus’ victory is victory for his disciples. The disciples of Jesus are to join in

the mission of Jesus. They are the heart, the hands and feet of Jesus to the society. As

followers of Christ, the disciples should join in proclaiming the Good News about

salvation and also challenge the wrongdoings of whoever it may be: a government,

individuals, religious and non-religious organization that may be perpetuating poverty

and exploitation or oppressive lifestyle in a given society.

Paul says to the Church, “Therefore, my dear brothers, stand firm. Let nothing

move you. Always give yourselves fully to the work of the Lord, because you know

that your labour in the Lord is not in vain” (1 Cor. 15:50). So often the Church is

passive in addressing social evils because of fear of the unknown, criticism, fear of

putting one’s family in danger because of challenging the powerful and decision

makers in the society.

This passiveness can also be contributed to the fact that some would feel

inclined to believe that their condition of life is what God has predestined for them.

Therefore, poverty and suffering would be considered a God given situation and that

one does not have to challenge the status quo to see possible changes or improvement.

But it was not easy for Jesus to challenge the affluent, powerful, landowners and

decision makers. However, the Spirit of God that was upon Him compelled Him to be

a sacrifice for the salvation of the world.

91

The Church is called, in its mission, to expose the depth and extent of socio-

economic challenges, oppose the forces which create corruption and poverty, and

struggle with the poor to gain freedom from the plight of poverty. An effective

ministry to the poor must include raising the awareness of church and society about

the social dynamics that create poverty and the economic imperatives which divert

resources from the poor and allow the enjoyment of affluence to the detriment of the

poor. Throughout the Gospel we learn about Jesus’ ministry to heal social outcasts

and forgive sinners no matter what sin they may have committed. His grace was

extended to all, even the public sinners, like tax collectors, prostitutes and the like. He

identified with those who were oppressed, marginalized, and the poor. At the same

time we are also made aware that Jesus challenged the values of the affluent, the elite

and the powerful. He challenged the values of the patrons and the landowners.

Jesus’ challenge or call to repentance to the rich is not in any way a form of

opposition to property and possessions. It is rather severe criticism of obsession with

wealth and greed. It is a matter of values and principles of the affluent. Hence, Jesus

said, “Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy,

and where thieves break in and steal. But store up for yourselves treasures in heaven,

where moth and rust do not destroy, and where thieves do not break in and steal. For

where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.” 48

Christ continues to call his

48 B. W. Johnson in 1891 in his commentary on this passages state through: The People's New Testament :

19. Lay not up treasures on the earth. This forbids, not the laying up of treasures, but laying them up on the earth; that is, the piling up of worldly wealth for worldly purposes. Riches are no sin in themselves, but the improper use of riches is a sin. Where moth and rust corrupt. Unused garments often become moth-eaten; unused coins sometimes rust. All earth treasure will finally perish. Thieves

92

Church to proclaim the Kingdom’s values and principles so that many will repent and

employ their influence and resources to effect change in the world.

Several New Testament scholars commend Luke for his great work that

intentionally addresses the social, political and economical issues of his day. Luke

throughout the Gospel presents Jesus Christ as the living example of the values and

principals of the Kingdom of God. Jesus has the power to save those who believe in

Him, from all sin and all its power. In addition, the salvation work of Jesus entails

advocating for the victims of social and political injustice. Therefore, as Jesus calls

his disciples to give alms and to assist the needy, he also condemns the deviant social

behaviour that destroys both individuals and collective groups in the society. Hence,

“Luke portrays both forgiveness and healing in social terms to match their more

evident spiritual and physical overtones. What is forgiveness but removing the barrier

(sin) that had previously excluded one from one’s community? And what is healing,

if not at least the removal of the barrier (sickness, uncleanness) that had kept one from

one’s own community? Release for Luke signifies wholeness, freedom from diabolic

and social claims, acceptance” (Green 1995:79). I believe that Christ’s guidelines to

curb corruption and to uplift the poor entail removal of barriers (sin) that bear deviant

social behaviour (as fruits) and accommodate and justify social evils and injustices.

Hence, the deviant behaviour in Luke is under God’s judgement as the values and

principles of the Gospel are proclaimed. break through. Literally, "dig through." Often robbers in the East dig through the house walls of mud or un-burnt brick.

20. Lay up . . . treasures in heaven. This is the only way to save our wealth. It is a positive precept. Our wealth must be consecrated to God and used as his work demands. Wealth used for doing good is treasure laid up in heaven.

21. For. This introduces a reason for the preceding precepts. Where thy treasure is will be thy heart. This states a universal truth. A man's heart will be upon what he treasures most. If his treasure is in heaven, heaven will have his heart.

93

2.5.3 Deviant Social Behaviour under God’s Judgment

Most modern Bible scholars argue that Luke was written to address the subject of

poverty and wealth. Luke is of the wealthy, the well to do and the most honourable

figures of the society. It is important to state right away that it is not deviant

behaviour to be rich; however, riches could pose a temptation to prestige and security

apart from God. The misuse of possessions is deviant behaviour according to Luke -

Acts. For instance, John the Baptist (3:10-14) does not instruct the tax collectors and

the soldiers to leave their jobs. It is not their position that is deviant, it is the way they

carry out their duties that is contrary to the acceptable ethos of God’s children.

The tax collectors and soldiers were hated because of their wrong practices and

behaviour. The taxe collectors (��) were not popular anywhere, but least of

all when a Jew collected taxes for the Romans and did it by terrible graft and

extortions. On the other hand some of the soldiers (��) acted as

police to help the tax collectors and they were often rough and cruel. These soldiers

often terrified people with the aim to extort money or property by intimidating and

blackmailing.

The Jewish civil law allotted a double portion of a family’s inheritance to the

oldest brother, along with the responsibility for welfare of the mother and unmarried

sisters. Younger heirs received a single portion. According to Jesus’ teaching our

concern should not be so much about money and possession as it should be about the

attitude toward our possessions: “Take heed and beware of covetousness, for one’s

life does not consist in the abundance of the things he possesses” (Luke 18:15). The

94

disciples of Jesus are called to seek the Kingdom of God more than material blessing.

True security lies in always doing God’s will and not in amassing possessions.

Similar to the word “poor”, which does not necessarily define a materially

needy person, the word “rich” or “wealthy”, although primarily linked to material

possessions, should not be interpreted strictly in economic terms. The word “wealthy”

as described in the Gospels should be understood in both terms, the economic and

status description. The landowners, those who were able to maintain their honourable

status – the elite and the patrons, were considered wealthy.

As already stated, the majority of the people in the Gospels were peasants.

The wealthy enjoyed the honour and loyalty that was ascribed on the bases of

heritage, possessions, power, sex or position held. The wealthy, from their influential

position on decision-making, would make decisions that favoured them to flourish in

detriment of the poor. For instance, the landowners provided jobs to the poor, but

sometimes, due to unforeseen reasons such as calamities and others, the tenants would

ask for assistance due to need of more resources. Besides disasters, calamities,

illnesses or other reasons that could lead to need of extra resources, the taxes required

by both the Jews and Roman authority were inconsistently higher. The other fees like

import and export as well as religious obligations resulted in a creation of patron-

client relationship. The tenant as indebted to the landowner lived under obligation to

show respect and honour to his patron.

The political and social governance systems of the Mediterranean agrarian

society (which is described by Luke in the Gospel) favoured the interests of the elite.

The system placed not only power in decision-making but also concentrated the

95

wealth of the society in the hands of this minority of privileged elite (Stegemann

1999:7). The system that undermines people by diminishing them, and on the other

hand places honour on people based on their status, heritage and gender, is not

welcomed in the Kingdom of God. As the rich or the powerful accumulated riches at

the expense of the peasants and those reduced to beggary situation, the inevitable

situation happened; the creation of the lower class and/or the impoverished class.

Therefore, for Luke it is not the wealth that is the problem, but the attitude

toward wealth. Hence, Luke presents Jesus who identified with the poor economically

and socially but also as Lord who shows concern for the “poor” tax collectors who

would not fit the category of economically needy (Tuckett 1996:94-110). Throughout

Luke’s message it is clear that the deviant social behaviour that is under God’s

judgment is the system that diminished others in a society. Therefore, when the rich

ruler (Luke 18:18-23) made a choice not to sell his possessions and give alms to the

poor he was actually making an economic and social decision.

God has declared that His plan for salvation entails raising the lowly and

filling the hungry. Hence, distancing oneself from those in need is an action that is

outside the bounds of discipleship according to the Gospel and accumulation of

wealth for selfish reason as well as injustice is deviant social behavior that is

unacceptable before God.

Jesus does not condemn the rich but rather condemns the attitude of the

economically wealthy, the honourable in the society and the most powerful. It is the

deviant behaviour that is under severe criticism. The disciples of Jesus are called to

96

strip themselves from the system that diminishes others on the basis of economical

and social ranks. Hence, Mary praises God for the coming of the Messiah because he

will reverse the order of things. Mary rejoices in the hope of salvation through faith in

Christ. “Mary said, my soul magnifies the Lord, and my spirit rejoices in God my

Savior for he has looked with favor on the lowliness of his servant…His mercy is for

those who fear him from generation to generation. He has shown strength with his

arm; he has scattered the proud in the thoughts of their hearts. He has brought down

the powerful from their thrones, and lifted up the lowly; he has filled the hungry with

good things, and sent the rich away empty, He has helped his servant Israel, in

remembrance of this mercy, according to the promise he made to our ancestors, to

Abraham and to his descendants forever” (Luke 1:46-56).

Christ is coming to save those who have been reduced to nothing, the

unworthy of honour because of sin and the wretched. While those who were reduced

to nothing in the society are said to be lifted up and the hungry filled with good things

the wealthy that resist the saving power of God are scattered, put down and sent away

hungry. The lowly will be lifted up and the hungry will be filled. The proud are

scatter by Jesus and the rich are sent away empty. This is a reversal of the message to

which people were accustomed.

The criticism in Luke is not necessarily on being rich but rather on the

perverse use of possessions and the injustice that was prevalent in the society. For

instance, the rich ruler (18:18-23), in refusing to sell his possessions and give alms to

the poor, was making an economical and social decision as well. “In essence, in

choosing to preserve his own wealth he distanced himself from those in need – action

97

that is outside the bounds of salvation purpose” which was to be realized in uplifting

the lowly (Green 1995:113-116).

The message of John the Baptist, as recorded by Luke’s Gospel, underscores

the basis for ethical principles on material possessions. His call to repentance is

followed by persuasion to “bear fruits worthy of repentance,” which calls for an

economical and social responsibility. The human nature is often selfish and

dominated by love of self and desire to accumulate wealth for personal gain. But

followers of Christ are expected to model after Christ (Phil 2:5-7), who stripped

himself of all privileges and rightful dignity for the sake of others. Unfortunately,

humankind is unable to save itself from the trap of carnal nature which finds

fulfilment in the realm of selfishness. Divine intervention is indispensable for

humankind to be able to do good, to love and do justice to the neighbour. Thus I

concur with Wesley’s argument that there is “the absolute necessity of the grace and

Spirit of God to raise even good thought or desire in our hearts” (Works of John

Wesley, letters 5:231).

2.5.4 μεταδιδόναι–in (Luke 3:10-14)

verb, aorist, active, imperative ��

Luke 3:11

�π�� · � �� , �� π��.

“Metadidonai” is the proper and acceptable way to show a fruit of repentance,

according to John the Baptist (Luke 3:11); followers of Christ should share material

possessions with those needier. It is a call to action and it comes with a sense of a

command or exhortation; this is, an imperative call for action from the audience. His

response to the multitude, tax collectors and soldiers all have in common the call to

love, care, protect and solidarity with the poor and or powerless (Schottroff &

98

Stegemann 1986:109, Pilgrim 1981:143-146). For Luke it is crucial that the economic

ethics of the people of God must be shaped by Kingdom principles found in the

Scriptures. The right use of material possessions is depicted as a fruit of repentance

throughout the book of Luke; the change of mind and heart represented by repentance

has to be reflected in a change in behaviour.

The message of John the Baptist reflects Luke’s intent to proclaim Biblical

ethics on material possessions. However, “we should not fail to recognize that Luke

intends to show his readers that, as far as the motif of the right use of material

possessions is concerned, John the forerunner of Jesus the Christ holds pace with

Jesus whose ethical teaching on the motif at issue will be discussed…there appears to

be continuity between John the Baptist’s and Jesus’ view of the theme of the right use

of possessions” (Kim 1998 (155):170).

Jesus has come to affect the lives of all people. It is only through the

redemptive power of God that humankind can be delivered from false hopes and

dependency. It is because of self-dependency and false hopes that people turn to

oppress others. Greed and corruption are the result of depravation of the heart. People

turn to believe that their honour is based on accumulation of wealth and often in abuse

of power and position. However, “heritage, self-sufficiency, religious life-style and

spiritual decorum all fall to total axe of God. We are called to come back to total

dependency, total honesty, and no claims except his righteousness” (Welch 1974:46).

The Baptist’s message is expected to influence positively the ethical standards

in socio-economic issues. He gives God’s directives for sound economic practices

99

that honour God. In Luke 3:8 John challenges his listeners to bring forth fruits

worthy of repentance. This was contrary to what the Jews would have expected

since they were descendents of Abraham. It is contrary to what the rich would

welcome since they were the most honourable people in their society. The rich were

often the landowners, the people of influence, who made or influenced political and

economical decisions within their land. These were the people who knew God’s

commandments and probably, if asked about it, they would recite the commandments

without hesitation. But John challenges them to realize that following God requires

more than just head knowledge of God’s commands. It requires transformation of the

heart. It requires a lifestyle that honours God.

John the Baptist calls his audience to acknowledge and experience the saving

power of God. John’s message of salvation often implies alleviation for the lowly.

The release of sins is God’s universal motif. God’s salvation is for all, it is not

exclusively meant for the rich (the wealthy, those who were able to maintain their

heritages, those who were able to maintain their honour, the powerful and those who

were influential in decision making, or people of Israel alone). God’s salvation is for

all, including those that the Pharisees and Sadducees would exclude such as the tax

collectors and soldiers.

I want to reiterate that the socio-economic principles advocated by the Baptist

(Luke 3:10-14) are not necessarily new. They are a continuity of God’s directives

found in the Old Testament which will be discussed later in this study as the

investigation moves on to address the unity within the Bible as far as this subject is

concerned. Throughout the Bible sharing material possessions is God’s mandate to

100

His people. However, what makes Luke’s stance more important for this study is the

fact that he addresses this principle with a renewed soteriological vision which points

to Christ as the ultimate hope for the community. The various mandates for sharing

possessions found in the Old Testament, in the Mediterrenean culture as well as

Qumran community have a legalistic tone associated with them. Luke-Acts and other

New Testament readings on this principle are soteriological in nature. While the

actions of compassion and mercy are Kingdom imperatives, it must be appreciated

that Luke-Acts reading insist that this must be birthed from a heart that is born again

in Christ Jesus. The acts of compassion and mercy from a heart of a new creature in

Christ become an act of worship. They are no longer acts of complying with the law

or tradition, but rather an acknowledgement that one is a steward of God’s

possessions in this world. The resources or material possessions that we have are not

means for self enrichment and glorification but rather they belong to God and are to

be used in worship to Him. Worship of God signifies a total surrender of all we are

and all we have. The love of God and neighbour become a practical expression of

Christ living in us and we are the body, hands and feet of Jesus to the world. The law

to give alms is important and should be observed, but according to Luke, the disciples

of Jesus must share material possessions as an act of worship. Thus, Luke 3:10-14

defines the actions of compassion and mercy below discussed as signs of repentance:

1) Generosity and Sharing (Luke 3:10-11): John challenged the crowds to give

and share of what they have to those who have nothing. According to John,

those who have food and clothing should share (metadidomi) with the needy,

the poorest of the poor. The command is for all the crowd, it is inclusive, the

rich and the poor. The word used to describe the crowd (��) indicates that

this were people or multitudes that flocked together in this place where John

101

the Baptist was speaking to hear him. These people could have been people

from all walks of life. Therefore this call was not only for the rich, but to the

wealthy and poor alike, because “possessing two tunics does not in any way

indicate wealth. Virtually all people, with the exception of the poorest of the

poor, possessed a change of underclothing. According to Josephus two tunics

were usually taken on journeys, even slaves” (Nave 2003:152). The author

indicates that everyone has a responsibility to metadidonai his or her

possessions with those who are in need. The children of God are expected to

identify with the needy, love and care for them.

The children of God should love and have compassion for those who

have nothing. They should be committed to God’s redemptive mission by

giving generously and sacrificially to meet the needs of others. Throughout the

Bible the call is clear for sharing divine blessings with others. The sharing

and giving is grounded in the understanding that we are stewards of God’s

possessions. He entrusts human beings with His possessions so that they will

become nourishment to the hungry, shelter to the homeless and clothes to the

naked. According to Nave (2003:153), “For the author of Luke - Acts, it is not

simply a matter of the prosperous and powerful learning to share with the

poor; it is a matter of all people learning to share with and treat others fairly,

justly and equitably.” This cannot be achieved by knowing the law; it is a

result of transformation that takes place when one repents (change former

thinking and behaviour).

102

John was not calling people to give out of obligation, but rather as an

act of love and caring. Repentance means being transformed from selfish

ambitions and using God’s given wealth to care for all His people. James, the

brother of Jesus, rightfully said, “Religion that God our Father accepts as pure

and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress and to

keep oneself from being polluted by the world” (1:27). Therefore, sharing

with those in need is one of the ways of being Christ-like. In the Old

Testament the Israelites were forbidden by law to harvest the corners of their

field. They were not allowed to go back to their fields and collect what had

been missed during the time of harvest. They were to leave these behind to

care for those in need. Generosity to those facing hardship is a way of

modelling God’s holiness.

2) In Luke 3:12-13 the tax collectors also asked what shall we do that will be

fruits in keeping with repentance. Be fair! Do not collect more than what you

are supposed to. They are called to repent from their deviant practices that

neither honour God, nor dignify human kind.

The tax collectors were known for exploiting the poor. They exploited

the peasant farmers and landless peasants. They were not popular; they were

considered outcasts, sinners. So often they would require a higher tax than the

official prescribed fee. Taxes often would rise without a warning. Higher taxes

were not affordable for the poor and occasionally led to bondage. It enriched

the tax collectors and the city, but at the same time was a potential instrument

to impoverish the economically disadvantaged.

103

The farmers worked hard to keep up with the taxes required, but it was

not easy given the fact that their responsibilities compounded. They were

responsible to produce enough to sustain their families, purchase what was

necessary for their living that could not be produced otherwise in their

agricultural activities, save enough for the next year’s planting and meet other

obligations such as import and export fees (Scott 2002:238). The high fees

required for taxes and other obligations became a burden to the majority of the

peasant farmers, and it became harder for them to keep up with such demands.

This was the main cause for unemployment and the creation of banditry

groups.

The tax collectors were hated and considered social outcasts because

they often took advantage of the people’s ignorance and/or passiveness in

regard to toll fees in order to enrich themselves. Hence, God’s guideline to

uplift the poor in this situation would be a call for repentance which will bear

fruits of justice and fairness.

3) The soldiers also asked what would be an acceptable fruit of repentance from

their side. Similar to the tax collectors, Luke calls them to stop abusing their

power to maltreat the population. The soldiers were known as abusive people

who used violence and false accusations to defraud others. Fruit of repentance

for this group is release from sin of robbing people of their money and being

content with what they earned. “The association of the soldiers with tax

collectors suggests that the author felt that these soldiers would be viewed by

104

his reader the same way the tax collectors were viewed. Josephus records that

the tax collector, Joseph, took with him two thousand foot soldiers from the

King, for he desired that he might have some assistance, in order to force such

as were refractory in the cities to pay. This reference from Josephus combined

with the close association of the soldiers and tax collectors in Lukan passages,

suggests that the soldiers addressed by John the Baptist were most likely

Jewish soldiers assigned by a Roman sanctioned Jewish leader such as Herod

Antipas to assist tax collectors in the gathering of taxes. These soldiers,

therefore, belong in the same corrupt social system as the tax collectors”

(Nave 2003:157).

According to John’s response to the crowds, tax collectors and soldiers’

repentance must be coupled by sharing with the needy, not taking advantage in

collecting taxes nor abusing military authority by robbing the populace. People should

share material goods with the poor. It can be concluded then that economical sharing,

economical justice and the prevention of greed go hand in hand (Scheffler 1990 [Vol

24(1)]: 21-36). As argued above, “in antiquity, people assumed everything was

limited… If a person got more, someone else automatically got less. Acquisitiveness

was therefore always greed. The advice to be content with one’s appointed share is

thus fundamental to the peasant outlook. Sharing coats would be a form of

generalized reciprocity” (Malina & Rohrbaugh 2003:236).

John the Baptist and subsequently Jesus (Luke 6:20-49) challenged the people to

share resources with the poor and help relieve poverty as ethical social behavior

acceptable for the disciples of Jesus. The teachings of John and those of the Lord

105

Jesus, (e.g. Luke 3:10-14; 6:20-49; 9:51-56; 12:13-21; 15:11-32 etc.) in the third

Gospel underscore the ethical social behaviour that focuses on abandoning greed and

embracing a new life that is characterized by respecting others and treating them with

dignity as God’s people. Jesus requires that those who hear the Good News should act

upon what they have heard (6:43-49) and manifest fruits of repentance in the context

of human interpersonal relationships and demonstrate ethical social concern for the

well being of others, thus, forming a community of God’s people (Nave 2003:175).

God’s guidelines toward poverty, suffering, corruption, injustices and all other

kinds of social evils are not grounded on sudden change of the outward social

structure, but by a personal and inward revolution and renovation of the individuals

who make up society. The inward change of the individuals in the society would

make a great difference in the outward social structure. Unfortunately, the lack of

repentance leads to destruction. Repentance is deliverance from destruction, but those

who do not embrace it are doomed to perish.

The Gospel of Luke pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God’s desire to change

the inward person and as a result of the inward transformation influence the

economical practices in the society. Throughout the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the

Apostles it is clear that the Kingdom’s ethics affect a society through individual

inward transformation. “The frequent call to renunciation of riches and to do charity

is conspicuous. Throughout the gospel the addressees are prompted to sell (from)

their goods and to give to the poor. In 6:29 Luke interprets love for enemies as giving

away what one has left even if one was the victim of theft; in 11:41 Jesus says that

one should not give so much attention to the washing of a cup as to giving alms from

106

what is within it; in 12:33 the “treasure in heaven” implies a literal selling of

possessions and giving of alms; in 14:13, 21 the poor are among those who should be

invited to a banquet; in 16:19-30 the rich man ends in Hades for not having cared for

the poor Lazarus; in 18:22 the rich ruler is urged to sell what he possesses and to

distribute it to the poor; in 19:8 Zacchaeus is presented as setting a positive example

in giving half of his goods to the poor. The book of Acts integrates these ideals of

sharing; the first believers, “sold their possessions and goods and distributed them all,

as any had need” (Acts 2:45), and Paul is depicted as one who coveted no riches but

rather set the good example of labouring to support the weak (Acts 20:33-35)”

(Scheffler 1990 [Vol 24(1)]: 31).

As we move to the next section to consider the application of the principle of

sharing material possessions in the life of the early church (book of Acts) it is crucial

to note that the Greek words used in Luke 3:11 and Acts 2 & 4 are not the same.

However, they all depict the same call for generous giving or acts of charity towards

those in need. The word that Luke 3:11 uses is as follows: μεταδίδωμι: to share with

someone else what one has—‘to share, to give.’ � �χων δύο χιτ�νας μεταδότω τ�

μ� �χοντι ‘a person who has two shirts must share with another who doesn’t have

any’ Lk 3:11 (Louw 1996). In Acts 2:42-47 the community of the early church is

described as having everything in common and giving to those in need. The word

used for sharing material possessions is ��: meaning to distribute, to

divide. In Acts 4:32-37 again the community of faith here is described as having

everything in common and sharing with one another, and this is explained as follows:

διαδίδωμι: to give something to a series of persons—‘to give out, to distribute’

(Louw 1996). While in Luke 3:11 the sharing of material possessions was with those

107

who needed it or were lacking, the book of Acts depicts a community that owns

everything in common. Clearly, those who have properties and other possessions had

to willingly sell everything in order to share their resources with those in need.

However their form of sharing is different from the one found in the Gospel, the

resources no longer belong to one person, but they are rather owned by the

community of believers who share with one another according to what they might

need.

2.5.5 Sharing in the Book of Acts

Acts 2:42-47 is preceded by a call to repentance. Peter’s message on the day

of Pentecost is persuading his listeners to turn to Christ and embrace the praxis that

are in accordance with the will of God. The response is positive (37-40) for the

audience asked, “What are we to do?” as a sign of clear conviction of guilt and

acknowledgement of the need for change. Peter’s response to them was consistent

with the teaching of John the Baptist in Luke 3:8 and Jesus in Mark 1:15 and Luke

5:32: he calls them to repent, that is turn away from sin or deviant life style and turn

to God. Repentence resulted in a clear change of purpose and behaviour demonstrated

by living out the ethics of the Kingdom of God.

The fruits of repentance that followed showed that people dedicated

themselves to the teachings of the apostles. They heard this teaching as “doctrine

(��). Better, teaching”. This implies that the teaching is from the Lord, its

authority and validity is divine and founded in Christ Jesus (e.g. 1 Cor. 14:37 “If

anyone thinks and claims that he is a prophet filled with and governed by the Holy

Spirit of God and inspired to interpret the divine will and purpose in preaching or

108

teaching or has any other spiritual endowment, let him understand, recognize and

acknowledge that what I am writing to you is a command of the Lord” see Amplified

Bible Version) and what the apostles are doing is to be witness of the �� of

Jesus. They are interpreting the �� of Jesus to address the need for change of

behaviour in their context. But most important is that their role as witness and/or

interpreters of the teachings of Jesus is aimed at leading people to experience a

transformed life. It is not simply retelling the story of the teachings of Jesus, it is

obedience to Jesus’ Great Commission: go and make disciples…teaching them to

obey everything I have commanded you (Mat. 28:19-20).

Amongst the other changes that resulted from repentance, �� is

noteworthy because of its relation to the praxis of sharing possessions with those in

need. The repentant crowd dedicated themselves to the teachings (witness of Jesus) of

the apostles and “fellowship (��). From ��, common. A relation

between individuals which involves a common interest and a mutual, active

participation in that interest and in each other. The word answers to the Latin

communio, from communis, common. Hence, sometimes rendered communion, as 1

Cor. 10:16; 2 Cor. 13:14, fellowship is the most common rendering. Thus Philip. 1:5:

“your fellowship in the gospel,” signifying co-operation in the widest sense;

participation in sympathy, suffering, and labour. Compare 1 John 1:3, 6, 7.

Occasionally it is used to express the particular form which the spirit of fellowship

assumes; as in Rom. 15:26; Heb. 13:16, where it signifies the giving of alms, but

always with an emphasis upon the principle of Christian fellowship which underlies

the gift” (Vincent 2002, S. 1:456-458). The community of sharing, both in Acts 2:42-

109

47 and Acts 4:32-37 resembles �� people with common interest and

cooperating with each other to ensure that there is no needy person amongst them.

Unlike the Gospel of Luke’s call to “sell everything and give to the poor” in

order to join in His mission, the Jerusalem community in the book of Acts acted

voluntarily to share their possessions to assist those in need. In the Gospel, Luke

writes about the Kingdom’s requirements to qualify one as a disciple of Jesus.

According to Luke, the followers of Christ had to detach themselves from the

structural distinctions that sort and rank individuals in terms of power, status, and

prestige. To portray the Jesus movement as unique and different from the existing

worldly movements, Luke emphasizes throughout his Gospel that discipleship

requires detachment from possessions (Luke 5:1-11; 27-32). Thus the disciples of

Jesus leave their nets, their public responsibility like tax collector, to join Jesus’

movement.

Contrary to the disciples of Jesus who “left everything” to follow Jesus, the

rich ruler declines the invitation to detach himself from the earthly riches and follow

Jesus. Although it is often argued that the call to renounce one’s possessions was

mostly for the twelve apostles, the Gospel of Luke presents other calls intended to a

wider community to do the same. The rich ruler, for instance, when he asked Jesus

what he should do to inherit eternal life, was given as answer, “Sell everything you

have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven then come follow me”

(Luke 18:22). The rich ruler declines the invitation. Continuing His conversation,

Jesus insinuates that it is hard for the rich to enter the Kingdom of God! It is hard

because they already have false hope and false dependency on their wealth that they

110

can hardly detach themselves from for the sake of the poor and the Gospel (Kraybill

1983:220-235).

This was not a problem for the twelve because they had already left everything

(18:28). But Jesus’ response to Peter in (18:29-30), “I tell you the truth, Jesus said,

‘no one who has left home or wife or brother or parents or children for the sake of the

Kingdom of God will fail to receive many times as much in this age and in the age to

come, eternal life’”, “suggests that a wider circle is intended. All who are called to

fulfil discipleship during the earthly ministry of Jesus must leave everything. The

story of the conversion of the rich tax collector Zacchaeus, found only in Luke (19:1-

10), presents a disciple who neither abandons everything nor follows Jesus. But the

point Luke wishes to make here is in line with what we have seen thus far. Zacchaeus

is not called to be a full-time follower of the earthly Jesus so he needs not leave

everything. He does separate himself from his wealth, however” (Kraybill 1983:230).

Because of “his repentance” Zacchaeus detaches himself from the life of greed and

actions of corruption. He detaches himself from defrauding others and most

importantly he realizes that his honour and power should not be based on false

dependency on personal wealth. The change of lifestyle of Zacchaeus is a sign of

inward revolution that took place. He abandoned everything that gave him status but

did not honour God. He was transformed by the renewing of his mind! (Rom. 12:2).

While in the Gospel of Luke the imperative for the followers of Christ to share

material possessions with the poor is clear, it will be appreciated that in Acts of the

Apostles the praxis of a community of goods depicted in the early Christian group is a

sign of response to the imperatives of the Gospel. This praxis is a result of the work of

111

the Lord in transforming the lives and behaviour of the early Christians in as far as the

obtention and use of material possessions is concerned. It is this inward

transformation that resulted in spontaneous actions of compassion in the community

of Jerusalem as recorded in the book of Acts. This community is portrayed as having

everything in common (Acts 2 and 4). There is no record of a call for them to detach

themselves from the riches as it was in the Gospel. It also seems appropriate to argue

that the message on sharing material possessions in Acts is intended to persuade the

readers of this book to follow the example of the early church, in realizing the

Deuteronomic tradition of caring for those in need. Thus, the call to share in the book

of Acts gives continuity to the Gospel of Luke in presenting the principle of sharing

material possessions as an imperative of the Kingdom of God. Its application may

differ according to the context.

As already indicated, the Christian community in Acts gave from a

transformed heart and also as part of their traditional practice. This community

embedded the classic Hellenistic definition of friendship with the biblical term for the

inner person. The classic Hellenistic definition of friendship describes true friends as

people who are perfectly united in mind and heart. Hence, sharing of possessions was

common in such relationships.

Another similar community that we find in the time of the early church is the

Qumran community which was formed as a result of lack of confidence in the

religious leaders of the time. The Qumran’s had instituted a common fund. The

members of Qumran community were required by their own law of full membership

to surrender all their possessions to be used to meet the needs of everyone in a

112

communal life style. This community lived in its own isolated region with the

assumption that this would be the way to maintain their purity. Although, there could

be some similarities in the way of sharing of the early church and Qumran, what

needs to be stressed again is the fact that the early church did not share because of

legalistic obligation. The praxis was voluntary as people understood the message of

the Gospel and responded to the call to salvation from sin and the power of sin.

According to Luke, in the Jerusalem church community there were no needy

people because the believers “devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and

fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayers. Awe came upon everyone,

because the apostles were doing many wonders and signs. All who believed were

together and had all things in common; they would sell their possessions and goods

and distribute the proceeds to all, as any had need. Day by day, as they spent much

time together in the temple, they broke bread at home and ate their food with glad and

generous hearts, praising God and having the goodwill of all the people. And day by

day the Lord added to their number those who were being saved” (Acts 2:42-47).

The community’s practice of distributing goods to meet the needs of the poor

is also a response of obedience to Jesus’ teaching throughout Luke’s Gospel, which

shows a distinctive concern for this problem. The heaping up of wealth is exposed as

a terrible miscalculation, even as a cause for eternal torment. Those who heed Jesus

will understand that the message of the Scripture calls the community to precisely the

sort of generous sharing that is exemplified by the Jerusalem Church in the early

chapters of Acts. Their sharing of their goods so that there is no needy person among

them is the outward and visible sign of God’s effectual grace. The testimony is

113

credible because evidence of God’s power is palpable in the community’s life (Hays

1996:121-123).

“Now the whole group of those who believed were of one heart and soul and no

one claimed private ownership of any possessions, but everything they owned was

held in common…” (Acts 4:32-35). This is contrary to the patron – client relationship

in which exchange entails a package deal (Eisenstadt & Roniger 1984:208). The

patron provides goods to his tenant or to the poor with the expectation of their loyalty

and honour in return. The rich and the poor alike found themselves together as they

shared their possessions. What changed? Why would people who had enjoyed honour

ascribed to them by those indebted to them become so concerned with the social

justice of all and not pursue self-interest any longer? The sharing of possessions in

Acts 2-5 was not based on legalistic demands found in traditional practices in the time

of the writing of this book. There was no obligation to sell everything in order to be

followers of Christ and to alleviate poverty.

According to Robertson (1997: Acts 2:42-47 and 4:32), the fact that these

believers had everything in common it should not be interpreted as communism

idelogy. They held everything in common (koiva) ready to be used for the common

good as it was needed. K�� [koina]) indicates that they were common in the use

of their property, not in the possession as Luke proceeds to explain. Concept that they

sold their prosperities to give a share of possessions to those that were in need

indicates that there were poor people that could not make it on their own.

114

The giving a share of one’s possessions to those who had a need in Acts 4:32-

37 was an act of sacrifice and of acknowledgement of their stewardship responsibility

of the community of Jerusalem. Here the act of sharing is a result of the work of the

Holy Spirit (4:23-31). Furthermore, their actions were signs of witness to the world

about the saving power of Jesus. However, amongst this group we find an example of

individuals that have not totally surrendered their lives to the power of the Holy

Spirit. As already indicated no one was forced to give all their possessions to meet the

needs. But we find in Acts 5 an example of a couple that out of their desire deceives

the people of God and the Lord. One of the reasons for this was probably to keep pace

with others who offered gifts to help care for those in need. But because of failure to

follow God’s commands (thou shalt not lie) they were instantly killed. Once again we

see that sharing material possessions as an ethical principle is a part of the kingdom

ethics as a whole. In the same way that the Gospel challenges the community of

believers to share, show justice and compassion here it calls for justice by rejecting

lies. The gift was probably good, but the heart of Ananias and Sapphira were not in

communion with God. The property belonged to them, and they could very well have

done, invested in whatever way they wanted. But their offer to sell and give a share to

those who were lacking or in need implied here that they putting in practice what we

see in Acts 2 and 4. Unfortunately they are trying to do this from their own human

nature.

The example that we must follow requires that our hearts and minds be

transformed by the power of God. The hearts of the people of the early church at the

beginning of the book of Acts reflect a group of people who had been consumed by

God’s presence and had been baptised with the power of the Holy Spirit. They lived

only to do God’s will, which is the proclamation of the good news to the poor; the

115

declaration of God’s saving work and power. They served as a redemptive

community that was not only interested in the spiritual well being of the person, but

also interested in meeting the socio-economic needs of individuals.

I conclude then that “the Jerusalem community embodies in its life together

the Greek vision of authentic friendship, not just between two people or within a

small intimate circle, but now exponentially expands into the life of a community of

thousands. Hostility, mistrust, and selfishness are replaced by a communal ethic of

sharing that treats all members of the community as friends in accordance with the

philosophical ideal. At the same time, this community in which it can be said that

‘there is no needy person among them’ shows itself to be the authentic Israel, living in

accordance with the covenant provision of Deuteronomy 15” (Hays 1996:123). Jesus

declared and carried out in the Gospel His mission and ministry to liberate the poor

and the oppressed. Jesus’ ministry and message is against the behaviour that

characterizes everyday life in His world. Throughout His ministry, Jesus strived to

instill in the human heart the desire for a behaviour that is birthed out of service in the

Kingdom of God. Jesus’ ministry to uplift poverty entails exposing the social evils

that propagate the creation and growth of the lower class – the poor. It is not the

wealth that is bad, but, according to Jesus, wealth is a temptation to prestige and

security apart from God (Green 1995:113-115). A fruit of conversion and

discipleship entails sharing of possessions and loving others (neighbours, enemies and

friends alike) as “yourselves”.

The ministry inaugurated by Jesus according to the Gospel (Luke 4:18-19) is

presented in Acts as transferred over to the Church. The Spirit of the Lord empowers

116

the Church to continue Jesus’ ministry. Although Luke, in Acts 1:8, indicates that

“his primary interest here is the Spirit’s conferral of power for witnessing about Jesus,

we must remember that Jesus had defined his own mission in terms of Good News for

the poor, release to the captives, and letting the oppressed go free. Thus the apostles’

Spirit-empowered preaching about Jesus will necessarily include the same message of

liberation” (Hays 1996:121). Thus, “the Spirit does not fall just upon the apostle;

rather, ‘the promise is for you, for your children, and for all who are far away,

everyone whom the Lord our God calls to him’ (Acts 2:39). Implied in this gift of the

Spirit for all is the empowering of all to take up Jesus’ vocation of proclaiming liberty

to the captives. Indeed, the call to repentance (Luke 24:47; Acts 2:38), which lies at

the heart of the gospel proclamation for Luke, includes precisely the call to reform

individual lives and community practices in accordance with the prophetic vision of

justice, as set forth in the Isaiah texts that stand as the keynote for Jesus’ proclamation

of the Kingdom of God” (Hays 1996:121).

To sum up, this session has argued that the book of Acts integrates the

normative call to share possessions with those in need. The early church portrays a

sharing community (Acts 2:42-47 and Acts 4:32-37). These passages not only narrate

that the early church shared possessions but also indicate that as a result of sharing

there was no needy person among them. This depicts the early church community

fulfilling the Deuteronomy tradition and the Greek ideals (Kim 1998:227). “Even if

we acknowledge this fact of fulfilment in the early Christian community at Jerusalem,

nonetheless, we do not need to conclude that Luke expected that it would necessarily

be achieved in subsequent church situations. Even in the Jerusalem community itself,

the ideal may not have lasted long. Consequently, what we can conjecture with regard

117

to this matter is that this fulfilment was attained only in the early period of the

Jerusalem community, and used by the author to encourage his readers to find a major

source of inspiration in the communal life of the Jerusalem Christian community and

to act in a similar way. Luke did not necessarily intend to encourage his community

and subsequent Christian communities to establish a complete community of goods,

but only that the exhortations to almsgiving given by Jesus should be fulfilled.

Consequently, a community of goods itself does not appear to be essential. What

really matters is rather that almsgiving was practised in a different type of communal

sharing in a community of goods, such as that of the early Christian community. This

means that Luke introduced an ideal at least partially attainable. … In other words, we

may suggest that Luke holds up the actual practice of the common life in which

almsgiving was put into practice in the Jerusalem community as a mirror for his own

community and hopes the latter will be guided by it” (Kim 1998:232).49

2. 6 Conclusion and Observations

This chapter investigated the use of “metadidonai” as an ethical principle

applied by Luke to address the issues of material possessions of his audience. I

conclude that sharing of material possessions according to Luke and Acts is

normative ethical principle that must be evident in the lives of the disciples of Jesus.

The disciples of Jesus are expected to “share and not exploit one another and accept

social outcasts. This ethic integrates with the merciful attitude which Luke

communicates in the text of the Gospel towards all kinds of suffering” (Scheffler

1990:21).

49 Luke may have intended for his reader to follow the example of this community that embodies the teachings of Jesus on sharing material possessions with those in need. In a way this gives continuity to the teachings of Jesus in the Gospel (Kim 1998: 233-234).

118

The principle of sharing material possessions was not unique to the text of

Luke- Acts. I have demonstrated in this chapter that sharing material possessions was

part of the Mediterranean social systems, which were influenced by concepts of honor

and shame, patron-client relationships and community of limited good. The Qumran

community also had their communal lifestyle which resembled sharing of material

possessions with every member of the community. Amongst other similarities I

considered the Hellenistic thrust that friends and family own everything in common

as well as the Jewish tradition which is grounded in the Old Testament teachings that

calls the children of Israel to share their possessions with the needy as well as with the

Levites. These social systems have in common the fact that the one who has

possessions must give a share to those who need or the one who is lacking. Whether

this was done in the context of communal sharing where those with property sold it

and gave the funds to a common fund of the group or they simply gave a share of

what they had without necessarily relinquishing all their possessions and giving up

private ownership, the principle still holds that sharing material possessions was

valued.

Those who did not act in accordance with the values and parameters within

which this (to share) was to be carried out were outcast. Behaviours such as

defrauding, extortion, abuse of power and office for ones own gain at the expense of

others were considered immoral, both in this social systems and in the Biblical world.

However, we find that several times there have been people who acted with

dishonesty in this area of material possessions. The teachings in the New Testament

concerning material possessions reaffirm the need to give a share of possessions to

119

those in need. It does not necessarily address those who are rich, but rather the call to

share is for everyone to compassionately care for those who are lacking. The question

I sought to answer was, “How the call to give a share of material possessions in Luke-

Acts different from that which was a part of the social system in which this text was

developed?” The principle of sharing material possessions in Luke-Acts is associated

with the soteriological motif of the Gospel.

Though sharing possessions was embedded in the cultural practices of the day,

it is important to note that the uniqueness of the ethics of material possessions

according to Luke-Acts is the fact that this is grounded in the soteriological motif of

the Messiah. Sharing of possessions in Luke is in fact a fruit of repentance, which is

applied to address specific situations such as sharing to alleviate poverty, total

renunciation by selling and distributing the wealth to join and be dedicated full time

to the ministry and community that shared all possessions as found in the book of

Acts. The application of this principle in specific life situations according to Luke-

Acts results from a transformed life and being endowed by the Spirit to view oneself

as steward of God’s possessions not for personal gain and enrichment but rather to

love and care for the neighbour.

It is important to note that sharing of possessions is an imperative of

discipleship; in Luke-Acts the call to share was not only for those who were wealthy

but for all (Luke 3:10-11). To the tax-collectors, Luke gives a specific guideline to

their particular situation (3:12-13), “What they should not do also functions on an

economical level: they should not exploit their position and the ignorance of ordinary

people with regard to toll tariffs in order to enrich themselves, because for this they

120

were especially hated and regarded as social outcasts. On the other hand it would have

been expected of them by the religious establishment, namely to quit their job to do

restitution”. The soldiers, “are also cautioned not to abuse their position in order to

obtain money by violence or false accusation, and also they are not required to quit

their profession. The positive aspect of what is said to them (and tax-collectors) is

expressed in the words: ‘be content with your wages’ – 3:14… economical sharing,

economic justice and the prevention of greed go hand in hand. Hence the Baptist’s

exhortation against over-collection and the obtaining of money by violence or false

accusation” (Scheffler 1990:27).

In the book of Acts sharing is a voluntary act of the followers of Christ, with

the aim to address the needs of the poor. The portrayal in Acts is of a community of

sharing. This was yet another way in which the principle of metadidonai was used to

address the issues of material possessions of the time (the needs of the poor members

of the early church). Salvation in Luke –Acts calls for restoration of the ethics of the

Kingdom with a new emphasis upon righteousness of the heart, this is the inner

character underlies outward conduct (Ladd 1993: 124-128). “The difference between

Jesus’ ethics and those of the rabbis was the difference between the inner springs of

action and outward acts” (Ladd 1993:128). The question is how can sharing of

possessions according Luke-Acts be a principle that can be applied to address the

current economic challenges of Africa, in particular, Mozambique? Does this

principle apply in a place where corruption is becoming an acceptable way of life? Is

this text normative to the Church today?

121

Although Mozambicans share material possessions as part of their cultural

practices, it is important to note that acts of sharing must be accompanied by a life

that is freed from corruption, greed, and other related social injustices that impact

negatively on the socio- economic life of the community as a whole. In chapter four

of this study I will recommend ways in which the Christian community in

Mozambique might apply the principle of sharing material possessions in accordance

with the teachings of the Kingdom of God. What follows now in chapter three is a

survey of the use of sharing possessions in the Old Testament and New Testament to

address specific canonical context in relation to material possessions. Chapter two

concentrated on social systems of the Mediterranean world, but as already indicated,

the other influence in the writing of Luke-Acts was from the teachings of the Old

Testament especially the covenant principles between God and the people of Israel.

The New Testament is the fulfilment of these teachings and prophesies and thus it

becomes important to investigate the coherence of the Bible in the subject of sharing

material possessions.

122

Chapter 3

“The Synthetic Task”

Finding Coherence between Old and New Testament

3.1 Introduction

The Luke-Acts version of ethical principles on material possessions was not

written in a vacuum, Luke declares in Luke 1:1-4 that he considered other voices to

validate his text. In this particular study I am examining the principle of sharing

material possessions. Thus in this chapter it is crucial to survey: how did the Old and

New Testament use the principle of “sharing” as an ethical principle to address

material possessions issues in general, in their respective canonical contexts. The aim

is to attempt to synthesize this principle.

I recognize that a comprehensive synthesis of the ethics of Old and New

Testaments on possessions is a complex and enormous task that cannot be addressed

comprehensively in this brief survey. I do not intend in this chapter to give an

elaborative and comprehensive account of each biblical text that deals with material

possessions. My intention is to present a brief synthesis on how the disciples of Jesus

are expected to apply the ethical principle of sharing material possessions in their

specific contexts, based on what we can learn from the Bible. Thus, I will limit my

investigation to a general application of metadidonai by the people of Israel (chosen

people of God) in the Old Testament and the ethos of Jesus in the New Testament.

This is because I find that there is continuity and similarities in the testaments; hence,

in chapter two I argued that the picture depicted in the book of Acts of a communal

sharing is fulfilment of Deut. 15:4 as well as Greek Utopianism (Kim 1998:224-225).

123

But what exactly was the situation in Deuteronomy? What kind of social systems

were dominant during that time? What were the issues related to material possessions

that were being addressed in this particular book and others of the Old Testament?

These questions will be addressed in this chapter with the hope to have an

understanding of how the principle of sharing possessions applied in the Old and New

Testament canonical context and specifically: how does this relate to Luke-Acts

context?

I have argued in the preceding chapters that biblical texts reveal meaning which is

embedded in the social system of the writer and the original audience. Each social

system has ways that provide its members with accepted actions that are considered

moral. The biblical world as a unity is not exempt of social systems that specifically

characterized its communities and writers. Unfortunately, not every aspect of the

meaning of the text is explicit to the 21st century reader, unless, knowledge of the

facts about cultural context and practices is accessed. Social scientific approach to

biblical studies provides the current reader a way to unlock language codes that can

only be understood within a specific canonical context. It is important to understand

that I am not insinuating that the authors of biblical text deliberately hid meaning for

the future readers of the Bible. The reason why some of the language and writings are

difficult to interpret for today’s reader is because of the cultural gap between the two

worlds; we can also consider the probability that these authors of the biblical text may

have not perceived that their writings were going to be read by people of other

cultures that may not be familiar with their context and its social systems.

124

Therefore, the investigation will heed the context in which the various biblical

voices were developed and heard, while at the same time attempt to discern coherence

and shared meaning on the biblical principle of sharing material possessions. It is

noteworthy that each voice of the writers of the biblical text is unique in the way it

defines and communicates the message. The Old and New Testament writers had

specific purposes for their writing projects, and yet throughout the Bible “sharing”

seems to be a normative theological and ethical principle that is proclaimed as a

necessary praxis to address material possessions issues.

The Bible upholds that God is loving, compassionate, and just and He calls His

children to embody these values. When God’s children love God and their neighbour

the fruit that is reflected in their lives is one of caring and loving others shown by

sharing with the needy what one has. Both the Old and New Testament texts seem to

advocate for embodiment of this principle as an ethos of the Kingdom of God.

According to the Bible the transformation of human behaviour is a vital aspect for this

to happen. The purpose of God in both the Old and New Testament is “the

transformation of human behaviour in this world with the consequent possibility of

living with God through all eternity. The Old Testament shows us what

transformation is, and the New Testament shows us what God has done to make the

transformation possible” (Oswalt 1999:3). This transformation is only possible when

people turn to the Lord in repentance and through the power of God are enabled to

live in harmony with the Lord and their neighbour.

The main questions are how can we apply “sharing” as a principle addressed to

the Church in the 21st Century in Mozambique, and how can the Biblical principle of

125

sharing material possessions, address the scourge of corruption in this context? This

is, can we as a Church affirmatively speak of Old and New Testament ethical

principles as normative to address the challenges of our time? The Church is called to

be holy or a radically transformed body for Christ. If the Church is no different from

the world, filled with self-serving, greedy and corrupt people, her existence is almost

unnecessary. The Church50

must be the source of hope to the depraved world, the

Lord has provided cure in the person of Jesus Christ to address the sinful nature and

its consequences. If the Church models this biblical truth, she becomes the means of

grace through which, “the nations will know that I am the Lord, declares the

Sovereign Lord, when I show myself holy through you before their eyes” (Ezekiel

36:23). The Church is called to a radically Christ like life; a life that is transformed

into the character of God (Oswalt 1999:1-6).

To sum up, three guiding facts for this investigation will be taken into

consideration: (1) the purpose of this chapter is to discern the unity among individual

voices on metadidonai as an ethical principle on material possessions both in the Old

and New Testament text. To accomplish this, the study will briefly survey common

ground the voices share. Since sharing of material possessions in the Bible is in most

cases directly related with addressing the plight of the poor, alleviation of poverty and

establishment of communal sharing so that there is no needy person amongst them, I

will give special attention to the theme of poor/poverty. The use of this theme of

50 The Church has a role to play in socio-political-economic issues. The Biblical voices are not silent on these. Thus, I concur with Harris’s (The Big Picture Volume 1, Lent 1999:12) observation that one of the most crucial roles the Church must play “is through its prophetic ministry. ‘Prophetic’ here means speaking into policy, structure, or issues in the name of God and Christ, or on behalf of humanity in general or of a community in particular… The prophetic role is seen in the application of relevant moral norms to the current political concerns of the day. Hence, the Church needs to continue engaging with government on justice, corruption, leadership, economic debt, housing, education, health care, safety and security, policy and whatever else is morally important…”

126

poverty will guide the interpretation of metadidonai principle and its application. The

response of the Israelites to a charge to live according to the Kingdom ethics on issues

of material possessions will be examined by interpreting the imperatives of the law

codes of the Old Testament, with focus to the covenant of God with the people of

Israel.

At the centre of this discussion it will be considered what are the convictions that

undergird their various stories and exhortations (Hays 1996:188 - 189)51

, in both Old

and New Testament. This is, the chapter will consider (a) the definition of the word

“poor” and “poverty” in both Old and New Testament (considered in general terms);

(b) selected texts will be discussed in relation to the use of the word within their

context; (c) the cause of poverty in both Old and New Testament as it was understood

in the cultural and social systems of the various writers of the biblical text; (d) ethical

principles derived from God and the world in which the biblical texts were developed;

(e) discerned directives and principles derived from the Old and New Testament and

the correlation thereof with the Luke - Acts ethical stance.

(2) The ultimate goal of the whole project is to test the applicability of these

principles to the Church today, especially in Mozambique. Hence, distinctive patterns

of reasoning in individual writings in the canon, stories, symbols, social structures and

51 Here I heed Hays’ (1996:188) observation: “Our first responsibility as interpreters is to listen to the individual witnesses. Having listened, however, we find ourselves inescapably confronted by the question of coherence…How do these various ancient texts function as a canon? (The term “canon” comes from the Greek Kanon, “rule” or measuring rod.”) Is there some way of discerning a wholeness or unity among canonical writing? Only if we can give an affirmative answer to this last question can we speak of New Testament ethics as a normative theological discipline.” However, it is important to note that I will not examine all the texts of Old and New Testament texts on the subject as recommended by Hays. I believe that selected texts addressing the practices of the children of Israel in the Old Testament and teachings of Jesus in the New Testament will be sufficient to guide the current reader on ethics of material possessions.

127

practices that shaped the community’s ethos will be considered. (3) The investigation

is originated on the hypothesis that the current approach to alleviate the problems

related to material possessions such as corruption, poverty, marginalization, etc in

Mozambique addresses the symptoms and not the causes. To deal with the causes

requires the addressing of the condition of the human heart and the need for change of

thinking and behaviour in relation to the attainment of material possessions and use

thereof.

3.2 Material Possessions in the Old Testament

The Old Testament is foundational for the subject of material possessions. There

are numerous passages of the Old Testament that address a variety of subjects related

to material possessions. However, for this particular investigation I will seek to

examine the principle of sharing possessions as it relates to the theme of caring for

those in need, the poor. I will argue that poverty and corruption are a result of sin.

Unfortunately, depravity is such that humankind is unable to save themselves from

the scourge of poverty and corruption. Thus, the Lord provided a solution for the care

and compassion for those in need by calling His children, to share material

possessions. God’s desire is for people to live together in harmony and to care for one

another’s needs by sharing with each other the resources entrusted to them by the

Lord.

The writers of the Old Testament use a variety of Hebrew words to explicate the

meaning of the words or concept “poor” and “poverty”. Each one of these words or

terms was used within the context of the message being conveyed by the messengers

of God as instructed by Him. The words “poor” and “poverty” were used in the Old

128

Testament to discuss not only the subject of material possession; these words were

also used to describe a social system of the day. These words have in common, that

individuals or groups of people are in need or lack something in life. It could be lack

of honour as prescribed by the society and/or lack of resources for survival. What

follow in this investigation is the definition of the words poor and poverty as they are

voiced in the Old Testament, especially when they are used in relation to material

possessions.

The Old Testament describes the poor as people who are vulnerable to all kinds of

unpleasant treatments, because they were of lower class and they lacked wealth and

power. The poor were abused very often and had no one to defend their rights, thus

the Lord says, “Do not follow the crowd in doing wrong. When you give testimony in

a lawsuit, do not pervert justice by siding with the crowd, and do not show

favouritism to a poor man in his lawsuit” (Ex. 23:3). Partiality in the Hebrew world

was unacceptable even to a poor person. Justice should be for all people, rich and

poor alike. In other passages it seems like the poor were often the victims of

corruptive activities, thus in their protection it was stated that those who were poor

were not to be overcharged; “But if he is poor and cannot afford it, then he shall take

one male lamb as a trespass offering to be waved, to make atonement for him” (Lev.

14:21). The poor were often oppressed in addition to difficulties and suffering that

was associated with poverty. Sometimes they were subjected to forced submission

because socially they were powerless and unable to defend or to resist the socially

powerful. There are those who are also described as persons in urgent/desperate need

-- for food and clothing and the resources to obtain them. Socially, this person is

dependent and must rely on others for fair treatment and for loans. This kind of

129

society is described in Deuteronomy 15:1-11. Other description of the people in need

of material possessions in the Old Testament are summed up by the following

passages: 2 Samuel 12:1-4 “There were two men in one city, one rich and the other

poor. The rich man had exceedingly many flocks and herds. But the poor man had

nothing, except one little ewe lamb, which he had bought and nourished; and it grew

up together with him and with his children. It ate of his own food and drank from his

own cup and lay in his bosom; and it was like a daughter to him. And a traveller came

to the rich man, who refused to take from his own flock and from his own herd to

prepare one for the wayfaring man who had come to him.” David had sympathy for

the poor men because it was unacceptable to disregard the poor man’s rights.

There is unity of image portrayed in these meanings as concluded by Richard

(1985:488-489): “the combined image that these words give of poverty is all too

familiar. The poor are in need, often lacking adequate basic necessities… Poverty

assumes a low social status and a terrible vulnerability to the abuses of those with

power. The poor are defenceless against those in the society who are above them due

to their lack of resources. They are likely to be treated unfairly in the courts (Deut.

15:1-4). … When defrauded by well to do they have no recourse but to appeal to the

Lord. As a result of their powerlessness, the poor are the most easily robbed in any

society (Ps. 35:10). Poverty strips the individual of rights, respect as a human being,

and a place in society.” This came about because of sin; indeed the wickedness of

mankind led to depravation52

to the extent that all the Lord saw on earth was man’s

52 It might help to point out the doctrinal traditions which shapes my thinking on the matter of depravity. I affirm the teachings of the Church of the Nazarene, that there are two kinds of sin: original sin, or depravity, and actual or personal sin. “We believe that original sin, or depravity, is that corruption of the nature of all the offering of Adam by reason of which everyone is very far gone from original righteousness or the pure state of our first parents at the time of their creation, is averse to God, is without spiritual life, and inclined to evil, and that continually. We further believe that original sin

130

wickedness resulting in inclination53

of thoughts of the human heart to evil all the

time (Gen. 6:5). In his message of 1759, Wesley argued that, “by one man’s

disobedience all men were constituted sinners, that in Adam all died, spiritually died,

lost the life and the image of God…consequently we, as well as other men, were by

nature dead in trespasses and sins, without hope and without God in the world, and

therefore children of wrath” (McGonigle 2001:103). These evil thoughts

unmistakably include disregard for one’s neighbour, which leads to selfishness.

The poverty and corruption came to the world as a result of sin. It is not God’s

plan that men and women should oppress and defraud each other; God’s plan was for

humankind to live in harmony, to have a good relationship with God and His creation.

In Genesis we learn that before the creation of man and woman, God had created

everything that would be necessary to meet their basic needs (Gen. 1:11-12, 26-30).

The man was created in the image of God to be God’s visible representative, ruling

creation as guided by God, endowed with reason, moral self-consciousness, and

freedom of choice. God told male and female “to be fruitful and increase in number,

to fill the earth and subdue it” (Gen. 1:27), therefore “our purpose as human beings is

to tend the earth and make it productive (doing). In addition, we are to be stewards.

continues to exist with the new life of the regenerate, until the heart is fully cleansed by the baptism with the Holy Spirit. We believe that original sin differs from actual sin in that it constitutes an inherited propensity to actual sin for which no one is accountable until its divinely provided remedy is neglected or rejected. We believe that actual or personal sin is a voluntary violation of a known law of God by a morally responsible person. It is therefore not to be confused with involuntary and inescapable shortcomings, infirmities, faults, mistakes, failures, or other deviations from a standard of perfect conduct that are the residual effects of the Fall. However, such innocent effects do not include attitudes or responses contrary to the spirit of Christ, which may properly be called sins of the spirit. We believe that personal sin is primarily and essentially a violation of the law of love; and that in relation to Christ, sin may be defined as unbelief.” (Manual of the Church of the Nazarene 2005-2009: 30). 53 According to John Wesley, “Every man of the offspring of Adam is very far gone from original righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil…” (McGonigle 2001:101).

131

Everything belongs to God – humankind, the creatures of the earth, and the earth

itself. The call to and promise of productivity and fruitfulness find their ground in the

intent of God who created them” (Myers 2006:25).

The consequences of the disobedience of Adam and Eve in the Garden of

Eden are catastrophic. Suffering and poverty in the Old Testament is generally

viewed, interpreted, or linked with sin as its main cause. It is because of sin that

people are in poverty and suffering. Similar to this thought is the thought that

injustice is sin. The disobedience in the Garden of Eden resulted in human

depravation of moral values. The Lord commanded the first male and female, “You

are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the

knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die” (Gen. 2:15-

16).

Unfortunately, “they acted as if they knew better than God” (Gen. 3). Being

like God was apparently more attractive than listening to God and doing as God

asked. The effects of this disobedience ensured that human identity and all

dimensions of human relationships would be marred. The scope of sin proved very

broad, very holistic, if you will. It led to widespread deception and domination in all

forms of human relationships – with God, within one’s self (family), within the

community and between others, and with the environment” (Myers 2006:27).

Because of Adam and Eve’s disobedience, God cursed the ground; “Through

painful toil you will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and

thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you

132

will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken” (Gen.

3:17-19). That which was intended as a joy for Adam (to work with the soil - 2:15)

was now going to be a painful labour, faced with challenges. “The curse was put upon

the soil instead of upon the man directly. Adam had been commissioned to work with

the soil (2:15), but no longer was it to be pure joy… Now his labour on the soil would

be faced with competitors, thorns … and thistles, which grow profusely without

cultivation and yield no food for man… Physical death was not to be immediate, but

it was to be inevitable, for unto dust you shall return. The immediate kind of death

which man was to suffer was spiritual, a separation from God” (Herbert 1969:47).

The spiritual death led mankind to sinful actions that perpetuate poverty in the

World. Stewardship has been replaced by greed, “Instead of a way of using our gifts

for ourselves and others work has been corrupted. It can be toilsome and frustrating

(Gen 3:17). Work has become a commodity, something we sell and buy with the

temptation to reduce the human being to an economic asset, a living machine. Work

has become a tool for greed, and even an idolatry whereby one makes a name for

oneself. For the poor, this distorted work is often not available and the poor are

vilified as not productive” (Myers 2006:28).

3.2.1 The Causes of Poverty According to the Old Testament

The reading of the creation story provided us with an understanding tyrannised

classes, corruption, poverty, exploitation and all forms of suffering are results of sin.

Man’s character was meant to be righteousness, holiness and knowledge or ability to

make good decisions that would benefit the individual, the community and the world

as a whole. This image was destroyed because of sin, and as a result of this, mankind

133

began to turn against each other, each one seeking only its own interests. This is,

because the image of God was destroyed, the ethical principles that were to guide

human relationships with God and his creation was marred (Myers 2006:26-27).

According to Wright (1983:69-70) the following key ethical principles that

were marred because of sin: (1) Sharing resources – the land and natural resources are

gifts to all humankind, not only a few. While this does not mean there can be no

private ownership, Wright argues that, ‘the right of all to use is prior to own.’ (2)

Responsibility to work – work is part of being fruitful. God is productive, and thus it

is our nature to be productive. Work then is a responsibility. It also follows that we

have a responsibility to enable or allow others to work so that they can fulfil their

purposes. (3) Expectation of growth – ‘be fruitful and increase’ applies to the number

of human beings and to the means of supporting them. God has provided abundantly

in creation so that this can be done, and God has given humankind the ingenuity and

adaptability necessary to create this necessary increase. (4) Share produce – being

productive is also accompanied by the idea of being able to consume or enjoy the end

– product of one’s work. This is part of the biblical image of the better human future

(Isaiah 65:21-22). ‘We are as responsible to God for what we do with what we

produce as we are for what he has given us.’”

Thus, I am persuaded that the cause of corruption and poverty needs to be

dealt with in a holistic way. This is consistent with biblical text because the Bible

identifies the causes of poverty and at the same time points to the solution, which is

turning away from wickedness to Godly practices. However, Godly practices are not

achieved by knowledge of the law or the Scriptures alone. It is true that “even before

134

conversion we possess the ‘power of willing’ – that is, a capacity for acting either

righteously or sinfully. But…our moral nature is fallen and we cannot of ourselves

exercise this capacity in the direction of righteous acts… In this state, the free will of

man towards the true good is not only wounded, maimed, infirm, bent, and weakened;

but it is also imprisoned, destroyed, and lost. And its powers are not only debilitated

and useless unless they be assisted by grace, but it has no powers whatever except

such as are excited by divine grace. For Christ has said, ‘Without me ye can do

nothing,’… The mind, in this state, is dark, destitute of the saving knowledge of God,

and according to the Apostle, incapable of those things which belong to the Spirit of

God… Exactly correspondent to this darkness of the mind and perverseness of the

heart is the utter weakness of all the powers to perform that which is truly good, and

to omit the perpetration of that which is evil” (Grider 1994: 351). The law and/or the

Scriptures serve as one of the means of grace to awaken us, for we are depraved and

cannot save ourselves54

. It is only through God’s grace and Spirit that the human

being is enabled to respond to God’s saving grace and ethical principles or moral

responsibility that is in accordance to God’s will (McGonigle 2001:101-106; Grider

1994:350-355).

The causes of poverty in the Old Testament can be divided into four

categories. The first cause of poverty is oppression; second, calamity, plague, 54 To be well versed in Scripture does not mean that one practices the ethics of the Kingdom of God. Like the children of Israel, it is possible that there are those who know the law of God and yet fail to walk in accordance with it. Thus, I echo Wesley’s words of 1740, “I believe in justification by faith alone…I am firmly persuaded, that every man of the offspring of Adam is very far gone from original righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil, that this corruption of our nature, in every person born into the world, deserves God’s wrath and damnation; and therefore, if ever we receive the remission of our sins, and are accounted righteous before God, it must be only the merit of Christ, by faith.” In 1760 he said, “In Adam all died. the natural consequence of this is that everyone descended from him comes into the world spiritually dead, dead to God, wholly ‘dead in sin’ entirely void of the life of God, void of the image of God, of all that righteousness and holiness wherein Adam was created” (McGonigle 2001:101-102).

135

persecution, war, disease, fraud and usury; third, laziness, neglect, drunkenness and

gluttony; fourth, the culture of poverty. I will discuss these categories individually. In

my endeavours to unveil biblical principles that should be embodied by the Church

today, I contend that alleviation of poverty; eradication of corruption and/or fraud and

usury should not only be dealt with as a socio-economic problem but also as a

spiritual problem. It must be dealt with inwardly and outwardly. Salvation is what we

need the most; “salvation from sin, and from all sin, inner and outer, in this life… this

‘great salvation’ means being save from sin…Jesus will save his people from their

sins. All that believe in him, he will save from all their sins, from original and actual,

past and present sin, of the flesh and the spirit” (McGonigle 2001:107).

(1) Oppression: according to the Old Testament many people were poor

because individuals or governments oppressed them. Many times, governments

established unjust laws or debased the currency, measures that resulted in the

exploitation of individuals. Oppression leaves the victim powerless and unable to

control his/her own destiny. Proverbs 13:23 rightly states; “A poor man’s field may

produce abundant food, but injustice sweeps it away.” The poor may do all that is

within their power to work towards improving the quality of their lives but they are

powerless against those who are above them, they are defrauded, robbed and treated

unjustly.

Exodus highlights the holistic and relational nature of God’s redemptive work,

which is associated with liberation from oppressive circumstances. Thus, Myers

(2006:31) concludes, “Socio politically, Exodus is the story of moving from slavery

to freedom, from injustice towards a just society (at least that was the intent of God’s

136

instructions for pre-monarch Israel [Wright 1983]) and from dependence to

independence. Economically, the Exodus story is about moving from oppression in

someone else’s land to freedom in their own land, a land fairly distributed to all so

that everyone could enjoy the fruit of his or her own labour. Psychologically, the

Exodus story is about losing self-understanding as a slave people and discovering the

inner understanding that, with God’s help, they could be a people and become a

nation.” But more than these, it is the beauty of a story of God’s grace reaching out to

helpless people, to save them by grace through faith alone.

These people “did not have to do anything except believe the promises and act

upon them. The Hebrew people were saved from Egyptian bondage by the grace of

God and nothing else. Furthermore, that grace could only be received if they acted in

faith in the promises of God. The means of salvation was the same in the Old

Testament as in the New: by grace through faith” (Oswalt 1999:24). Exodus is a

favourable book on God’s response to the suffering of his people and the care for the

poor. Exodus records the story of the people of Israel and God’s action on their behalf

to deliver them from the oppressive government in Egypt. This book has received

significant attention from Christian biblical scholars and in particular liberation

theologians in the 20th Century.55

“The remarkable deliverance of Israel from Egypt and its slavery has become

associated…with the development of liberation theology…the book of Exodus has

55 Mbiti rightfully points out that, “since the 1970, theological discussions in Southern Africa has focused mainly on Theology of Liberation. This was a living issue for Christians there while African people suffered the painful experience of oppression…, were denied basic human rights, and had little or no say in matters of their own destiny. Further, they were unjustly exploited economically. So for them the gospel was the good news of liberation because its message brings new light to dehumanized and oppressed people” (Mbiti 1998:152).

137

also been utilized by other groups seeking relief from oppression, most notably

American blacks involved in the civil rights movement. Moses’ request to Pharaoh,

‘let my people go’ (5:11), has become a watchword of Americans who feel that they

have been discriminated against. Though such a slogan would have applied more

precisely during the time of slavery it still serves as a denunciation of all kinds of

oppressions. One of the contributions of liberation theology is its emphasis on social

justice, and this is certainly an important theme in Exodus, as well as the later

prophets (cf. Isa. 10:1-2). Because of the suffering of the Israelites in Egypt, God

urged them to show particular kindness to poor people and aliens (Exodus 23:6,9)”

(Wolf 1991:130-131).

The Exodus story narrates that God saved his nation from oppression,

bondage, death by drowning at the Red Sea, starvation and thirst in the wilderness.

The descendents of Jacob went to Egypt for help because they were lacking material

goods to meet their physical needs. Their settling in Egypt was made easier because

of Joseph, Jacob’s son, who had been sold as slave by his own brothers. God had

blessed Joseph and given him wisdom that led him to save Egypt and his family from

famine. However, even after the death of Joseph, the Israelites continued to make

Egypt their home. They lived in Egypt for almost four hundred years (Ex. 12:40).

“Now Joseph and all his brothers and all his generation died, but the Israelites were

fruitful and multiplied greatly and became exceedingly numerous, so that the land was

filled with them. Then a new King, who did not know about Joseph, came to power in

Egypt. ‘Look’, he said to his people, ‘the Israelites have become much too numerous

for us. Come, we must deal shrewdly with them or they will become even more

numerous and, if war breaks out will join our enemies, fight against us and leave the

138

country’” (Ex. 1:6-9). Xenophobia resulted in oppressive reaction towards the

Israelites.

The new government established regulations that were set to serve as an alien

act, which would control the birth rate of the people of Israel. All male children of the

people of Israel were to be killed at birth. Israel became a suffering nation because of

slavery and the loss of their sons. In their suffering they called upon the Lord for help,

“The Israelites groaned under their slavery and cried out. Their cry for help rose up to

God from their slavery. God heard their groaning, and God remembered his covenant

with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. God looked upon the Israelites, and God took notice

of them” (Ex. 2:23-25).

Donald E. Gowan (1994:6), points out that “These slaves have no history, and

they are not accused of having done anything wrong. As the story is told, they know

about the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and about his promises, but at this point

there is nothing they could point to as evidence that God keeps his promises. Unlike

all later occasions when God seems to be silent and doing nothing, on this occasion

there was nothing to remember. They could not say, ‘But in the past God did help us,

in spite of our dire distress.’ Neither would they have had any basis for saying,

‘Actually, we deserve this.’ These chapters (1-2) thus represent the worst of those

periods of suffering when people of faith struggled to find any indication that there

may be a God who actually does anything in the world…” The Israelites were tired of

oppressive servitude and they cried out for help. Their agony and cries of distress

were directed to God. “But the Egyptians mistreated us and made us suffer, putting us

139

to hard labour. Then we cried out to the Lord, the God of our fathers, and the Lord

heard our voice and saw our misery, toil and oppression” (Deut. 26:6-7).

Their realization of men’s insensitiveness and sinfulness led them to believe

that their help could only come from the Lord and not from humankind. Men are

incapable of eradicating suffering, poverty, oppression or any kind of forced labour

by creating legislations. The reason for this is because these are consequences of the

sinful nature of humankind. Any attempt made by man is doomed to failure apart

from God. Thus, the Israelites call upon God acted in their favour. In Exodus 3:7-8,

“The Lord said: I have surely seen the oppression of my people who are in Egypt, and

have heard their cry because of their taskmasters, for I know their sorrows. So, I have

come down to deliver them out of the hand of the Egyptians, and to bring them up

from that land to a good and large land, to a land flowing with milk and honey.”

Therefore, those who suggest that the Israelites revolted against Pharaoh are

overlooking the main elements of the story. Moses asked for permission to lead the

people into the desert to worship God, not to install a new form of government over

Egypt. When deliverance finally came, it was accomplished through the sovereign

power of God rather than the stubborn resolve of the Israelites” (Wolf 1991:131).

The nation of Israel was miraculously delivered from Egypt. The salvation of

the people of Israel came as a result of calling upon the Lord for help. The Israelites

realized that they were incapable of saving themselves and they had no one else to

turn to but God. After the deliverance from Egypt, God made a covenant with the

Israelite nation. The covenant listed laws that regulated property, theft and protection

rights. The laws criticized unfair interest rates (22:25) and emphasized the rights of

140

the poor (23:3, 6) as well as the responsibility of the people of God to the poor. God

charged his people with a responsibility to care for and to protect the poor. The Lord

made a covenant with the people of Israel calling them to be obedient to his

commands and in that way they would receive God’s blessing. He set the example by

delivering the Israelites from Egypt and the Word of God says, “He who oppresses

the poor shows contempt for their Maker, but whoever is kind to the needy honours

God” (Prov. 14:31). God’s pity for the poor and oppressed people is one of the corner

stones of the Hebrew religion. God is represented as having special care for the poor,

which was illustrated in the deliverance of the nation from Egyptian bondage and was

never to be forgotten by them; “Remember that you were slaves in Egypt. That is why

I command you to do this” (Deut. 24:22)56

.

(2) The second cause of poverty is calamity, plague, persecution, war, disease,

fraud or usury over which the victims have no control. These causes of poverty

identified in the Old Testament context certainly would not sound foreign to the

people of Mozambique and many other parts of Africa. Similar to Old Testament

times, these challenges are considered today to contribute to impoverishment of

Mozambique. A country faced with the challenge to rebuild the country after 17 years

of civil war; the scourges of HIV/AIDS, the Malaria, cholera and other diseases that

have a negative impact in the socio economic life also need to be curbed. The floods

56 Liberal Theologians tend to fail to realize that the deliverance of the people of Israel was not a result of civil action of the Israelites. And because of this, they seem to interpret the salvation story almost exclusively in political terms and ignore a person’s need of salvation from sin. The deliverance of the people of Israel from Egypt was accomplished through the power of God. God’s intervention made the difference. I believe that this is what we need in Africa… to call on the Lord to intervene and through his grace make a difference in the hearts of the people as they respond to the call to salvation.

141

and at times, draught have left thousands of poor people in a worse situation, and yet

the majority of the people are dependent on agriculture for their survival.

It is unfortunate, that in a country with such great need, the little resources

made available to alleviate poverty very often are used to enrich few individuals;

fraud and usury is high and common in the public domain. The policies and strategies

in place to address these problems have not made much of a difference in the lives of

millions of people in Mozambique. On the contrary, the poor are becoming poorer

while the rich are becoming richer. This is happening particularly because of

corruption that is so predominant in the country.

The Old Testament disapproves of injustice, usury, extortion, bribes and any

other activity that disadvantages the other person. The reading of the Old Testament

suggests that bribery and extortion were a problem amongst the people of the Old

Testament period. Thus, Jethro recommended to Moses that he should select honest

people who hated bribes (Exodus 18:23) for leadership positions. This is because, “a

bribe makes you ignore something that you clearly see. A bribe makes even a

righteous person twist the truth” (Exodus 23:8), such people “both their hands are

equally skilled at doing evil! Officials and judges alike demand bribes. The people

with influence get what they want, and together they scheme to twist justice” (Micah

7:3). God does not take a bribe (Deut. 10:17) and he expects his children not to take

it, for it perverts justice and blinds the eyes (Deut. 16:19, 1 Sam. 8:3). The children of

God are called to “put no trust in extortion, set no vain hopes on robbery, if riches

increase, set not your heart on them” (Psalm 60:10). Because, “greed brings grief to

142

the whole family but those who hate bribes will live” (Proverbs 15:27) and “extortion

turns wise people into fools and bribes corrupt the heart” (Eccles. 7:7).

It is intriguing that the children of Israel often walked in ways that were

contrary to the ethics of the kingdom of God, which they were chosen to represent in

this world (Ezekiel 22:23-31). Micah captures some of the sinful actions that were

becoming a part of the lives of the people of Israel: “When you want a piece of land

you find a way to seize it. When you want someone’s house you take it by fraud and

violence. You cheat a man of his property, stealing his family’s inheritance” (2:2);

“you rulers make decisions based on bribes; you priests teach God’s laws only for a

price; you prophets won’t prophesy unless you are paid…” (3:11). Unfortunately, in

today’s world this unethical behaviour is still predominant, and it is more visible in

developing countries, resulting not only in injustice but also in widening the gap

between the poor and the rich.

(3) The third cause is laziness, neglect, drunkenness and gluttony. Proverbs

teaches that some people are poor because of improper habits and apathy, “Lazy

hands make man poor but diligent hands bring wealth” (Prov. 10:4); “Laziness brings

on deep sleep, and the shiftless man goes hungry” (19:15); “Do not love sleep or you

will grow poor; stay awake and you will have food to spare” (20:13); “for drunkards

and gluttons become poor, and drowsiness clothes them in rags” (23:21).

(4) The fourth cause is the culture of poverty. Proverbs 10:15 says, “The ruin

of the poor is their poverty.” Poverty breeds poverty and the cycle is not easily

143

broken. People who grow up in an impoverished culture usually lack nutrition and

the education that would enable them to be successful in the future.

3.2.2 The Imperatives of the Law Codes of the Old Testament

The imperatives of the law codes of the Old Testament in relation to material

possession stress the importance of sharing possessions with those in need and how

vital justice is. The Scriptures evidence that God cares how humans are treated and he

is sensitive to human suffering. Thus, he offered to enter into a relationship with the

people of Israel through a covenant as an expression of his grace for humankind. God

knows that humankind will fail without him, thus he offers himself to live in the midst

of the human race. However, for the human race to live in holiness it requires a

continuous atonement (Lev. 16 – 17). This is, God makes continuous provision for

our sins, thus our fellowship with him rests forever upon his provision of atonement

(Oswalt 1999:21-30).

According to Oswalt, the people who enter into a covenant with God are

called to be holy. To be holy as God is holy in Leviticus 19 “is to honour your father

and mother, and to keep the Sabbath (v.3). It is to avoid idol worship (v.4). It is to eat

the peace offering while it is fresh (vv. 5-8). It is to leave some of the harvest for the

poor (vv.9-10). It is not to steal, or lie, or to swear to do something that you cannot or

will not do (vv. 11-12). It is not to enrich yourself through fraud or through unfair

treatment of those who work for you (v.13). It is to treat the handicapped with

kindness (v.14). It is to treat all people, rich or poor, justly (v.15). It is to have nothing

to do with slander or gossip (v.16). It is to love your neighbour as yourself, refusing to

bear a grudge, and being willing to correct him when he is wrong (vv. 17-18). It is to

144

maintain distinctions between kinds of animals, kinds of seeds and kinds of cloth (v.

19). It is to refrain from sexual relations with another slave (vv. 20-22). It is to allow

fruit trees time to propagate themselves (vv. 23-25). It is to avoid pagan practices; it is

to love strangers as yourself (vv. 33-34). It is to use honest weights and measures (vv.

35-36). The holiness which God expects of his people is behavioural and it is

behaviour which cuts right across the grain of life, touching every aspect of it,

whether personal, social, moral, civil or religious. When God calls his people to be

holy as he is holy, he is not asking them to live lives exclusively dedicated to him.

Neither is he asking them to be especially religious. Rather, he is calling them to share

his unique character, one that will alter how they approach every aspect of their lives”

(1999:32-33).

The law codes of the Old Testament compelled the Israelites to care for the

poor. Poverty was seen as an evil in the society caused by unfair distribution of

community resources as well as the social classes. Examples of people with low

social standing were the widows and orphans.

The law compelled the people of Israel to identify with the poor and save them

from their situation. “If there is among you a poor man of your brethren, within any

of the gates in your land which the Lord your God is giving you, you shall not harden

your heart nor shut your hand from your poor brother, but you shall open your hand

wide to him and willingly lend him sufficient for his need, whatever he needs… For

the poor will never cease from the land; therefore I command you saying, ‘You shall

open your hand wide to your brother, to your poor and your needy, in your land”

(Deut. 15:7-11).

145

The nation of Israel was to give generously to the needy and the Word of God

gave directives that were to be followed to fulfil this command. According to

Deuteronomy 14:28-29 and 26:12, every third year a tithe was to be given for

assistance of the Levite, aliens, orphans and widows. The purpose of the giving of the

tithe was to give assistance to those who needed it most. Furthermore, the poor were

to have free use of all that grew spontaneously in field or vineyard during the

Sabbatical year: “What grows of its own accord of your harvest you shall not reap,

nor gather the grapes of your untended vine, for it is a year of rest for the land. And

the Sabbath produce of the land shall be food for you: for you, your male and female

servants, your hired man, and the stranger who dwells with you” (Lev. 25:5-6).

The landowners were to leave a portion of their harvest on the farm/field for

the poor. The corners of the fields were to be left for them, and if a sheaf was

forgotten it was to be left there for the poor as well. Another directive called for the

people of Israel to cancel debts every seventh year and on the jubilee year, which was

every fiftieth year. Loans were to be given interest free to the poor and justice was to

prevail and guarded in this process. Those who obey the directives of God are

pronounced to be blessed and worthy of receiving by grace one blessing after another.

He who keeps God’s directives is faithful and just, “He shall surely live! Says the

Lord … Who has withdrawn his hand from the poor and not receive usury or increase,

but has executed My judgements and walked in My statutes – He shall not die for

iniquity of his father; He shall surely live!” (Ezek. 18:9, 17).

But God’s judgement was upon those who disobeyed, as spelled out here:

“The people of the land have used oppressions, committed robbery, and mistreated

146

the poor and needy; and they wrongfully oppress the stranger. So I sought for a man

among them who would make a wall and stand in the gap before Me on behalf of the

land, that I should not destroy it; but found no one. Therefore I have poured out my

indignation on them; I have consumed them with the fire of my wrath; and I have

recompensed their deeds on their own heads, says the Lord God” (Ezek. 22:29-31).

Unfortunately, even though the directives were clearly spelled out, the text

reveals that the Israelites sometimes chose to disobey God and his directives.

Probably this explains the reason why poverty will never cease: “For the poor will

never cease from the land” (Deut. 15:11). Poverty is one of the consequences of the

sin of men. It will never cease as long as the heart of men is wicked. This is,

eradication of poverty will not be accomplished if humankind fails to turn to God (2

Chronicles 7:14). Thus, God’s guidelines to uplift the poor must include the

proclamation of God’s directives as spelled out in the Scriptures.

The prophetic voice must not grow quiet; on the contrary it must be loud and

heard and it must accompany the actions of identifying with the poor in struggle

against injustice and corruption, and sharing of material possessions. The Word of

God commanded the Israelites to share with those who are in need. The poor are to

be treated with love and care. The voice of the Lord is still calling his Church today

to embody these directives. The poor are to be protected from all forms of oppression

that the rich and governors may want to impose on them. “He who oppresses a poor

man insults his maker, but he who is kind to the needy honours him” (Prov. 14:31).

“According to this text God identifies so fully with the poor that to do them a favour

is considered an act of worship (kabed –‘to honour, glorify’) … He identifies himself

147

completely, commits himself to the cause of an oppressed people, and requires his

followers to do the same” (Hanks 1983:7-8).

Although the giving of the tithe in the Old Testament was primarily intended

to sustain the Levites, it was also one of God’s ways to care for the poor. The tithes

were a sign of God’s presence and care for Israel. It was presented at the tabernacle or

temple to serve the Levites and all of Israel, particularly those on the economic

margin. “The care of all people of Israel was part of God’s formation of a people to

serve as Kingdom of priests – those who represented Him to the nations and the

nations to Him. The tithe had a purpose in Israel’s witness. The economic care of

everyone in Israel through the tithe told the nations something about God. He is a

merciful God who loves and cares for all people, even the weak and poor. By

observing the tithe, Israel fulfilled part of its call as His most treasured possession:

All are fed, both those called into divine service of the temple and the poor and needy

who cannot produce for themselves. The practice of tithing resists an economic

system that is based on selfish consumption. Wealth first belongs to God and is given

for care of all His people” (Wright 2003:52).

“For the tithes of the children of Israel, which they offer up as a heavenly

offering to the Lord, I gave to the Levites as an inheritance; therefore I have

said to them, ‘Among the children of Israel they shall have no inheritance”

(Numbers 18:24).

“At the end of every third year you shall bring out the tithes of your produce

of that year and store it up within your gates. And the Levite, because he has

148

no portion nor inheritance with you, and the stranger and the fatherless and

the widow who are within your gates, may come and eat and be satisfied, that

the Lord your God may bless you in all the work of your hands which you do”

(Deut. 14:28-29).

To withhold tithes was to turn one’s back on God, the nation, and one’s

neighbours. Turning one’s back to the needy was a sign of disobedience to God’s

directives hence a curse. “But it shall come to pass, if you do not obey the voice of

the Lord your God, to observe carefully all His commandments and His statutes

which I command you today, than all these curses will come upon you and overtake

you” (Deut. 28:15). “The prophets also alert us to the fact that idolatry, personal sin

and social sin are a seamless package. We all associate Sodom with sins of sexual

impurity, Ezekiel speaks of their ‘detestable practices’, when declaring Israel an

‘adulterous wife’ who has become ‘more depraved than they’ (Ezek. 17:48). Then he

surprises us when he describes Sodom’s sin: ‘She and her daughter were arrogant,

overfed and unconcerned; they did not help the poor and needy’ (Ezek. 17:49).

Ezekiel further ‘condemns Jerusalem for a political system that ‘has eaten people’ and

‘seized their wealth’ (Ezek. 22:23) for an economic system that ‘bribes for shedding

blood’ and ‘robs your neighbour by extortion’ (Ezek. 22:27) and a religious system

that draws no distinction between the sacred and the profane and does not teach the

people the difference between clean and unclean (Ezek. 22:26). Finally, the prophets

keep reminding us that God expects us, “To act justly and to love mercy and to walk

humbly with God (Mic. 6:8)” (Myers 2006:32).

149

3.3 Ethical Principles on Material Possessions in the New Testament

The New Testament ethics is centred on Jesus, who inaugurates a new era of

God’s covenant with humanity as the fulfilment of the law and the prophets (Matt.

5:17). The prophecies and God’s plan for salvation as revealed in the Old Testament

are fulfilled in the person of Jesus Christ57

. The New Testament writings announce

and witness that Christ is the long awaited for Messiah who comes to liberate his

people (Matt. 1:20-23)58

. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that Judaism and the ethos of

the Mediterranean world impacted the way in which the New Testament text was

developed and presented (Bruce 1993; Stegemann 2002; Malina and Rohrbaugh

2003:1-8, 327-427).

Earlier in this chapter I discussed the history of the people of Israel, I briefly

discussed the imperatives of the law and prophets on issues of material possessions.

Such discussion was essential to provide the historical background of the principle of

sharing possessions – almsgiving in Judaism. Because, “the origin of almsgiving in

Judaism is theologically founded on the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. In the

Scriptures, God is represented as frequently reminding the Israelites of this unique

event, when He gave them the divine Commandments on behalf of the widows,

orphans, and strangers who represented the lower order of society throughout the

history of Israel (Deut. 14:28-29; 26:12)” (Kim 1998: 277-278).

57 In Jesus, “we find a specific social vision drawn from the Old Testament prophets and embedded in concrete practices: delivering the poor from poverty, opposing those who oppress the weak, ending violence, and welcoming outcasts into community.” (Anonymous. August 2006. V.35, Iss. 8:45). 58

20 … an angel of the Lord appeared to him in a dream and said, “Joseph son of David, do not be afraid to take Mary home as your wife, because what is conceived in her is from the Holy Spirit. 21 She will give birth to a son, and you are to give him the name Jesus, because he will save his people from their sins.” 22 All this took place to fulfill what the Lord had said through the prophet: 23 “The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and they will call him Immanuel”—which means, “God with us.”

150

In the socio-economic principles of the Mediterranean culture that dominated

the New Testament period “success was not necessarily measured in terms of what

one possessed. It rather, consisted in ‘having and making the right interpersonal

connections, in being related to the right people… success in life means maintaining

ties to other persons within sets of significant groups. A person’s identity depended

on belonging to and being accepted by the family. However, such belonging and

acceptance depend on a person’s adhering to the traditional rules of order by which

Mediterranean families are organized and maintained. And those traditional rules of

order are rooted in the complementary codes surrounding the basic values of honour

and shame” (Malina 1993:30). The most important thing in society, regardless of

gender and possessions, was maintaining one’s honour.

Thus, honour was much desired and protected in this community. In this

context, “it so happens that nearly every interaction with non-family member has

undertones of challenge to honour, either to defend what one has or to gain

more…every social interaction that takes place outside one’s family or outside one’s

circle of friends is perceived as a challenge to honour, a mutual attempt to acquire

honour from one’s social equal. Thus gift-giving, invitations to dinner, debates over

issues of law, buying and selling…arranging what we might call cooperative ventures

for farming, business, fishing, mutual help – all these sorts of interactions take place

according to the patterns of honour called challenge-riposte” (Malina & Neyrey

1991:29). Thus, the attention and use of possessions was done within the framework

of this cultural belief.

151

The first century Mediterranean world was characterized as a peasant59

society

and the majority of the people lived in villages or in artisan quarters of the pre-

industrial city. For this majority (and, it seems, for the minority elite as well), the

main perception in life was that all goods are limited (Malina 1993:112). Everyone

was expected to live out and live up to their socially ascribed self-image and this was

considered honourable (Malina 1993:107). In this context there is no aspiration to

increase profit because goods are limited and just enough for everyone. Most people

in the New Testament would see their existence as determined and limited by the

natural and social resources of their immediate world (Malina 1993:94). Since all

goods exist in limited amounts, which cannot be increased or expanded, it follows that

individuals, alone or with their families, can improve their social position only at the

expense of others 60

(Malina 1993:95).

With this background information it seems like there were same elements of

injustice, inequality in the way possessions were shared. “It seems hardly possible to

believe that benefaction originated from concern about realistic need of the poor and

destitute. Underlying this evidence there would be the Graeco-Roman concept of pity,

which can be summarized as follows: ‘pity is appropriately given on an exchange

basis to men of like character, and not to those who are not going to show pity in

59 Peasant society, refers to persons, regardless of their occupation, who have been enculturated in and continue to be members of a peasant society. The “peasant” mentality of peasant society members is typical of beggar and king, of small-holder and large landowner, of prophet and scribe. This ‘peasant’ mentality is a societal characteristic not a status or occupational feature” (1993:90). 60

“The economic means of establishing patron—client relationships nearly always have their basis in systems of landholding, such as share-cropping. The patron may lend client families, in order to see them through bad seasons, often in return for the unpaid labour of client family members. This can be regarded as benevolent, but also creates debts that may never be paid off. This is one of the underlying factors in systems of debt bondage (sometimes called bonded labour) that are widespread in India, although forbidden by both national and international law.” http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-patronclientrelationship.html

152

return’… ‘In general, therefore, the conditions of the poor were little ameliorated by

the rich, although the poor were benefitted by the rich to a limited extent by way of

benefaction” (Kim 1998:271-272).

The New Testament message clearly warns against the love of money and

possessions. Attention and use thereof must be in accordance with the Ethics of the

Kingdom of God, which focus on Christ. “For, Jesus came announcing and effecting

the Kingdom of God in History and offering people a new relationship with Him as

the representative of Israel and as God in their midst” (Brower 2005:111). The riches

of this world should not replace the need for God. When God is Lord of one’s life it

will be reflected in all aspects of life, including the way material things are attained,

for this needs to be in accordance with the ethics of the Kingdom of God. According

to Paul in 1 Tim 6:9-10, wealth has the potential to corrupt the people’s behaviour,

hence, he warns against the love of money and possible ruin and destruction that this

can bring to one’s life. The hunger for riches can also lead to oppressive behaviour

(James 5:1-6). In the Kingdom ethics, people are challenged to depend on God alone,

and their identity and honour is found in the Lord and not on the honour ascribed or

acquired in this world. God’s children are to pursue righteousness and justice at all

times (1 Tim. 6:11) as well as acknowledge that they are stewards of the material

possessions they have been entrusted with. Since, these, resources are to be attained

and used in accordance with the imperatives of the Kingdom of God, thus the

principle of sharing with those in need (1 Tim. 6:18-19) is considered vital but this is

to be done in obedience not centred in the law and the prophets but in Jesus61

.

61 “This eschatological community – the community of the Kingdom – represents the fulfilled expression of Israel. It is in continuity with Israel but it is also a new people. Very important is the fact that it centres no longer on Torah, but on Jesus” (Hagner 2007:43).

153

I contend that sharing possessions is a normative principle in the New

Testament. Jesus is presented in the New Testament as the Lord who identifies with

and cares for the poor as well as one who cautions the rich and those in places of

power to do justice to all and to especially show care and love to the poor. In Christ,

individuals and collective groups are liberated and redirected towards God. This

transformation enables believers to act according to God’s will. Broken relationships

in the New Testament are mended in Christ. This includes poverty and suffering, for

“poverty is about relationships that don’t work, that isolate, that abandon or devalue,”

so “transformation must be about restoring relationships, just and right relationships

with God, with self, with community, with the ‘other’, and with the environment”

(Myers 2006:36).

Therefore, those who are true disciples of Jesus Christ are to act in accordance

to his directives on identifying and compassionately caring for the poor. The desire

here for material resources is motivated by love to God and neighbour rather than

greed. Christ-like disciples do not take part in corruption for it is motivated by greedy

and selfish interest, rather they are compassionate, sharing with both friends and those

that would be most unlikely (foreigners, enemies, etc).

3.3.1 Material Possessions in the New Testament

The New Testament uses two Greek words to describe the concept “poor”,

penes and ptochos. The first word, penes, describes a person who is poor in relation to

the well to do. This person is unable to make a living from any property they may

own, thus need to work for wages or as apprentices. Life is simply a struggle for this

person (Barclay 2000:248). The second word, ptochos is probably the most important

154

one for this study because of its use in the New Testament and how it relates to the

subject of sharing material possessions. It describes those who are reduced almost to a

beggarly situation. These poor were unable to meet their basic needs and because they

could not make ends meet they were at the mercy of other people for their survival.

This included those who were labouring but earning little or nothing to sustain their

families. Ptochos can be described as abject poverty or acute destitution and people in

this situation at times were in danger of starvation.

Jesus used this word, “ptochos” on the Sermon on the Mount (Mat. 5:3) and in

Luke 4:18 when he declared his mission. There are other places where it is used by

Jesus and other writers of the New Testament. Barclay (2000: 248) argues that,

“Behind this Greek word ptochos, there lie two Hebrew words, the words ‘ebian’ and

‘ani’. Both these words have a most interesting and significant development of

meaning. Their meaning has three stages. (i) They mean simply ‘poor’ in the sense of

lacking in this world’s goods (Deut. 15:4; 15:11). (ii) They go on to mean, because

poor therefore downtrodden and oppressed (Amos 2:6; 8:4). (iii) It is then that they

take their great leap in meaning. If a man is poor and downtrodden and oppressed, he

has no influence on earth, no power, no prestige62

. He can not look to men for help

and when all the help and resources of earth are closed to him, he can only look to

God. And therefore, these words come to describe people who because they have

nothing on earth, have come to put their complete and total trust in God (Amos 5:12;

Ps. 10:2, 12, 17; 12:5; 14:6; 68:10).”

62 Chambers (1983:103-139) describes this group of people, a group of people who have a “cluster of disadvantages” or “poverty trap”. These people lack assets, access to information and services and the worse part of it all is that they have no ability and knowledge of influence to social systems in which they live. Thus, those in position of power abuse their authority to exploit and oppress the poor. The result of this is that the gap between the poor and the rich continues to grow.

155

It is also crucial to note that the New Testament was developed in a

predominantly agrarian society. It was a society of small farmers or farm labourers of

low social rank, uneducated with little financial means. Although it was a

predominantly poor society, there were those who were wealthy, and owned the land.

The landowners were very influential people in the decision making process of the

empire. Unfortunately the decisions taken were biased as they were taken with the

personal interest of the landowners in mind. They did not reflect the needs, interests,

values and concerns of the poor. In most cases the landowners had inherited the land

from their ancestors. The land was handed down as inheritances so that it would be

kept under the control of a few wealthy and powerful families. The landowner

provided the landless with land, tools and seed to work in return for a specified share

of the harvest and labour (Malina & Rohrbaugh 2003:326-27, 349, 374,388-391;

Stegemann et. al. 2002:335-347).

The landowner or the rich were also moneylenders. The majority of the poor

borrowed the money and the rich set a high interest that increased considerably the

riches of the richer community. This perpetuated the class of the poor people who

lived from hand to mouth each day. The poor people sought day labour to be able to

survive. The biggest financial burden of the New Testament society was a result of

excessive tax, corruption and extortion in collection procedures. “By and large, only

the dishonourable rich, the dishonourable non elites, and those beyond the pale of

public opinion (such as city elites, governors and regional kings) could accumulate

wealth with impurity. This they did in a number of ways, notably by trading, tax

collecting and money lending. At the bottom, the trader, the tax collector, and the

money lender (at interest, of course) were all the same; they made profit by

156

defrauding others, by forcing people to part with their share of limited goods through

extortion. The money lender could have his debtors imprisoned, the purpose of

imprisonment being to put pressure on the debtor’s family to pay off the money due

(for example Matt 5:25-26; Luke 12:57-59)” (Malina 1993:104).

3.3.2 Jesus’ Ethics on Material Possessions

As we have seen earlier in this chapter the focal point of the New Testament is

Jesus, the Messiah. The entirety of the New Testament is concerned with God’s

activity in Christ. The writers of the New Testament text redirect their audience to

Jesus63

himself. Christian faith is not centred in tradition or the apostles, but it is

rather centred in Christ. He is the focal point of the Christian faith. Thus it is

important to examine how did Christ’s ethics influence the world of the New

Testament especially in relation to attention of possessions and use thereof.

According to Stegemann (2002:45,46) “Jesus did not step out of the moral

world of his society and design his own, new, symbolic system and put specific

emphasis on some dimensions of it.” But rather, “He acted within the framework of

the values, norms and conventions of his society.” However, there is a different

focus; Jesus’ ethics were not legalistic and outward focus, rather the expectation was

that this would spring from a inside out – purified heart64

. Righteousness is central for

63 Brower (2005:110) correctly concludes, that “God’s purposes come to their climax in Jesus the prophet and teacher like Moses who teaches the Word of God with authority. But he is at the same time the new Moses, leading the people on a new Exodus out of exile, and establishing a new covenant.” In this new covenant the emphasis is that all things have to spring from the heart and not from a legalistic way as the people of Israel had done for generations. The disciples of Jesus are expected to live an ethical life that is centred on Jesus and not on the law of Moses. 64 “Jesus calls his followers to faithfulness to the Torah (Mat. 5:17-19) but most importantly to follow Jesus’ teachings or interpretation of the Torah. Following Jesus’ teaching is to follow the Torah” (Hagner, 2007:44). The Old Covenant which introduces the almsgiving was not imperfect, but the

157

Christ. For instance, the New Testament ethics on material possessions were

developed in a world where ‘prestige’ or ‘good name’ derives from the domination of

persons rather than from things. Hence, any concern people show for the acquisition

of goods stems from their purpose of gaining honour by generously disposing of what

one has acquired among equals or socially useful lower-class clients. In other words,

an honourable name is acquired through beneficence,65

not through the fact of

possessions and/or the keeping of what one has acquired. Thus, money, goods and

any sort of wealth are really a means to an honourable name and any other use of

wealth is considered foolish” (Malina and Neyrey 1993:33-34). But, Jesus reverses

the order of who is honourable and indicates that the poor are blessed, the poor widow

who has given all she had sacrificially is more honourable than the rich that have

given out of abundance. Jesus also affirms sharing of resources as an important way

to alleviate poverty but he does not expect this spring from a cleansed heart rather

than a legalistic mind set. “Jesus radicalizes the law focusing not merely on actions,

but even on the thoughts that underlie the actions” (Hagner 2007:48).

This is, although Jesus' ethics on material possessions was part of the

comprehensive cultural and social system of Israel's tradition and Mediterranean

application by the Jews become more of a legalistic requirement rather than directing people to God. Jesus condemns greed and calls for people to give alms not because it is a legal thing but because the Torah has become a life style made possible by the transformation that is only possible in Him. Repentance from sin, includes “selling all” and give to those in need. 65 In the Graeco-Roman world, which was also the world of the New Testament, they used a system of distribution of goods to assist the ptochos, called benefaction. This included amongst other things the supply of grain in times of necessity. However, it has been concluded that they were not charity systems and they were not designed to meet the needs of all needy people. The non-citizens, including slaves and foreigners were excluded. “The systems were intended for the citizenry who were generally people of moderate means, at least not the destitute. And even in this case…distribution of free grain was not regular and recurrent, and grain was not handed out gratis but with a certain charge, strictly speaking, it is in doubt whether the ordinary poor citizens benefited from theses systems” (Kim 1998: 259).

158

context (Stegemann 2001:45-46), and the New Testament witness reflects the above

social system, Jesus radicalized that tradition by identifying with the poor and

oppressed and by emphasizing obedience to God as a result of transformed heart and

not merely a matter of external conduct.

The Sermon on the Mount clarifies the ethics of the Kingdom of God by

presenting six antitheses (Matthew 5:21-48), “contrasting what was said earlier in the

Hebrew Scriptures and what Jesus was saying now: ‘you have heard that it was said…

but I tell you…’ each antithesis is an illustration of a principle stated in 5:20 that the

righteousness66

of the disciples must exceed that of the Pharisees. For example, it is

not enough to refrain from murder; one must not even be angry. The theme of

righteousness continues in 6:1-18, where Jesus warns against practicing one’s piety

(literally, ‘righteousness’) before others to be seen by them. Almsgiving, … are to be

done secretly and without fanfare, to be seen by God rather than by people”

(Varughese et. al. 2006:287).

Furthermore, Wheeler’s (1995:108-112) summary of the message on material

possessions as found in the Sermon on the Mount is worth noting for it basically

underlines the New Testament’s teachings on the subject. Jesus sets the tone by

charging his disciples to: (1) Sharing of possessions, in an appropriate manner and

motive for doing so: “The traditional duty of alms giving is intensified with the

instruction: give to everyone who begs from you” (5:42) and this is followed by

warnings against giving done publicly in order to be praised, such donors Jesus says: 66 “Righteousness in the Kingdom of God is dynamic and relational and is to be reflected in the way that the community lives in the community itself and before the world. This is both the character and goal for those who are the people of God, the ‘the greater righteousness’ demanded in 5:21” (Brower, 2005:114).

159

“have already received their reward” (6:2-4) (195:108). Almsgiving or sharing of

possessions was not a new rule for the community of the New Testament. Sharing67

of

possessions in the New Testament is an economic imperative of the disciples (Matt

19:21, Mark 10:21). (2) Secondly, the disciples of Jesus must depend on Him to meet

their needs. He is the source of everything and knows our needs and cares (Matt 7:7-

11, Phil 4:19, 1 Tim 6:17). (3) “The third theme concerning possessions in Matthew’s

sermon is the peril of accumulating wealth. ‘Do not lay up for yourself treasures on

earth’ (6:19), Jesus’ followers are warned, for “where your treasure is, there will your

heart be” (6:21). And immediately thereafter, Jesus flatly states, “No one can serve

two masters…you cannot serve god and riches” (6:24) (Wheeler 1995:110). Jesus is

not condemning being wealthy, He warns against idolizing the wealth. It is idolizing

of the wealth that leads to usury, corruption and extortion (James 2:6, Mark 10:25,

Rev. 3:17). In the New Testament, “sharing is the minimal expression of conformity

to Christ’s example of self-emptying, which ought to lead the community to ‘look not

to (their) own interests, but to the interest of others’ (Phil. 2:4) and therefore to act

sacrificially” (Hays 1996:465).

3.4 Conclusion and Observations

The aim in this chapter was to discern coherence and shared meaning of the

use of the principle of sharing material possessions, both in the Old and New

Testament. That is, how are metadidonai and its parallels used in the Old and New

67 Sharing of possessions should be done with the aim of helping those in need. It should not be practices as means for acquiring good name and even more power over those who are weak and helpless. It should not be used amongst equals as a way to challenge others to gain honour, but rather as goods means to reach out to those who are in need. In a patron-client relationship which was part of the culture in the New Testament, sharing of possessions was sometimes used with the aim to gain control and loyalty over the recipients. Jesus warns that wealth can become an obstacle for people to enter the Kingdom of God, if it is not used properly with the aim to bring glory to the name of the Lord.

160

Testament to address issues of material possessions? The goal was to understand the

use thereof in Luke-Acts in relation to the whole Bible as a unity. I argued in this

investigation that poverty seems to be the unifying theme in both Testaments. Sharing

material possessions is used in the Bible to address issues related to those in need

because of poverty or those who might become needy for lack of opportunity to

produce possessions of their own for their care.

I conclude that the use of the “metadidonai” as an ethical principle on material

possessions, in the Old and New Testament reflect practices that were in accordance

with the beliefs, values and traditions defined within the boundaries of the Jewish and

Mediterranean cultural contexts. But we find that God’s call to his followers to share

material possessions was to be an act of obedience to God and not necessarily to be

carried out because the law requires it. The law of God in the Old Testament

commanded the people of God to share their material possessions with those in need.

This call to share possessions was accompanied by a series of warnings for those who

would act unjustly towards those in need (e.g. Deut. 15, Ex. 22 and 23, Prov. 14:31,

etc). It was more than an imperative to share possessions; it was an imperative to love

God and love the neighbour. Consistently this was a call to live a righteous life, which

would reflect itself in action by caring for others as found in the covenant between

God and the people of Israel. Job, when he justifies that he has not sinned against

God, sums up what was expected from God’s children as obedience to him and

commitment to the covenant: Job calls his listeners to the fact that he has been

obedient to show his love and care for those in need (Job 31:16-18), therefore, his

suffering is not a result of sin of failing to share material possessions.

161

The New Testament teachings also emphasize the importance of sharing

material possessions with those in need. Similar to the Old Testament, this was done

within the canonical context which regulated with whom, how, when, what and where

these possessions were to be shared, e.g. in the patron-client relationship, benefactors,

communal sharing and almsgiving to the poor. But in both the Old and the New

Testament it is clear that it is very much possible for people to share material

possessions simply because it is required by law, and of course it may result in

bringing some benefit to those who comply with the law. This can be in a form of

acquiring honour, great respect and possible living in peace and harmony with other

people. While such sharing might be appreciated, Jesus’ disciples are charged in the

New Testament not to share possessions only within the boundaries of the cultural

imperatives but to rather embrace the Jesus’ ethos, which is only possible by

accepting God’s righteousness (Matt. 5:42 – 6). Sharing of possessions in the ethics of

the Kingdom of God focuses not only on the actions but the innermost being. The

cleansing of the heart is what makes it possible for people of God to love and care for

others, regardless of cultural background, tribe, language, race etc. Sharing of

material possessions that comes as a result of work of God in the life of a human

being is done without the aim to receive personal recognition, but for the glory of God

and as a way to recognize that we are stewards of God’s resources. Hence, there is a

strong emphasis on calling human beings to repent from their sin and accept God’s

salvation through Christ, which in turn will shape the thinking and practices of the

disciples of Jesus.

Similar to Luke 3:10-14, the command to share material possessions with

those in need is accompanied with instructions that warns against corruptive actions.

162

The Bible identifies corruption as one of the causes of poverty. Thus, usury, fraud,

bribery and related social injustices are condemned (Ex. 18:23, Ex. 23:8; Psalm

60:10; Prov. 15:27; Micah 7:3; Matt. 5:25-26; Luke 12:57-59; 1 Tim 6:9-11; James

5:1-6). At the centre of the warning to renounce a corruptive behaviour and embrace

righteousness of the Lord, is the fact that corruption has entered the world because of

sin. And because of sin that is destructive the poor we shall always have with us, but

the appropriate response of God’s children on the face of challenges related to

material possessions is to compassionately and generously strive to share and care for

one another. Generosity and compassion must be accompanied by act of proclaiming

the message of salvation, because this is the hope of humanity. When people turn to

God in repentance, their behaviour and praxis is transformed. The next chapter will

explore how this message might be appropriated in the Mozambican context,

especially since Mozambicans are known to be generous people by nature. It will be

interesting to interpret the message of sharing possessions to address the scourge of

corruption.

163

Chapter 4

Appropriation of Luke-Acts Ethical Principles to the Church in Mozambique

4.1 Introduction

“The Bible places the economic problem in the very centre of its thinking; the

prophets, as well as Jesus and the Apostles, explain the law of love mainly by using

illustrations drawn from economic order, and their imperatives deal mainly with the

ethical aspects of economic life. In any case, an ethic which ignores economic

problems has no right to call itself either a Christian or scriptural ethic” (Stone

1999:150). This intriguing truth attests to the findings of the previous chapter, for

indeed God’s call to human race to love God and neighbour is constantly linked with

a call to care for those in need and a call to social justice especially on behalf of the

poor and the powerless.

The followers of Christ ought to lay down their lives for others (1 John 3:16),

this is, to love not in words only but in action and truth (3:17-18). This love compels

the disciples of Jesus to share material resources with those in need, as well as

identifying with the less fortunate and being their voice for the sake of justice and

compassion. Greed for wealth and luxury is condemned; it is not wealth that is

condemned but the abuse thereof. “To pass this test is to stand confident and assured

before God (1 John 3:19-23); to fail it is to reveal that one still dwells in darkness (1

John 2:9) and in death (1 John 3:14)” (Wheeler 1995:113). With this in mind, I seek

to recommend in this chapter ways in which we can appropriate Luke-Acts ethics of

material possessions as a message addressed to the Church in the 21st Century. The

main questions of this section are: What interpretative strategies should we use for

metadidonai as ethical principle in Luke 3:10-14 and the book of Acts to speak to the

164

Mozambican context today? How can we read the Lukan’s ethical principles as a

message addressed to Mozambique?

The first step that I took was to briefly discuss background information (social

systems) of Luke–Acts world and theology. The Luke-Acts text reveals ethical

principles on material possessions here discussed which are embedded in the moral

practices of the first century Mediterranean world and the Israel tradition.

Furthermore, I briefly traced the development and application of the principle of

sharing material possessions in the Old and New Testament in general. These were all

done with the aim of gaining better understanding of the textual meaning, within its

original cultural situation and applicability of the ethics of the Kingdom of God in

their canonical context. But these tasks are not an end in themselves; it is necessary to

move to the next task where we explore parallel situation today and how the Biblical

principle of metadidonai can be applied to today’s context.

As stated previously, I contend that Jesus did not design a new ethic; he acted

within the framework of the values and conventions of his society and criticized

individual norms and values that posed danger in the community (Stegemann

2002:46-61). Thus, in addressing the challenges of material possessions and use

thereof in Mozambique, it is vital to recognize at the beginning that the Gospel was

not presented into a vacuum. The people of Mozambique have values and norms that

are designed to regulate the socio-economic aspects of their communities68

.

68 Unfortunately these values are threatened by the scourge of corruption. It is true that Mozambique is considered to be showing greater economic growth and development. This kind of reports can be misleading, if they are taken to mean that there is greater reduction of poverty in the country. Ordinary Mozambicans in the rural communities continue to live in poverty and partly because of the corruption. “The declared success have not yet produced tangible results for the majority of the population. Rising

165

The moral values and conventions of Mozambicans need to be interpreted and

understood, so that Kingdom’s ethos as presented in the Gospel can be understood

from the context of the people in Mozambique and not from a foreign interpretation

of these principles. Hence, I see value in giving a brief account of socio-cultural

systems of the people of Mozambique: pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial period,

while giving attention to issues of attention and use of material possessions on post-

colonial period. This is because the major concern of this study is finding Biblical

principles to curb corruption in Mozambique, which is believed to be a phenomenon

of post-colonial period.

The first records of corruptive activities are only registered in the post-colonial

period69

, “the scale and scope of corruption in Mozambique are cause of alarm. This

corruption is a symptom of democratic and governance weakness in the country, and

these structural weaknesses amplify a threat that has the potential to undermine

Mozambique’s future development progress. As a consequence, Mozambique’s

nascent democratic government and the significant success of the country’s

development efforts are at risk. On a daily basis, citizens experience petty

administrative corruption at police checkpoints, health institutions, schools and in

government. These involve the pilfering of substantial sums from the public coffers

unemployment and extremely high levels of absolute poverty are producing, among other aspects, adverse social effects and rising crime” (Ratilal 2001a). 69 Mozambique was not always corrupt, argues Hanlon (1991:231). According to him, (2002:4-5), “Any discussion of corruption in Mozambique should start from the death of Francisco Langa in May 1980. A military leader in the liberation war, he was elected to the Frelimo Central Committee and became head of the Centre for Support to Refugees and Liberation Movements, mainly from Zimbabwe. An unprecedented Central Committee statement said he had been caught embezzling funds, and shot and killed himself because he was overcome with shame and could no longer face his comrades. I was working in Mozambique at the time and can testify from personal experience to the honesty and integrity of the civil service and leadership. The bureaucracy may have been inefficient, but I was never asked for a bribe or payment. There were no stories of high level or petty corruption; Langa’s behaviour was highly unusual and would have been seen as totally shameful.”

166

and fostering damaging misconduct and abuses, for example, favouritism and

nepotism in public appointment and procurements, conflicts of interest and insider

dealings that benefit friends, relatives and political allies, and political party and

electoral decisions that reduce democratic choices and citizens’ participation. More

troubling are the allegations of linkages between corrupt government officials and

organized crime” (USAID 2005). Hence, I ask, what is the role of the Church to curb

corruption? What should be the role of the Church of the Nazarene – Wesleyan

Theology in addressing the scourge of corruption and poverty in Mozambique?

The effectiveness of the Church in the fight against social evil is dependent on

how well she is grounded on Biblical principles as normative text for today. It should

be beyond a claim of being a holiness Church to be a Church that embeds the

imperatives of the Kingdom of God, again, with the understanding that these

imperatives do not come to the people of Mozambique in a vacuum, for not all

cultural practices that regulate socio-economic life in Mozambique are contrary to the

Kingdom Principles. On the other hand those that are contrary to the Word need to be

challenged and call to salvation must be proclaimed to all with the hope that people

will turn to God for transformation to take place in their lives.

4.2 Background of Socio Systems in Mozambique

(1) Pre-colonial period:

The history of the people of Mozambique does not begin with colonization. It was

unfortunate that “during the colonial era Mozambique’s history was written as though

it had begun with the arrival of the Portuguese, but the people of this region had

developed complex communities based on agriculture, cattle raising, mining, crafts,

167

and trade long before the first small groups of Portuguese settlers arrived in the 16th

century. Archaeological and historical research since 1950 has begun to reintegrate

Mozambique’s past with that of East, Central, and Southern Africa. From at least the

3rd century AD, Iron Age people who practiced agriculture and kept both cattle and

small livestock moved into Mozambique as part of the migration of Bantu speakers

from west-central Africa toward the south and east. These people had mastered iron

technology and combined the cultivation of some grains with knowledge of root and

tree crops. In the process they created such sustained population growth that they

needed to expand their territory. In a slow but fairly steady process, one branch of

Bantu speakers moved east toward the Indian Ocean and then south along the coast,

and another moved more directly south-southeast into the Zimbabwe plateau and

highlands of western Mozambique” (Encyclopedia Britannica 2008). Mozambicans

were peasantry society. Every aspect of the social system was based on kinship

relationships. They were a predominantly agricultural community, and hunters and

livestock were important aspects of their society. The division of labour was based on

gender and age. The men were responsible for hunting and fishing. The women and

children were responsible for agricultural work and child care, gathering of food

crops, and food preparation (Encyclopedia Britannica 2008).

There was a perception that the more wives and children that the man had, the

better his chances of greater harvest. Agricultural production required systematic and

sustained organization of family members under common ancestry70

. Monetary

70

“In the pre-colonial period agricultural production was based on traditional technology with shifting cultivation or fallow systems as the means to maintain labour productivity and to regenerate soil fertility (Abrahamsson and Nilsson 1994). Low population density in most areas permitted long periods of fallow, which contributed not only to soil fertility regeneration but also allowed forest regeneration. Although shifting cultivation was one of the major agricultural production practices, this was not carried out indiscriminately. Some areas were reserved for other functions such as water catchment

168

exchanges were foreign to these communities, the agricultural products and livestock,

in particular the cattle, were used for exchange amongst families, for products and

especially for lobolo71

(bride price).

These communities were organized in villages composed of households under

one chief, who was responsible for distribution of the land to all households. The

chief was not the owner but guardian of the land. The lands belonged to all, and it was

to be distributed justly to all. There was blood and spiritual72

bond that united the

people in the villages. “Before 1500 most Mozambican communities were organized

into independent chieftaincies and were governed by land chiefs, who often had

religious authority as well. As the direct descendant of the founding or conquering

lineage, the chief was the ultimate owner and spiritual guardian of the land, which

gave him the exclusive right to alienate parcels to his subordinates and entitled him to

an annual tax in either agricultural produce or labour. The chief also received a

number of gifts that symbolized his ownership of the land, the most important being

the larger tusk of any elephant that died in his territory. The taxes, labour

protection, livestock grazing as well as religious rituals and ceremonies (Kjekshus 1977). Traditions and/or customs prevailing at that time in the clan or tribe governed the ownership of the means of production and assets, i.e. land, labour, livestock and the little farm implements. Thus, the problems related to or arising from the “haves and have-nots” never arose in most societies. It is also true that feudal societies developed in certain groups, such as the Nyarubanja systems in Bukoba, Tanganyika (Mbilinyi et al. 1974). However, no part of the family or clan was left to suffer because of scarcity of land, labour, lack of tools or implements. Production and distribution systems were organized such that whatever was being produced or gathered was geared first to family needs, second to the clan, third to the tribe and only finally to the inter- and intra-tribe trade. Thus, local resources were mobilized and utilized to produce commodities or products that were needed locally by the community, contrary to the so- called modern agricultural sector which was in some cases geared almost wholly to the export sector (Mbilinyi et al 1974; Negrão 1995). (See Mlay 2003). 71 Lobolo is a traditional practice of making payment of bride price to the bride’s family, from the husband’s kin. It is mostly practiced in Southern Africa. The bride price can be a sum of money or goods but originally and preferable is for this to be paid with cattle. 72 At this point there is no record of Christian activities on the region, thus the reference to spiritual bond and other religious activities are related to traditional religion and ancestral worship.

169

requirements, and symbolic gifts underscored the social differentiation that existed in

Mozambican societies well before the arrival of the Portuguese. Assisting the land

chief was a council of elders, composed of village headmen and often cult priests,

who, with the royal family, propitiated the ancestor spirits and the gods to bring rain

and ensure an orderly universe. Where the chieftaincy encompassed a particularly

large region, the land chiefs appointed several territorial chiefs from among either

their junior kinsmen or dominant local elders” (Isaacman & Isaacman 1983:12).

(2) Colonial period:

The face of the social structures of Mozambique changed as the Portuguese73

began to settle in the country and expropriated the cattle and productive land from the

local people. Expropriation of land and cattle was, in a way, the beginning of the

weakening of the social system that was built upon kinship in Mozambique74

. It is

important, however to note that expropriation of land and cattle was not only a result

of the colonization. “Many centuries before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1498

successive groups of Bantu-speaking people had migrated into Mozambique, either

73 The Portuguese first arrived in Mozambique in 1498. “The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean in 1498 marked the European entry into trade, politics, and society in the Indian Ocean world. The Portuguese gained control of the Island of Mozambique and the port city of Sofala in the early 16th century, and by the 1530s small groups of Portuguese had pushed their way into the interior, where they set up garrisons and trading posts at Sena and Tete on the Zambezi River and tried to gain exclusive control over the gold trade. The Portuguese attempted to legitimate and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation of prazos (land grants) tied to European occupation. While prazos were originally developed to be held by Europeans, through intermarriage they became African Portuguese or African Indian centres defended by large African slave armies known as Chikunda. Most prazos had declined by the mid-19th century, but several of them survived and strongly resisted Portuguese domination until the last quarter of the 19th century” (www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/395363/Mozambique/261033/Precolonial-period). 74 The Conference of Berlin in 1885 legalized the colonial control of African natural resources. Thus, the Portuguese nationalized natural resources and land and created agricultural led economy, which was characterized by peasant and commercial sectors. The settlers were given large land grants and Portugal retained the mineral rights. These concessions acted as source of labour for ivory and slave trade during the 17th and 18th century. The peasants occupying these lands were required to pay in kind tax – produce and labour, which in most cases was forced labour (Mlay et al. 2003:145-146).

170

establishing permanent sedentary communities in unoccupied areas or displacing or

absorbing nomadic bands of hunting and gathering peoples. These immigrants, in

turn, interacted with existing Bantu-speaking groups and subsequent immigrants.

These relations, which generally were peaceful, often led to cultural borrowing,

intermarriage, and on occasion, the amalgamation of different groups into distinct

peoples. Sometimes, however, competition for scarce resources, fertile land, captives,

cattle, or minerals ended in violent confrontation and domination…the process of

population diffusion, economic and social interaction, cultural borrowing,

assimilation, and conquest characterized Mozambican history well into the colonial

period” (Isaacman & Isaacman 1983:11).

In the 19th century, “several military groups, offshoots of the emerging Zulu

state, invaded Mozambican territory, seizing cattle, hostages, and food as they went.

The waves of armed groups disrupted both trade and day–to–day production

throughout the area. Two groups, the Jere under Zwangendaba and the Ndwandwe

(both later known as Ngoni) under Soshangana swept through Mozambique.

Zwangendaba’s group continued north across the Zambezi, settling to the west of

contemporary Mozambique, but Soshangane’s group crossed the Limpopo into

southern Mozambique, where it eventually consolidated itself into the Gaza state. In

the 1860s a succession struggle between the sons of Soshangane caused enormous

suffering in the region and weakened the Gaza state” (Encyclopedia Britannica 2008).

The cattle were important for exchange and now with less cattle the Mozambicans

had to find other means for exchanges. Thus, the migrant work became crucial.

According to Junod (1935:276) the English man often sent men from Natal to hunt in

Mozambique in the 1860s. The Zulu hunters passed a word to Mozambicans that

171

money could be obtained in Natal by working for the English men. Money began to

be introduced as an item of exchange. Young men began moving to South Africa to

find a job, but with no intention to take a long term job. It was a short term job and as

soon as they earned enough money to pay lobolo (bride price) they would return

home to marry a wife and settle in the land made available by the chiefs. While some

people sought employment in South Africa, others took jobs within Lourenço

Marques (today Maputo) and worked for the Portuguese, but again, for a short period

of time (Matsinhe 2004:13-15).

The people of Mozambique seem to have shown less interest to the Western

standards of work, thus in 1891 the Portuguese government concluded, “The

European worker works in order to eat, and in nearly all countries there are more

hands available than local industry requires, thus develops the enslavement of labour

by capital – of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie. In Lourenço Marques, as soon as the

native has had (earned) enough to marry one or more women, he then has his

sustenance guaranteed by the labour of his wives. The product of his own labour,

then, would go to buy more women, several heads of cattle, or to get drunk on

alcohol. The result was that if in Europe the worker is in reality more dependent upon

the capitalist than vice versa … in Lourenço Marques, the Europeans …were

dependent upon black (labourers) who, in their turn, barely depended, if at all, or do

not at all depend upon whites” (Matsinhe 2004:14; Penvenne 1979a:12). Thus, began

the procurement of labour for exploitation; cheap and forced labour. However, others

opted to take jobs in South Africa75

because the English paid better wages compared

75

“Trade in ivory, gold, slaves, rubber, oilseeds, and a broad range of European goods continued throughout the 19th century. However, European economic interest and influence in the region changed rapidly by mid-century in response to developments in both Africa and Europe. African labour

172

to the Portuguese and this was also a way to escape the forced labour (Matsinhe

2004:14-16; Honwana 1988:87-88; Penvenne 1979a:22).

“Apart from forced labour the Portuguese exploited black labour through a

taxation system consisting of two kinds of tax: hut tax, which required a person to pay

tax for each hut in his/her compound; and head tax which required all natives aged 18

and older to pay tax whether they worked or not. A married man, for example, was

taxed for each hut in his compound, for each wife, and for each daughter aged 18 or

older. The colonial administration expropriated productive land, which made black

men depend on migrant labour. The Portuguese not only became owners of the land

but also of anything and anybody found in it” (Matsinhe 2004:16). The Portuguese

colonial practices disrupted the social organization of the people of Mozambique.

Having more than one wife (which was labour related) was becoming an expensive

enterprise and only the chiefs could afford it since they were exempted from tax and

forced labour and also received a subsidy from the state for helping to collect the tax

on behalf of the colonial administration.

Education was also introduced, at this time. There were two education

systems, one that belonged to the state which was of Catholic schools and the other

was of the Protestant movement. According to David Matsinhe (2004:17) Catholic

schools, “were designed to brainwash and pacify blacks. Mondlane (1969:6) cites a

pastoral letter by Cardinal Cejeira summarizing the core of education of blacks: ‘to

was needed on the sugar plantations and at South African ports and mines after diamonds (at Kimberley in the 1860s) and gold (at Witwatersrand in the 1880s) were discovered. Because of the need for labour, Europeans were determined to gain greater control over tracts of land and their inhabitants at the expense of African leadership. The combined struggle for access to mineral-bearing lands and the labour force to work them fuelled the so-called “scramble” in Southern Africa.”

173

teach the native population both in breadth and depth to (teach them) reading, writing

and arithmetic, not make doctors of them… To educate and instruct them so as to

make them prisoners of the soil and to protect them from the lure of the towns.’ In

Catholic mission schools black students were required to confess their sins to the

priest who was part of the Portuguese bureaucratic machine. After confessing students

were then arrested and sent to force labour.” This led many to flee and hide in order to

avoid going to school. And some opted to go to get their education in English

colonies or in Protestant schools. The nature of these schools was attractive to the

Africans because there was a more friendly approach to education and life. However,

those who had their education from these schools were under consistent surveillance,

because the Portuguese government accused Protestant missionaries of subversion

and of inciting rebellion amongst blacks. Mozambicans were allowed to go as far as

fourth grade, and education had to be in Portuguese; no English or native language

was allowed. Getting a fourth grade education was a great achievement for many

Mozambicans. The education system was also used under the Portuguese state as a

way to civilize the Mozambican. The Portuguese implanted in the minds of the

Mozambicans that they were superior and invincible. Equally those who chose to be

assimilated into Portuguese culture and lifestyle acted as if they were superior to their

counterparts because they were learned (Matsinhe 2004:16-21, 89; Christie 1988,

Sithole 1977).

(c) The Post Colonial Mozambique:

Mozambique became independent in 1975. The Portuguese had to leave the

country, and the Africans were to take over the business of the country. Hanlon

(1987:47) rightfully observes, “Suddenly, one day, owners would be gone, leaving

174

behind a workforce without a clue as to how to manage the business. For example,

waiters who had never been allowed to handle money found themselves running

restaurants”. There was a shortage of skills since the Portuguese had withheld

education and skills from the Africans. “In 1975 less than one per cent of the black

population was literate. Of these, less than a half percent had completed their primary

education” (Matsinhe 2004; Christie 1988; Hanlon 1992).

Another important aspect of major change in the culture of the people of

Mozambique was Marxism which was embraced in the 1970s and 1980s, by Frelimo.

The Marxist ideology influenced the socio-economic issues in the country (draught

and floods) which weakened the economic power of the country. The country

depended heavily on South African products. Hundreds of women travelled daily to

South Africa and Swaziland to buy food, clothes, and other utensils and resell in

Mozambique. The others continue to pursue their education and seek positions in the

public sectors in Mozambique. Those who were educated began to feel like they were

superior to others. The society in a way began to inculcate the individualistic and

materialistic principles as the Marxist system began to crumble in the 1980s.

When the devastating civil war of 16 years came to an end in 1994, those in

positions of authority in government and public places began to accumulate positions

in various work places to secure more money76

. They did not depend only on a salary;

corruption took its highest point in the history of the country. Corruption as I argued

76 “There are strong ties between the political and economic elite in Mozambique. Indeed, it can be difficult to distinguish between them in many cases – the current president, for instance, has extensive business interests. Business leaders seek to enhance their wealth through their close connections with Frelimo, and also seek political influence and power for themselves through their official positions due to poor regulations on conflict of interest and limited oversight of public procurement. Vested interest – both political and economic – do not want to see these relationship fade” (USAID. 2005:6).

175

at the beginning of this chapter, is unfortunately widely accepted as a way of life in

the country. “There is a general culture of not complaining about corruption –‘letting

it go,’ ‘not making waves’ – because there is both a fear of retribution and a desire to

avoid problems, especially, given the popular perspectives that there are few, if any,

feasible ways to combat the problem. In 2005 government – sponsored governance

and corruption survey, the most frequent answers to the question of why people

would not blow the whistle on corruption was because ‘there is no protection’ for

people who stand up to corrupt practices” (USAID 2005:7-8). The question is what

was and is the role of the Church in the fight against corruption, considering the

dynamics that I have pointed out in this study.

4.3 The Effects of the Holiness Nazarene Movement in Mozambique

The Church of the Nazarene was officially established in Mozambique in

1922. Prior to 1922, some Mozambicans who were working in the gold mines of

South Africa had begun to preach repentance in Mozambique. These men had no

theological or ministerial training, but they had experienced the saving power of Jesus

and they believed that this was what the people in Mozambique needed.

In 1920, the Church of the Nazarene began to minister in the mines of South

Africa. People who had come from other countries had a chance to hear for the first

time the holiness message preached and a call to live a holy life. These men would

normally be gone from their homes for 18 months to work in the mines. When they

returned to their home areas after working in the mines and went to the homes and

meetings of the chiefs and other traditional leaders, they went to the places where the

drunkards gathered and where the native dances were held and presented the Word of

176

God. This is how the work of the church begun. Since these men were not trained as

ministers and they would only be home for a short period of time (usually 3 months),

there was a need for the church to think about establishing a more permanent structure

of the Church of the Nazarene. Hence, missionaries were deployed to Mozambique

since 1922 to 1974.

The most critical years of the work of the church in Mozambique were 1928

and 1958, when great revivals took place and it is reported that many people accepted

the Lord as personal saviour and people were sanctified holy. People confessed their

sins and committed to holy living. Most people talk about this as a time when people

were delivered from drunkenness, adultery, theft, traditional religion and ancestral

worship. These were some of the most critical issues that were addressed through the

preaching of the Word.

The Church of Nazarene, as well as many other Protestant churches, was not

involved in combating or challenging the social evils. They were aware of the

difficulties that the people of Mozambique faced, the forced labour, expropriation of

the productive land and livestock by the Portuguese, poverty as a result of loss of land

and higher taxations, and so on. Although they did not participate in these unjust acts,

they have been accused of collaborating with the Portuguese state by pacifying the

Mozambicans. The Protestant Church saw the solution to the social problem to be

heaven; all we do must be a way to prepare for reaching our home in heaven, it does

not matter what happens to us in this world. It is no surprise that when Mozambique

became independent, the government (FRELIMO) did not spare any missionary or

177

church organization. They wanted the Catholic Church as well as the protestant

churches to stop their ministry and vacate the land.

The Catholic Church was criticized because of the way they have worked with

the state to oppress the blacks, through forced labour and other forms of punishment.

It is no surprise then that as Mozambique was becoming independent from

colonialism, the government (FRELIMO) leadership would not be sympathetic to

Christianity. Restrick (2001) quotes Machel’s speeches to the people of Mozambique:

(1) After independence it will be FRELIMO who will direct the people. FRELIMO

will both be the material and spiritual power, the moral power… There are no

miracles for the development of our country just as there were no miracles to liberate

it. Somebody might object that it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a

needle than for a rich man to enter Heaven. Is that not so? But all want to be well-

dressed, all want to have good sleep, all want a car, all want to have a meal three

times a day… And now they come and tell me that I must be poor in order to enter

Heaven. We want to say that here in Mozambique there is no religious state. Religion

is religion. Government is government” (Samora Machel’s speech 1975). The Church

was being blamed for their support to the colonial system. Machel’s speeches were

representing the feelings and thoughts of many who had studied through missions

schools, including Machel himself. Frelimo propagated that religion was a source of

division which must be removed from the people to work together and it was also

considered to be a threat to national unity. (2) Machel criticized the Catholic

monopoly on education: “Coming to ‘educate’ us clearly means making us

submissive mental slaves to colonialism and, in short, ‘civilization.’ Education and

advancement are merely to camouflage the actual reality of exploitation and plunder,

178

oppression, brutalization and humiliation. They are pretty words to fool us and put us

to sleep.” In contrast, under Frelimo education was to focus on serving the masses,

combating elitism, individualism and racism, establishing a new morality and ethic,

and seeking to liberate the people “from spiritual and mental oppression which

consists in the belief in strange, supernatural forces which act upon man and nature”.

(3) “We have fought the battle without any help from the Church; do you hear that?

Not from the Protestant, nor from the Catholic, nor from the Muslim religion. We

fought without them. You listen well? We have won the battle without your church,

without your religion. We have won the fight without them; we have won the fight

against them, that is the truth… We do not want little children to be baptized. They

baptized me, but I do not believe at all” (Machel 1975). (4) “Religion, and especially

the Catholic Church, was a powerful factor in the cultural and human alienation of the

Mozambican, to make him a docile instrument and object of exploitation, and smash

any display of resistance in the name of Christian resignation… Colonialism,

capitalism, the different systems of exploitation of man in our society has always been

associated with religious institutions. The colonial State transformed the faith of

believers into a tool for neutralizing the people’s legitimate rebellion… It is the duty

of the state to guarantee freedom of conscience for its citizens. Which implies

especially the protection of children against indoctrination within State institutions, as

happened in the colonial schools which subjected children of different religious

origins to the evangelizing of the Catholic Church… In order to respect freedom of

conscience the State cannot be connected with any religions or appear to have links

with any of them… It is up to the State to ensure the freely exercised right and duty

won solely by FRELIMO through arduous struggle against colonialism and

imperialism. The close association of religious institutions with the machinery of

179

aggression and domination over our people certainly does not give them any right

today to demand something against which they have always fought.”

According to Restrick (2001:169), “In these statements Machel made it clear

that in the newly-independent Mozambique, no church would be given preferential

treatment as had been the case in colonial Mozambique under the Portuguese. But

more than that, Machel intimidated at the limitations that would be placed upon the

churches, namely, prohibition of indoctrinating children in matters of faith, and the

termination of the Church’s activity at evangelization, or to use Machel’s term,

mobilization.” The Church was not prepared for this change as Hastings (1976:213-

214) rightfully observes, “Church schools and comparable institutions were

immediately nationalized and while very few missionaries were forced to leave, many

who had identified themselves with former policies naturally did so without delay.

But it was the very small churches – such as the Church of the Nazarene, the Church

of the Apostles in Mozambique…which most felt the early weight of Frelimo’s

hand…The leaders of the church were for the most part wholly unprepared for a

change not merely in government but in the total pattern of social priorities and in the

very substructure of the relationship between church and society.” It was yet another

change in the social and religious structure. There were restrictions in teaching and

preaching the Word of God. Children were to be prevented too from being taught the

Word.

I have given a brief but detailed account of the various stages of the changing

face of the social system in Mozambique. This is crucial for a clear understanding of

the current situation that is yet another face of the social system which I have

180

presented at the beginning of this investigation and this chapter in particular. In

conclusion, I would like to say that all these stages had an impact into what kind of

society we have today. We began by characterizing Mozambicans as people who

value family relationships, and their work, in a pre-colonial period and part of the

time during the colonial time, was organized within families. The work was organized

in gender. With colonialism, imperialism and exploitation, the social structure began

to change. Some went into forced labour, while others migrated to South Africa to

work in the mining industry. Lourenço Marques and yet others chose to become

assimilated77

into Portuguese culture. The link between the church and the state, since

this was a period of the beginning of the Christian church in Mozambique (Catholic

and Protestant) was considered problematic. This period was characterized by

elements of individualism, racism, supremacy, and materialism. The assimilated

people, even though most of them had only a fourth grade education in school, felt

that they were superior to their counterparts. Because of their association with the

Portuguese and access to resources that would not be necessarily available to ordinary

peasant Mozambicans they thought that they were white people dressed in black. The

older generation of Mozambican people highly criticized these individuals, but little

could be done to reverse the situation.

Liberation of the people of Mozambique introduced yet another social system.

Where people were beginning to embed in their living biblical principles, the

government’s indignation to Christianity led many astray. Young and old began to

question the role of the Church in the lives of the people. Some left the Church and

77 This meant theoretically to adopt Portuguese lifestyle and be a Portuguese. I would call this illusion of being white Portuguese person while one is in real sense black. To achieve this one had to learn Portuguese and learn how to eat on the table etc. etc. Enculturation into Portuguese!

181

joined into criticizing her role in the lives of the people in Mozambique. The moral

decline in the country can be, in part, contributed to this period of time. Although I

believe that the Protestant Church has failed to address the social evil, I do not

consider this to be a deliberate failure of the Church. I concur with Restrick (2001)

that the Church of the Nazarene (and other Protestant churches) existed in an

environment of restriction and opposition to the evangelistic efforts of the church that

at times could be classified as persecution. Restrick argues that Protestant churches,

both missionaries and Mozambican nationals, suffered under the hands of the

Portuguese. There was no freedom as to what the Protestant Church could do.

In Matsinhe’s (2004:17) words, “Portuguese authorities suspected and accused

Protestant missionaries of subversion and of inciting rebellion amongst the blacks.

Africans who obtained their education in Protestant mission schools… were kept

under surveillance…” On the other hand I think that education failed to equip

ministers to address issues such as this. The focus on training pastors was

concentrated in teaching them to interpret the Word of God to address sin in a limited

way. The preaching was not holistic, it interpreted spiritual transformation in a way

that it excluded or ignored the socio-economic and political aspects. The Church

identified with the poor by acts of charity but failed to address the root cause of the

problem; this is the prophetic voice was stilled.

This approach was not only confined to what the Church in Mozambique

understood her role to be. The problem was compounded as I have argued in the first

chapter that the history of Church there has been a view that her work is solely

evangelistic with the aim of propagating the message of holiness, while unfortunately

182

ignoring social aspects of the people. Thus, the Church of the Nazarene avoided

getting involved in social justice issues lest they lost focus in making disciples. The

other reason was related to issues of the security and safety of the missionary and

other Church leaders, there was a concern that getting involved in addressing socio-

economic-political issues could result in endangering the lives of the leaders as well

as jeopardizing the mission of the Church on the region; passiveness or neutralism

was viewed as the best policy within the church.

The challenges that may have prevented the Church to act decisively are real

and should not be overlooked; the price is high for doing otherwise in the face of

persecution. But even so, the question remains, how should we appropriate the

Biblical truths to be a message to us today, in the midst of great opposition to the

biblical truth and inclination to evil? Is Luke-Acts normative to this situation? The

examination of hermeneutical strategies to interpret this message in such a way that it

has a positive impact in the ethos of the people of Mozambique is vital. Especially

when taking into consideration the fact that some Christians and community members

are hopeless in the face of the scourge of corruption and feel little can be done to

address the problem, and yet some undoubtedly, argued in unclear terms that

corruption is a way of life. I have found that some believers’ arguments are not far

different from those of the ideologies of FRELIMO in the Post Colonial Period,

which often defend that what is happening now in terms of corruption is not far worse

compared to colonial times. Furthermore, they argue that the Church has failed to

address the social evil because she was not in touch with the real needs of the people.

On the contrary the Church tried unsuccessfully to assimilate members of the Church

in Mozambique to the Western World cultural principles in detriment of our African

183

humanness. The silence of the Church in the face of social evil has weakened her

prophetic voice. The Word of God must effect change in the face of this illusion that

corruption is a way of life that can not be reversed, by the work of the Church because

she is weak. The Church should not allow the mistakes of the past and false

ideologies to make blurry her vision to effectively and decisively seek to make Christ

like disciples in a holistic way.

4.4 Ethical Principles on Material Possessions - The Reality of Mozambique

In 2001 – 2005, I worked for the Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique, as a

teacher and administrator at the Nazarene Seminary in Mozambique (Bible School)

and as a pastor of Matola City Church. The Matola Church had an evangelism team of

young people that I worked with. These young people were very committed and

dedicated to sharing the Good News with the lost. They had a passion for new souls,

the Great Commission was a motivation for them, to go and make disciples of all

nations (Matthew 28:19). Together we planted new churches and gave support to

other existing congregations, we travelled miles to go and make disciples in other

provinces (Gaza and Inhambane). The ministry of this team included singing,

preaching, teaching, drama, and JESUS Film showing. They also joined me in most of

the workshops, seminars, teachings and preaching that I organized to address issues of

HIV/AIDS, social justice, poverty, and corruption. They knew well my thoughts

about corruption and poverty. For instance, they had been with me in some occasions

when I was stopped by traffic cops and asked for a bribe, they had listened to me

argue against it in many ways. They knew that I did not condone the philosophy that

the “goat eats where it is tied”. As a matter of principle I always argued that no one

should “extort money” but rather “be content with your pay” (Luke 3:14). However,

184

my persuasive messages on Biblical principles (Deuteronomy 15, Luke 3:1-14, Acts 2

and 4, Isaiah 58 and 61, etc) that needed to be inculcated to eradicate poverty and

corruption were perceived to be inapplicable to the context. Because corruption was

beginning to be seen as a form of living in Mozambique78

, for it is pervasive in

schools, where children often have to bribe to get their year end marks, in public

hospitals where treatment can be withheld because of lack of bribery funds and in

public and judicial systems where services can be delayed for no other reason if not

corruption.

One evening after a JESUS Film showing this team of young evangelists were

discussing Luke 3:10 -14, I was intrigued by their interpretation of the words of John

the Baptist. Interesting enough was the fact that they had talked about this passage a

few other times but not in relation to issues of corruption and injustice, but this

particular evening they were addressing these specific issues. They argued first that

there was no hope to eradicate corruption in Mozambique, they added that the Bible

does not necessarily teach that we should attempt to eradicate this problem, for even

John the Baptist who was preparing the way of the Lord, did not stop corruption. John

the Baptist understood that ‘the goat eats where it is tied’ so he recommended that

they should not take too much… this is they can take from their work place, but they

must just remember to leave something for others, so that they do not eat alone. I was

stunned; I said to them would you please repeat what you just said? Of course they

repeated it confident that they had discovered some truth that needed to be unveiled

from the Word of God to interpret the current situation in the country in light of 78 “Corruption is so endemic that it has become the norm for citizens and businesspeople, who tolerate it in order to get things done and gain access to basic public services. Low-level government officials use corruption to enhance their wealth and reinforce political power, and economic elites use it to consolidate their position and prevent competition” (USAID 2005:1).

185

Scriptures. It immediately occurred to me that they were interpreting John’s message

in the light of what they viewed as norm in the society.

I asked, “Who was John the Baptist’s addressees?”, and they said, “He was

addressing government officials and public officers”. I then argued that what the tax

collectors were doing was stealing from others collecting a tariff higher than what was

stipulated or required and the soldiers were rebuked because of extortion. John did not

give the tax collectors or the soldiers licence for extortion, fraud or corruption, he

condemned it. He challenged those who came out to be baptized to change their

thinking and behaviour. I added that people are to be content with what they have and

or earn.

My interpretation of the passage seemed to make no sense at all to them. They

were determined to reveal my ignorance as we continued to talk about this because

they were confronted with devastating consequences of corruption on a daily basis.

As I drove home that evening, I kept wondering how many other people

misunderstood the Lukan ethics on material possessions (Luke 3:10-14). I also

wondered what Christians in general (in Mozambique) thought about corruption?

What are my student’s views at the Bible College on issues of corruption, social evil,

and poverty?

The following week I began introducing some of these subjects to my students

in and outside of the classroom. I recall a group of senior students who were in my

Christian Philosophy class, saying to me, “Sir, you surely do not mean that

eradication of corruption is possible, because as long as you have the poor in this

186

country, corruption will coexist. The Bible says that the poor you shall always have

with you, and naturally these poor people will always want to find ways to

survive…they need to supplement their income. On the other hand those in power

will use the poor as their ticket to accumulate more wealth from the international

donors.” My response to them was, I believe that as a Church we must give hope to

the hopeless, we have to rekindle the prophetic voice; we need to preach against

social injustice, we need to be a caring and loving community to those that are needy,

as well as speak out on behalf of those who are oppressed, that cannot speak for

themselves. I added that I did not think that we were faithfully carrying out our

mission “to preach the good news to the poor…proclaim freedom for the prisoners

and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed, to proclaim the year of

the Lord’s favour” (Luke 4:18-19). I argued that it was sad that because corruption

“penetrates the social and cultural fabric of the country ‘the Church and the people of

Mozambique’ appear to be generally resigned to living with pervasive corruption

because they see no way of avoiding it’ (USAID 2005:1).”

My students challenged my stance on the issue of corruption in Mozambique.

They argued that I was looking down on the way people lived and according to them

the people in Mozambique had no choice but to resort to corruption because of

poverty and suffering. As I continued to examine the issue and to search for biblical

principles to address the subject, these students and several others agreed to be part of

my discussion group. The questionnaire in chapter one was developed in this context

of the search for a possible solution to the problem. It was significant for me to first

establish how some Christians viewed the imperatives of God on social justice issue. I

needed to establish that we were all talking about the same thing and with an

187

understanding that divine transformation is what we need to effect change in

Mozambique. Other discussions or focus groups included children, youth and adult

groups of members of the Church of the Nazarene in Mozambique, especially in the

Matola district. The first part of our discussion was always intended to define what we

all understood culture, social system to be and more specifically the socio-cultural

aspects of the people of Mozambique.

Mozambican social system and moral values are originally defined in kinship

relations. This is an important aspect of the community that should be taken in

consideration in the hermeneutical quest of the text of Luke-Acts. Kinship relations

are vital in this context because they provide systems that cater for the welfare of the

members of the family. In other words, one member of the family that is employed is

seen as responsible to care for his or her immediate family as well as far the extended

family. Thus a large number of my interviees argued that corruption was justified if it

is done with the aim of helping others, especially those of kinship group. Several

proverbs that originate from the local language suggest that no one should isolate

him/herself in life, we must work as a team, and we must remember to lift each other

up. Live together as a community, do not reject your own; pride and greed is bad

because it leads to stealing, jealousy, competition, slander and crime; Study so that

you can get a good job and earn enough money to take care of the family (meaning

parents, siblings and other relatives). Therefore, sharing material possessions in this

context should be interpreted with these aspects in mind. For some of the values can

be traced as far back as the pre-colonial period, they are part of the socio-cultural life

of the Church today; thus corruption is not part of what Mozambicans believe to be

moral, but they just feel trapped in the situation.

188

As we continued to converse about this situation, my students understood that

my aim was not to attack the country or the people of Mozambique, but I was rather

intrigued by the way things were going, they became more comfortable to talk to me

about these issues. I learned in these conversations that there is confusion or

uncertainty amongst some of our pastors and leaders in Mozambique as to what

exactly is considered “gifts”, tip or bribe. It is certainly normal and acceptable in

many places around the world to give a tip to express appreciation for the service

rendered. This was raised because two students believed that they were not able to get

to the college in the previous year because their leader was not willing to sign their

documents (recommendations) before they gave money to express their gratitude for

the service rendered (signing documents). I want to assume that this is done because

of ignorance and lack of understanding, however, at the same time I could not help

but to question the integrity of leaders such as this. This was one of my saddest days

as a lecturer at this Bible College. And, of course, I immediately said this is

corruption! But when I challenged this, a group of my students said, “Well, this is not

a bribe it is just a way to say thank you for allowing me to go to school”. I argued

that it sounded to me that this is a bribe because the students were not allowed to

come to school before coming to their leader with a gift to persuade him to give a

recommendation/authorization for them to come to the college. “He would not sign

your papers before you thanked him - that is bribe,” I insisted.

In this discussion my students tried in vain to convince me that there was

nothing wrong with such kind of gifts for service rendered. I then wondered how such

behaviour would impact the whole ministry of the pastor to shepherd the flock. My

189

tone changed, I lost it in front of my students, I said to them, “Those people do not

deserve to be leaders in the Church, they should be fired!” It was quiet, nobody

wanted to say a word because they felt like this was becoming some kind of

interrogation which would lead to some people losing their jobs and yet in a kin

relationship environment loyalty to the point of death is vital. It is honourable to be

loyal to your kin and your people group, one does not become informer and cause

others to face disciplinary action, and hence they resorted to quietness. Besides being

quiet for their loyalty to the next of kin in a situation like this, my behaviour in this

situation could easily be interpreted actions of jealousy because they did not share the

pie with me, as well as desire to defame others as part of building up my personal

reputation. Thus, they did not want to take part in my jealousy and plot to bring others

down because I did not have a share of the pie they received.

What kind of leaders are we producing? Is the holiness message making any

difference in the lives of the people? What does it mean to be a disciple of Jesus

Christ in a situation such as this of Mozambique where people feel trapped in a

situation that seems hopeless? What is the role of the Church in the fight against

corruption? What would happen if the Church in Mozambique followed the example

of the Church in the book of Acts (17:6-7), turn Mozambique upside down79

? If the

transforming power is at work in the Church, shouldn’t it effect her surroundings with

the kingdom ethics? Does the Church know what the Kingdom ethics are in the face

79 “The book of Acts portrays a movement that is turning people in large numbers, ‘from the power of Satan to God’ (Acts 26:18) and re-socializing them into a community that lives by very different norms – the norms defined by Jesus’ life and teachings. Such a movement – when lived with integrity – inevitably has an explosive effect in the surrounding culture. That is Luke’s vision for transformative power of the church: it turns the world upside down not through armed revolution but through the formation of the Church as a counter-culture, an alternative witness-bearing community” (Hays 1996:128).

190

of corruption? As a lecturer, training pastors, can I truly say that I have done well in

equipping the pastors to respond effectively to the socio-economic and political

challenges of Mozambique? These were some of the questions that went through my

mind for several months, and formed part of the ongoing discussion with students and

other Christian friends. I was determined to search for answers through conversations

and literature review. I found a wealth of scholarly writing on the subject of material

possessions, especially on issues of poverty and wealth. These resources and the

conversations in groups and with individuals were valuable resources, however not

written with the intent to address the issues of material possessions in the

Mozambican context, they were originally written to address contextual issues in

other parts of the world.

According to Maluleka, (1999:10-18) part of the problem is that Africans have

for many years been customers and consumers of theology, but we need to begin to

ask ourselves the following questions: “So we know ourselves theologically. Would

we like to know ourselves theologically and how can there be Africanization80

if only

80

Africanization here should not be understood to mean syncretism, but rather a call to address interpret the Biblical truth in such a way that African issues faithfully dealt with. This is, Africanize theological education which would inevitable “impact content, method, and above all on the outcomes of theological education. Presently, the process of Africanization appears unconvinced of its own value, however, it does not only mean that we teach African Theology, or that the subject forms part of the curricula, the challenge implies that African issues be mainstreamed in theological education. It must become a conscious, deliberate, ideological choice for all theologians to recognize, facilitate and address Africa’s peculiar problems. It goes beyond cosmetically dressing theological courses with African symbols and African persons. It goes beyond the representation of foreign ideas in African forms while these ideas themselves remain ideologically intact. The challenge for Africanization does not merely mean that we change from Western viewpoints, it also means altering content, methods, objectives and vision. Africanization asks the question as to how can Christology, Ecclesiology and even the Doctrine of God and Liturgy be reshaped? Africanization asks: How we teach theology in a multi-cultural society? Africanization also asks what is Africanization and how does one define it? … Theological education in South Africa is always conducted in a second or third language, normally European-based languages such as English, Afrikaans, French, and Portuguese. Local languages are always excluded. Intellectual, cultural, ideological, epistemological frameworks are not usually local and this makes Africanization of theology increasingly blurred. Theological literature is always available in one or other European language and is exorbitantly dear to obtain as they have to be imported” (http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/INSeCT/cd/africa-slater.html).

191

one side is known and used? He goes on to argue that in most cases African graduates

have learned well to ignore the questions that are being asked ‘on the ground’, explain

them away and to occupy themselves with their own fabricated ones.” This is what he

calls to be adept at denial and avoidance of the issues. Hence, he advocates for

production of theologians, priests and religious workers who are able to participate in

addressing of Africa’s peculiar problems. This should not only be interpreted as need

to knowing how classical Christological doctrinal assertions can be presented in

African form but also how African Christians are reshaping and can reshape

Christology.

The churches’ praxis should contribute to and facilitate the total liberation of

the poorest of the poor in Africa. What should be the role of the Church in

Mozambique in the fight against corruption and poverty? To answer this question I

continued the journey that I began with the youth evangelism team and students at the

Bible College in Mozambique. I continued to interview both leaders and ordinary

members of the Church of the Nazarene as individuals and groups to understand some

socio-cultural issues with the hope that this background will enable me to offer a

plausible interpretation of the Luke-Acts principles on material possession to address

the Mozambican context. The interviews were conducted in the following manner: a

total of 45 individuals were interviewed of this, 20 were students at the Nazarene

Seminary in Mozambique, 15 members of the Church of the Nazarene in

Mozambique, who hold higher positions in public and private sectors and 10 Christian

leaders working in para-Church and or non governmental organizations (NGOs). The

larger group of interviewees (205) includes laity and clergy, students preparing for

192

ministry, youth, children and leaders from other denominations. A total of 85 students

formed part of 3 focus groups that conversed with me on the subject. Another group

was of youth from various churches that formed a focus group in a 2-day seminar that

I presented at the youth camp in Mahelane – Matola (50 young people). A group of 23

pastors in Xai-Xai, who were attending pastors retreat camp, where I was invited to

preach and conduct workshops on the role of the pastor in the church and community.

The other 47 were people who were part of my informal discussions which were

either in a group conversation or individuals but did not necessarily address all the

questions in an outlined sequence, the main question for this group was related only to

their opinion on issues of corruption in the country and what they thought should be

the stand of the disciples of Jesus Christ in this context.

The majority defined poverty as lack of essential goods to meet the basic

needs of the family81

. However, children and youth associated their answers to

material resources. They defined a wealthy person as an individual who has a lot of

money, cars, more than one house, person who can afford to put the children in a

private school or university; some respondents linked that to being highly educated

and holding a managerial position in public or private sector. The poor in their

understanding is the opposite of the above described person or family. It is quite

interesting that the older people would be more concerned with meeting the basic

needs, and yet the children and the youth think about accumulation of wealth as the

ideal situation. Some people linked poverty with spiritual need and or bondage;

depravation because of malicious spirits or ancestral spirits who are believed to

81 Very few people talked about poverty in an individual terms. In general people focused on need of the family or community, rather than individual needs. Those with wealth are expected to open their hands to share their resources with those in need in their families, both immediate and extended.

193

prevent people from prospering. For example, there is a belief that ancestors could

decline that a young lady gets married or even educated, or even withhold education

and job opportunity from young men. People would be led to believe that the only

solution to freedom is rituals that would possibly be accepted by the ancestors, thus

giving a blessing to the living to move on with their lives.

The spiritual bondage (poverty) is quite real in Mozambique. So many people

believe that their present and future is in the hands of the dead ancestors who decide

what the fate is for those who are living creatures. Unfortunately this leaves people

feeling hopeless and believing that there would be nothing that can change the

situation if the ancestors are not in agreement. The destructive thing is that there are

thousands of people both in Catholic and Protestant churches that hold onto these

beliefs. Yes, they are Christians but they have not made a full commitment to the

Lord Jesus. Holy living to them means being in Church every Sunday, giving tithes

and other offerings, assuming leadership roles in the Church and often even becoming

a pastor. But they have double standards of living, for their dependency is not in

Jesus, it is in their dead ones. Thus some respondents recommended that there is a

need for deliverance of the people of Mozambique from this.

In describing their environment in terms of social, political, cultural and

economical aspects, there were various answers that can be summarized as follows:

(1) no electricity and water or in case of those who had these commodities they felt it

was highly expensive and only affordable to the wealthy. Thus, to cope with the

situation some of them confessed that they have worked with some people to help

them disconnect the meters so that they can get electricity and water for free which

194

they did not consider stealing because it is the only way to survive. This is a well

known fact in the country, and often the offenders are punished or they could get

away with it if they pay a bribe to the public office that is doing inspection.

Unfortunately what they did not realise is the fact that this weakens the national

economy. (2) Some criticised the government for not fulfilling the promises made

during electoral campaigns. However, those who belonged to the ruling party praised

the government for making great achievements in education and health. (3)

Corruption and lack of integrity were among the lists. The majority of the people felt

that they were poor and not because of their own mistakes but it is the way things

have been from the past. Some believed that they were poor because they were

predestined by God to be that way. Everything comes from Him so we just have to be

thankful, said one old lady.

In general, people view poverty as predestined by God for the African nations.

In Mozambique this ideology is a combination of two poles of thought: the first is the

traditional belief that the ancestors decide everything, they decide the fate for the

living. The other is from a Christian theology of predestination. So, even though

corruption, the war, calamities and lack of education would be cited as causes for

poverty, the top on the list is predestination either by God or ancestors. This is a very

interesting concept as far as ancestral belief is concerned. As the Church of the

Nazarene, we do not believe in worship of ancestors, but the truth is that there are

those who struggle to come out completely from this practice. Hence, a few

respondents were candid to cite that one of the reasons they believe we are poor is the

fact that our ancestors are not happy. There is no rain because the land has drunk so

much blood during the liberation and civil war. On the other hand the ancestors were

195

believed to be unhappy because the land is being privatized in many ways. The

uneasiness of ancestors leads to great suffering and poverty.

Bribery and corruption is believed to be high and out of control. Amongst the

public officers this is becoming a normal practice. On the other hand, people get

frustrated with the government officials owning big companies, hotels, and other

means of businesses which are believed to have been a result of extortion. Thus, the

rich are getting richer and the poor are becoming poorer. Very few people thought

that the Church was doing something to alleviate poverty and to fight for justice.

Those who felt this way cited the activities of the Church of distributing food, clothes

and other utensils during the time of the war, famine, and floods. However, a more

radical answer from some of the highly educated and wealthy people was that the

Church of the Nazarene is not doing anything at all, if not just to pray for the needy

and those who suffer. A general thought was that the Church, since its inception, has

avoided dealing with issues of social justice. Some felt that missionaries as they

introduced the Church worked with the Portuguese state in Mozambique and felt quite

comfortable with the system, therefore they never challenged it.

They also believe that both the older and younger generation of church leaders

in Mozambique have been indoctrinated to believe that they should distance

themselves from socio-economic affairs. So, the Church is silent and the least it can

do is to pray and criticise those who are in leadership in the country rather than

getting involved and defending the interests of the poor and preaching holiness to

effect change in all aspects of life. The Church should invest in educating the people

not only in theological training but in other areas as well, but not the same kind of

196

education that was offered under the colonial time. The Church should deal with

issues of HIV/AIDS and other activities. Social justice activities should not be

delegated to others but they should be part of the Church’s mission, said one of the

respondents.

Here I have only provided a summary of the responses that I found to be

common amongst the respondents. In conclusion, I would like to insert that the

Church of the Nazarene has made an impact by establishing a church in Mozambique

and training leaders. There are a great number of people who are committed

Christians and have repented from their sins and follow Christ faithfully. But there are

those who are struggling that need to be redirected to the truth. Mozambique is a

syncretistic society as far as the social system is concerned. There are some elements

of kinship as well as individualistic and materialistic systems. This is no exception

when we consider religion; it is syncretistic in many ways. The question is, are there

applicable biblical principles that can be embodied by the community of believers in

Mozambique? How do we interpret the Word to meet the needs of the people in this

context?

The Christian Gospel is about transformation of human behaviour in this

world. The main purpose of the existence of the Church in the world is to be

Christlike, this is, to live lives of biblical holiness. Biblical holiness as summurazied

by Peter (1 Peter 1:13-16) is characterized by four inseperable components: “(1)

Holiness first of all defines a way of behaving; (2) Holiness is a way of behaving

which is determined by the character of God; (3) It is a way of behaving which all

Christians are expected to manifest, and (4) It is a way of behaving which is markedly

197

different from all that of unbelievers. Christians must live a life that radically

manifests the unique character of God” (Oswalt 1999:2). How can this be a reality in

the Mozambican context where corruption has become a way of life for thousands of

people including those who call themselves Christians? This is the task of the next

section, which is the hermeneutical task.

4.5 Hermeneutical Task

I have attempted to capture some of the major aspects of the socio-cultural

scenarios of the people of Mozambique. This was not only necessary but also

essential for the hermeneutical task. As Hays (1996:468) clearly demonstrated, “the

particular exhortations and warnings about money (ethics of material possessions)82

found in the New Testament epistolary literature make sense only within the symbolic

world narrated in these stories. On this matter, then, our basic orientation must be

provided by the narrative texts, and our hermeneutical application of the New

Testament will involve retelling these stories in such a way that we find our place

within them.” However, before we retell the stories in such a way that we find our

place within the biblical text, we need to know the canonical context in which they

were presented and also the context of the church today where we desire for this to be

applied.

The Lukan text witnesses that as a sign of repentance the community of

believers is called to obediently embrace the economy of sharing. “Thus, the glad and

generous hearts (Acts 2:46) of Jerusalem community are sure signs of the presence of

God’s spirit in their midst, and their sharing of their goods so that there is no needy

82 Italics mine

198

person among them is the outward and visible sign of God’s effectual grace. Indeed,

the power of the apostle’s testimony to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus is linked

directly by Luke to the community’s economic sharing (Acts 4:32-35). The testimony

is credible because the evidence of God’s power is palpable in the community life”

(Hays 1996:124).

As observed earlier in this chapter, the people of Mozambique are generous in

sharing resources with other people. This is generally so in African cultures, “If

people are eating, whether a main meal or just a handful of fried plantain, they will

invite you to eat or to take some. This includes people that one has never met in one’s

life and will probably never see again. You cannot ‘not invite’ someone to share food.

It would be just too shameful” (Maranz 2001:107). So, we may ask, why do we need

the Lukan message on sharing possessions to shape the Church in Mozambique and

the rest of the continent, if this is already embedded in their social system? It would

seem that its application should be natural and an automatic process. However, it is

noteworthy that sharing in Mozambique and in Luke-Acts presents us with some

differences as to what leads people to share possessions. The Lukan community is

challenged to share as an act of obedience and walk in holiness before the Lord.

The Mozambican community share possessions because it has been expected

within the family, clan and tribal system. There are various reasons why people share

possessions. It could be because it is part of what is expected in the culture for

everyone to be hospitable. It can also be a way of “banking” for the future; people

share with others simply because they know that someday they will also need

assistance. For instance, when there are weddings or funerals the contributions to

199

make these ceremonies a success come from family members, neighbours, colleagues,

church members, friends and sometimes even strangers within the community, this is

done because people know that in future they might be the ones in need of help and if

one fails to assist others will not be helped in the time of need. Reciprocity is

predominant83

in Mozambique.

Traditional religion is another factor to be considered, it is predominant and its

influence in the day-to-day business is immeasurable; Spirituality84

impacts every

aspect of life. Within this religious system there are those who strongly believe that

ancestors have an important role in regulating and predestining the affairs of the

living. As a result there is such a great attempt to appease in all ways possible the

ancestors. This is done in a form of traditional worship and other rituals; some people

do these kinds of things because of fear of the bad and severe suffering that is

presumed that is bound to happen to those who reject their cultural and traditional

beliefs. Therefore, some people share material possessions with family members and

relatives because of fear of ancestors. In this context, those involved in corruption are

honourable within their families and communities if the resources they accumulate are

used for the benefit of the bigger body.

According to Maranz (2001:37), “Prosperous Africans must be constantly

looking over their shoulders. If they want to remain as esteemed members of society,

83 There is a saying in Mozambique that follows: “When you are promoted or when you hold a position of authority do not forget those who are at the bottom… you need them… remember that if you fall from your current position those who will welcome you back in the community are those at the bottom.” The main purpose of this idea is to remind everyone independently of their status or positions they hold in the labour sector, that they belong to a group of people or family that expects them to faithfully support them remembering that one day, they will also possibly need a hand. 84 Spirituality meaning the worship of ancestors and observation of related traditional religious rituals.

200

their use of resources must take into consideration the opinions of potential or hopeful

recipients. The extent to which this operates in many African societies was explained

to me in these terms: By our reasoning, everyone with many goods certainly has

among his relatives those who are poor and needy. Therefore, they think if these

wealthy people lived up to their family and social obligations they would not, could

not, have amassed so many goods85

. If in spite of such needs that must exist, they

have accumulated so much, it must be because they have chosen to close their eyes to

the needs, and their ears to the requests for help, even if the requests were unspoken…

In any case, those who have many goods yet fail to respond positively to the requests

of those who want to have such things, are classed as egoists and are usually rejected

by the larger society.” In this context the criticism to those who have accumulated

wealth is not on them being evil because they have more than what they ought to, they

are judged by whether their actions of compassion and care measure up to the

expectation of others. This is, most probably some people would not necessarily

worry about where did the resources come from? What is of importance is whether

those with material resources are sensitive enough to share it with others.

As a result of the above thinking, nepotism,86

and bribes become justifiable,

for it is a way to help one another by sharing material possessions (“uma mao lava

outra”, a saying that means that “one hand washes the other hand”). The main issue is

85 Community of “Limited Good” similar to the Mediterranean Social System. Wealthy people are viewed as greedy because all goods are limited, therefore the rich are in this context considered inherently evil because they are probably taking more than they ought to by exploiting others or manipulating the system of distribution of goods. 86 “The activities of the Civil service are subject to political manipulation. This situation is promoted by the predominance of non-merit-based hiring and the lack of experienced and talented recruits to the civil service. The absence of a strong ethic of professionalism and enforced performance standards within the bureaucracy, along with unclear regulations and poor procedures, create opportunities for excessive discretion and abuses of office” (USAID 2005:8).

201

not how do people obtain the possessions that make them wealthier than others, the

issue at hand is do they “share their possessions with others?” In a context such as this

corruption is not necessarily a priority issue that people will deal with. Even when

anti-corruption organizations are put in place they become window dressing strategy

to attract foreign donors. George H Wittman wrote an article entitled, “Tribalism

Cripples Africa” on 24 December 2005, in which he quotes the chief of the Luo tribe

in Kenya, Oginga Odinga, statement that attests to this thinking: Odinga said, “What

is seen in Washington and London as corruption is in Africa a system of reward. I do

not keep this money for myself. I distribute it to worthy members of my tribe and

friends of my tribe. That is our political system; it's very democratic. It is very old and

honoured’” (Wittman 2005). He commented further, “the rationale might have been

self-serving, but it nonetheless was true. Basic tribal sociology holds that gifts that a

headman receives should be shared with those below. Sharing is a basic element of

tribal life. It is part of their form of democracy.” Therefore, it seems reasonable to

conclude that the people would be judged by how well they carry out their obligation

to care for the needs of the poor. Hence, a culture of not complaining about corruption

is prevalent.

Recently, a survey that was conducted in Mozambique indicates that 90% of

the respondents did not believe that there was a way out of the corruption87

87 “There are differences between how corruption is perceived in urban and rural settings. In the latest survey (2005), corruption is seen to be serious or very serious by 67% of urban dwellers versus 46% of rural dwellers. Related to these findings is the differential impact of corruption on citizens of different income brackets (from the 2005 survey). Nine percent of low income households pay more than 10% of their income on bribes, as compared to 17% of medium income households and 34% of high income households. In line with these results, medium and large companies indicate that they pay bribes more often than small companies. From these findings, we can infer that corruption especially bribery – is more prevalent where there is an ability to pay – in urban settings, among wealthier households, and among larger businesses” (USAID 2005:12).

202

predicament (USAID. 2005:12). The majority of my interviewees gave a similar

response, and some did not think that there was anything wrong if, for instance, funds

were not used for their intended purpose as long as they had helped meet a need that

arose. In fact, family members will be willing most of the time to protect those

involved in corrupt activities for the sake of protecting the good name of the family.

“Restitution is practically an unknown concept in government, among friends, in

Islam, even in many Christian Churches”88

(Maranz 2001:111).

Luke-Acts’ principle of sharing possessions is grounded on Jesus’ work of

liberation (Luke 4:18-19). Jesus declares himself the Messiah whose vocation is to

bring restoration to the chaotic world, with a vision for justice and compassion to

prevail.89

Therefore, even though there are many ways in which the people in Africa

share with others their resources, the premises in which it is done should be brought

under the scrutiny of Jesus’ vision for humanity. Repentance is an inevitable

condition for reform of life to be realized. There is a need for repentance, a total

change of behaviour and attitude, which includes abandonment of traditional religion

which often keeps people in bondage. People need to realize that their lives should not

88 Maranz (2001:111-112) narrates part of his findings concerning corruption and restitution: “A church was in need of benches. A Westerner made donation but was told sometime later than the money had disappeared, the church treasury having been cleaned out by the treasurer had just bought a new radio-cassette player and put the proceeds back in the church treasury. The elders exclaimed, ‘you wouldn’t take a radio-cassette player away from a poor man, would you.? A reliable source told me that a director of a private school made off with most of the sizeable balance in the school’s bank account. The account had required two signatures on every check, but the money was gone. The man was dismissed by the school board, but no attempt was made to investigate how the check was cashed fraudulently, to bring the man to justice, or to recover the large amount of money involved. The school remained in serious financial strait, but the ex-director continued to live with impunity in the same city.” Mozambique would not be an exception to Maranz’s description of the challenges faced in other parts of Africa. This makes the hermeneutical task of Luke-Acts message on material possession to be a complex endeavour. 89 It must be kept in mind that “Jesus’ moral positions are contingent and contextual” (Stegemann 2002:54).

203

be regulated by fear of ancestors and witchcraft. Loyalty to ancestors and those in

positions of authority will not lead to deliverance from captivity; on the contrary what

it does is to keep individuals and tribes in bondage and fear of evil forces. Just like the

apostles of Jesus Christ, the Church today needs to be empowered by God alone to

effect change in the world in which we live.

In Luke 3:10-14, “Luke shows a special interest in the man with two tunics,

the tax collectors, and the soldiers. Here are three examples of wealth, authority and

power over others, and the good fruit expected from those who would repent. Of

course, the economically poor and socially oppressed will be the greatest beneficiaries

of such righteous deeds” (http:Wesley.nny.edu/Wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/26-30/27-

1-08.htm). The social cultural expectations might not suffice the necessary changes

needed in the community, for the values that should benefit the well-being of all can

be abused for selfish interest, diminishing its impact. This happens because of the

wickedness of humankind, thus principles, which are meant to encourage justice and

compassion, can easily be abused for personal gain. In Mozambique the author of

“cabritismo90

” did not intend for this to be used to condone corruption, it was meant

to encourage all people to work as hard as possible in all labour sectors but primarily

agriculture with hope that this could eradicate hunger. The same concept was later

twisted as a licence to abuse offices or to mean that the public service is a

replacement of the agricultural fields that once provided families and tribes the

necessary resources for survival.

90 This was based on observation of how tribal communities worked together and shared their resources to care for the family, clan and the entire tribe. It was used to encourage people to work where they were and make the best out of it. Now it is twisted to mean that people in higher position can manipulate the system and create conditions for the survival of their family members through corruptive activities such as bribes and nepotism.

204

“Sharing” is a value that is supposedly embodied in the behaviour of the

people of Mozambique. This value is normative orientation of action in the day-to-

day life and business of the people in most places in Africa. The question is, how does

this value compare to sharing as an ethical value per Luke-Acts text? What would the

Lukan Jesus say about the value that the people of Mozambique and Africa in general

place on sharing material possessions? To begin, I argue that Jesus would not step out

of the moral value of the people in Mozambique to design a normative orientation of

action which is not within the general moral system of the people of Africa.

However, what is needed is the formulation of moral emphases that address social

praxis that deviate from the expected behaviour.

Like Stegemann (2002:53), I argue “that Jesus’ ethos was a constituent part of

the symbolic moral world of his society. We cannot – and Jesus could not – remove

our society’s or group’s symbolic moral world like a garment. It is like one’s skin, out

of which human beings cannot come. In this regard, Meeks writes: Morality is an

integral part of a community’s culture (1993:10). From this, the improbability of

Jesus stepping out of his society’s moral world follows. In general, it is a false

presumption to think that Jesus had a reflexive or distanced relationship to the

symbolic moral world of his people, similar to the one we can adopt as historical

observers. People normally orientate themselves unconsciously in their social

behaviour, guided by traditional meaning systems, by the values of their society or

group. Only when one’s own social praxis deviates from the expectations of others

does a conscious discussion about the symbolic moral world take place. But even in

conflict it is clear that we make our moral decisions, not in the free choice of

205

theoretical or speculative possibilities, but within the symbolic moral world of our

society or group.”

While many Luke-Acts scholars have sought to discuss ethical issues on how

the rich should care for the poor by sharing possessions, my aim is to address the

issue of corruption that is crippling the social, political and economic life of the

people of Mozambique. Corruption is sin even when it is done on pretence of aiming

to accumulate possessions to meet the needs of family and or clan. Therefore it does

not matter if the possessions are fairly distributed to the members of the family or

group of friends joined together by common interest, if these resources were not

obtained through appropriate business principles, the action of sharing becomes

unethical, especially in the context where the recipients are aware of the

circumstances in which they were obtained. Jesus’ call to repentance is aimed at

redirecting the hearts and minds of his followers to God as the giver of possessions.

When people embrace the ethics of the Kingdom of God they do what is pleasing to

God and seek to discern His wisdom and charge for compassion and justice.

It is not by accident that Jesus first calls people to love the Lord with all their

hearts, and as a result of a total commitment to the Lord this love is reflected in an

exemplary behaviour, demonstrated by loving the “neighbour91

” through actions of

justice and compassion (Luke 10:25-28). On the contrary, “If anyone loves the world,

the love of the Father is not in him. For everything in the world – the cravings of

sinful man, the lust of his eyes and the boasting of what he has and does – comes not

91 Altruism

206

from the Father but from the world92

. The world and its desires pass away, but the

man who does the will of God lives forever” (1 John 2:15-17).

I concur with Shoemaker that “the fruit of repentance which Jesus seeks

especially from his socially privileged followers – is that his listeners give what they

have, whenever there is need, to the poor in their community…The disciples are

called to become champions of compassion for the spiritually, socially and

economically poor” (http://wesley.nny.edu/wesleay_theology/theojrnl/26-30/27-1-

08.htm). But Lukan ethics do not approve deviation from the Kingdom imperatives,

which for generosity, honesty and integrity in distribution of possessions. It is no

surprise then that the Baptist (Luke 3:10-14) calls all the people to generously share

possessions with others, but in the same breath he challenges the tax collectors and

the soldiers to relinquish their greed and lust for power for these kind of praxis are

motivated by balanced reciprocity93

or negative reciprocity which are egocentric. The

sharing of resources that is depicted in the book of Acts are examples of responses of

92 Generally, this his how the worldly or sinful mind works: creating “interactions which focus immediately on the social interest of the self or one’s extended self, family or group” which is “self-centred or egocentric… a movement in enrich one part tries to get something from another without reciprocating at all, and so getting something for nothing or with impunity. Common forms of this interaction includes cheating, theft, robbery, overcharging, and various sorts of appropriation or seizure of another’s goods” (Neyrey 1999:732). Such behaviour even when it strives to hold on to the social acceptable values of sharing possessions it does so with aim for self-gratification. 93 In balanced reciprocity people are interested in equivalent benefit. Thus, invitations for exchange opportunities would only be for those who can reciprocate among social equals. This was part of the social system in the first century. Jesus breaks the rule by challenging that table fellowship should be inclusive, “When you give a dinner or a banquet, do not invite your friends or your brothers or your kinsmen or your rich neighbours, lest they also invite you in return, and you be repaid” (Luke 14:12). “A person of meagre means must decline an invitation from a wealthy person to dine because this would put the poor man at an enormous financial obligation to reciprocate with a rich, comparable meal for wealthy person. But Jesus abolishes the expected balanced reciprocity when he continues, “you will be blessed, because they cannot repay you. You will be repaid at the resurrection of the just” Luke 14:14b-15 (Neyrey 1999:371). Jesus does not condemn the value of reciprocating but rather he redirects this value to the Kingdom value of inclusiveness rather than exclusiveness. In the similar way, sharing as a value in the Ubunto philosophy of life is not doomed, but if it is abused or twisted to suit personal interest it need to be redirected not by law for the law will fail, but by a change of heart that is only possible in Christ Jesus.

207

obedience to the ethics of the Kingdom of God. Here the generous sharing represents

a sign of repentance and faith and “the hesitant stinginess of the rich ruler – or, worse,

the dishonesty of Ananias and Saphira (Acts 5:1-11) betrays an unrepentant heart,

closed towards the grace of God” (Hays 1996:125).

Similar to the Church in Acts of the Apostles the Church today needs the fire

from God to purify the heart (Luke 3:15, Acts 1-2). The Baptist’s message to his

audience that “the one more powerful than I will come…baptize you with the Holy

Spirit and with fire” (Luke 3:15), is a message to the Church today too. When the

Holy Spirit comes, cleanses, and purifies the heart, a radical change of behaviour

takes place which includes abandonment of corruptive activities, described as

collecting more than required (Luke 3:13) and extortion of money as well as accusing

others falsely (Luke 3:14). The Good News is “the Spirit does not fall just upon the

apostles; rather, ‘the promise is for you, for your children, and for all who are far

away, everyone whom the Lord our God calls to him’ (Acts 2:39). Implied in this gift

of the Spirit for all is the empowering of all to take up Jesus’ vocation of proclaiming

liberty to the captives. Indeed, the call to repentance (Luke 24:47, Acts 2:38) which

lies at the heart of the gospel proclamation for Luke, includes precisely the call to

reform individual lives and community practices in accordance with the prophetic

vision of justice, as set forth in the Isaiah texts that stand as the keynote for Jesus’

proclamation of the Kingdom of God” (Hays 1996:121). This is the hope for the

Church and the world today.

208

4.6 Conclusion and Observations

Sharing possessions is part of the social system of Mozambique. Thus it can

be argued that there is some level of parallelism between the Luke-Acts community

and the Church in Mozambique today. Mozambicans believe in sharing possessions to

the extent that a number of challenges or issues discussed about the have and have

not’s is centred on the analysis of this ethical principle and its application to day to

day community life. For most people in Mozambique the concern is not necessarily

on how did people attain their possessions or wealth; the main question that the

society would want answered is, “How are they making use of these possessions?”

and “Do they share with others or are they stingy?”

The focus is on sharing and not on how it was obtained. Therefore, the

discussions about corruption and what needs to be done to eradicate it may not be so

important to several people in the community. Solidarity is yet another important

aspect; people are expected to be loyal to their family members and friends. It is not

easy for someone within the family or circle of friends to view and denounce

corruption even when it is known. People protect and watch each other’s backs.

Family ties must be kept strong and stable.

It can also be concluded that being rich is considered a temporary thing.

Although, in some ways there is parallelism of belief between the Mozambicans and

some of the cultural context that surrounded the Luke-Acts world, especially on

aspects of limited good community, there are differences of interpretations. In

Mozambique it is believed by many that if someone is rich, he or she is taking more

than what one should. In other words someone is starving because someone is taking

209

the others portions. However, if this individual or group shares with others the

material possessions, there is not much of a problem. However, what is intriguing is

that in the midst of this the belief that no one should see oneself as rich for eternity is

prevalent. It is often used to remind those with possessions that they need to share

with others because tomorrow they might be on the other side of the fence too, asking

for someone to give them assistance.

There are a limited number of those who believe that people can be rich for

the rest of their lives and pass it on from generation to generation. It is mostly

believed that people will sooner or later lose their possessions and someone else can

become richer. There are many reasons that probably lead to this kind of thinking,

e.g. wars, natural calamities, the belief that God can somehow punish individuals by

taking away all their riches to humble them, and yet another belief motivated by

traditional religion that ancestors have the power to humble a person by stripping him

of all his riches and power, should he or she fail to worship them and show reverence

to the ancestors, or it can also be because of failing to share the possessions with other

members of the family. Unfortunately, because of the syncretistic approach of life,

there are several Christians in many denominations that have not yet denounced the

ancestral worship and beliefs.

When we take all of this into consideration, it becomes clear that we cannot

readily adopt the meaning of the text which was intended for Luke-Acts readers

because their social context and challenges were to some degree different from ours.

But on the other hand, our hermeneutical task must be to demonstrate how the text

communicates to the current reader. In other words, we must move from discussing

210

“What it meant?” to “What it means?” and “How significant is the ethical principle of

sharing material possessions in our context” (Osborne 1991:263-270). This task

requires a comprehensive understanding of the original canonical context,

understanding of the cultural context of the current reader and intended receptors of

this interpretation if our goal is dynamic application of the principle to the reader and

receptors’ current needs (1991:333); in this particular case to address the issues of

corruption and poverty in Mozambique and other parts of Africa.

In conclusion, Luke 3:10-14 does not only focus on “sharing” as an ethical

principle of the Kingdom of God. Luke’s teachings seem to argue that how the

material possessions are obtained is equally important. Justice, love, and

righteousness are integral parts of this ethical principle. Hence, people should not

abuse their power and or position to take more than what they ought to. For this to

become a reality, salvation is what everyone needs. It begins with inner work, and yet

all is provided by grace by Jesus, “One more powerful…he will baptize with the Holy

Spirit and fire” (Luke 3:16). His saving and sanctifying grace are necessary

ingredients for change of behaviour and life where people do things in light of the

Kingdom principles as reflected in the book of Acts. I believe that this is what the

Church in Mozambique needs, the power of God to effect change in the lives of

people in general.

211

Chapter 5

The Pragmatic Approach to “metadidonai” according to Luke-Acts, as

Normative to the Church Today

5.1 Introduction

“Sharing” material possessions as found in Luke-Acts offers to the current

reader of the Biblical text a general framework of moral consideration by which the

Christian community’s life style should be shaped. Although Luke-Acts were written

in a different cultural context compared to the context of the Church in Mozambique

today, it should be appreciated that the biblical truth was not only written to address

the issues facing the original recipients of the text, but was/is also aimed for the

Christian community of all centuries. Therefore, it is relevant for formation of

Christian community in Mozambique and all parts of Africa. Thus, in addressing the

issues of corruption and poverty, which are the current issues facing the church and

the community in the 21st century, it is important to examine ways in which the

Gospel can be communicated anew to address these issues. In dealing with socio-

economic challenges in Mozambique, I propose that the Church must reflect the

embodiment of the ethics of the Kingdom of God as recorded in the Scriptures.

“Metadidonai” has been considered within Luke-Acts text canonical context,

with special focus to the stance on sharing material possessions according to Luke

3:10-14 and Acts 2:42-47 and 4:32-37. I concluded in this investigation that

“metadidonai” is a normative principle for the disciples of Jesus and this should not

be motivated by human made laws but rather as a result of the redemptive work of the

Lord which results in transformation of behaviour of humankind. Its foundation must

be Christocentric. Secondly, “metadidonai” was considered in light of its canonical

212

use in the Bible as a unity. The brief survey revealed that Luke-Acts principle of

sharing material possessions fits into the large canonical framework of the Bible.

Sharing material possessions is, throughout the Bible, presented as an ethical principle

and normative from the Lord to address the challenges faced by God’s people in

dealing with socio-economic issues of their time. It is consistent in addressing the the

challenges of material possessions of the time of Israelites in the Old Testament and

the emerging Jesus Movement of the New Testament. I concluded that what is

common in the biblical address to socio-economic challenges of the Biblical times is

that sharing of material possessions is always expected to happen not only because the

practice is embedded within a particular culture but as a direct response to the work of

God in the lives of individuals or communal life such as the deliverance of the people

of Israel from Egypt. When sharing of material possessions becomes a direct response

to the enabling power of God, the fruits thereof are beyond what is expected within

cultural context, because the guiding force is no longer contextual tradition, but rather

the power of Christ at work in and through his followers.

Therefore, taking into consideration that the main challenge in the area of

material possessions in Mozambique and several other parts of Africa is corruption, in

an attempt to answer the following question: “Can the scourge of corruption be

curbed in Mozambique?” I consider how “metadidonai” can be appropriated in the

Christian community of our time. Corruption has a stubborn tendency and it spread

quite easily in most developing countries. In Mozambique and other countries on the

continent, corruption is new; it was never part of the social systems of the pre-colonial

and to some extent beginning stages of the colonial period. It is mostly a phenomenon

213

of the postcolonial period, but it is spreading very fast and threatening the

development and sustainability of the communities.

The principles of Ubunto, which guided most of African cultural practices,

require that one should put the other people’s needs, freedom and welfare above

personal ambitions. Unfortunately this has been replaced by individualistic and selfish

ambitions that result in widening the gap between the haves and have-nots. The

commitment to freedom and liberation of the nation has been replaced by greed and

selfish interest. The vision of the political leaders to eradicate poverty looks

impressive on paper but its implementation is blurred by desire for personal

accumulation of wealth. The root of all these is sin. What we need is not policies to

curb corruption, because sometimes those who are supposed to implement the anti-

corruption policies are themselves corrupt. But what is needed is a change of

behaviour that is a result of the work of the Lord Jesus – salvific work. People need to

be freed from sin and its power and bear fruits of repentance, such as sharing material

possessions with others.

Thus I ask, how should the Church today shape its life in obedience to the

ethics of material possessions according to Luke-Acts with the vision to eradicate the

scourge of corruption? Can sharing material possessions according to Luke-Acts,

address the issues of corruption? What are some of the practical implications for the

embodiment of the “metadidonai” as a biblical, normative principle to the 21st

Century Church? In my attempt to address these issues, I strive to suggest a reading

that reinterprets the Luke-Acts text for 21st Century Christians in Mozambique from a

Christological point of view. I contend that Mozambique must be a Scripture-shaped

214

community on ethics of material possessions if we are serious about eradication of

corruption.

The social context of Mozambique is not easy to analyze or understand; it is a

complicated cultural system of life. Why do I say this? The people of Mozambique

are generous, compassionate and hospitable. But in the same breath I would say that

there is a lot jealousy, sometimes hatred, and badmouthing each other that happens in

several groups of people and family groups. Witchcraft and ancestral worship is also

wide spread in the country affecting how family and tribe interpret their day-to-day

life and business. While in general there is a sense of communal lifestyle, it is also

important to note that signs of individualism are not absent, which could be a result of

colonialist and paternalism influence. However, what is intriguing is the fact that

sharing of material possessions is a cultural practice that continues to be carried out

within the above-mentioned contexts.

It could be that others share material possessions because they feel it is an

obligation that needs to be honoured, others may be because of fear of what could

befall the rich person or family as a result of failing to show loyalty to the family or

tribe by sharing some of the possessions. Having said this, I do not want to fail to

acknowledge and appreciate the fact that there are several people that share their

possessions simply because they are generous and have a burden for the welfare of

others. Their motivation is not fame or self-gratification but rather to develop and

uplift others as part of fulfilling what is acceptable and expected within their tribes or

families.

215

However, the problem is that sharing of material possessions in Mozambique

does not seem to be resulting in great alleviation of poverty. On the contrary, the gap

between the poor and the rich is widening. It is important to note that because of

poverty and the fact that Mozambique is a developing country, there is great

dependency on foreign investments and donors. The foreign agencies have been

pouring funds into Mozambique, and other material possessions have been distributed

to assist the country to alleviate poverty. The great developments in the city of

Maputo and other big cities in the country can give the impression that we are right on

target in alleviating poverty, but the masses and the poorest of the poor have not yet

been reached. They continue in dire poverty, suffering, hunger, no medical facilities

in the rural communities, no sanitation, or rather, I should say, they lack basic

necessities. The material possessions aimed at developing the country are not

distributed justly within the country; so often we hear about mismanagement and

misappropriation of funds. This is a result of corruption, which is fast becoming an

acceptable way of life.

Corruption is a stumbling block to economic development and welfare of the

society. Unfortunately it is wide spread and for some it is seen as an apparent or

emerging solution to personal and family poverty. Some accept bribes and indulge in

other corrupt activities with the hope to address the shortfall on salaries. The salaries

of the teachers, nurses, doctors in public hospitals and some public officers are

comparatively low. As a result some would use their position as teachers, nurses and

public officers to extort money from others. This is often interpreted within the

context of the philosophy that “the goat eats where it is tied” as discussed in the

previous chapters. But another ideology that accompanies these practices is based on

216

the idea that people must work as a community and help one another. What most

people do not realize is that corruption is destructive and in reality all it does is

increase the level of poverty in the country. For this, people often use a Portuguese

expression (uma mão lava outra) which means “one hand washes the other hand”. So,

basically, one must pay extra (bribe) for a nurse to provide good service as a way of

one hand washing or helping another.

It is important to reemphasis here that not all those who are involved in

corruption do so voluntarily. There are those who engage in corruption activities

because of being blackmailed and or threatened, threatened that failure to comply

with the rest of the team in participating in corrupt activities can result in loss of a job

and sometimes even death threats. What makes things complicated is the fact that the

judiciary system is extremely inefficient and is also riddled with corruption. For

example, two national cases related to high profile people who were killed because of

the fight against corruption (Carlos Cardoso and Sibasiba) are pending in the court

and their families are not so free to follow up on these issues because of fear of what

could happen as a result of pressing on with the charges. This is what makes it harder

for some Christians to take a stand, because they are afraid that this could result in

harm to their next of kin.

There is no doubt that corruption is a result of sin. This is, in my view, the

major problem that needs to be addressed. Secondly, the “extensive government

involvement in economic life that allows state officials considerable discretion in how

they exercise their powers over matters such as the issuing of permits and licenses”

(Schenone and Gregg 2003:47) further complicates the fight against corruption.

217

Therefore, the anticorruption policies and sharing of material possessions if not

soteriologically grounded it is doomed to fail. Of course, there could be positive

effects of these policies and the practices of distributing resources as part of the

cultural expectation, but I would argue that these are only temporary. The values that

we acclaim to be morally acceptable to the community in Mozambique must be

brought under the scrutiny of biblical principles and interpreted Christologically.

If our desire is to be a Christian community and that life is shaped in

obedience to the biblical text, we must be willing to “continually confront new

circumstances that require us to work out our salvation with fear and trembling,

forming fresh imaginative judgements – just as New Testament writers themselves

did in response to the challenges of our time” (Hays 1996:313). The question that

must be answered in this study is, “How does the Luke-Acts principle of sharing

material possessions speak to our context?” According to Luke-Acts the sharing of

material possessions must be a result of repentance, a change of heart and behaviour.

The cultural practices to care and share with those in need are honourable, but it must

flow from the love for God and others. Our interpretation of the call to share material

possessions must be Christocentric if it is to effect change.

5.2 Sharing Material Possessions: Biblical Normative Principle for the

Christian Community in Mozambique

There are three passages of Luke-Acts, which guided this investigation (Luke

3:10-14, Acts 2 and 4). They all depict “sharing” as a principle of the Kingdom of

God to address socio-economic issues. Secondly, they clearly demonstrate that

sharing of material possessions hereof is a result of repentance and being empowered

218

by God. Sharing in Luke-Acts is an act of obedience or bearing fruits of repentance

that is a sign of a righteous heart and beginning of a new and transformed life style.

Those who bear fruits of repentance have new life that focuses on the Kingdom of

God and not on earthly treasurer and their actions demonstrations of love for God and

neighbour. There is a link between the Old Testament community of God, the people

of Israel with whom God made a covenant and called them to walk in obedience to

Him and this new community of followers of Christ. All those who respond to God’s

call to walk in obedience to his principles form a new community; or even better, they

become a community that is formed by God, through his grace and enabled to live a

holy life. Therefore, the response to sharing material possessions is in actual fact a

fulfilment of the prophecy and the Law which are not human made laws but rather a

Spirit empowered way of life. The Law and prophets cannot make it happen, but

through Christ we are made new people with a changed behaviour.

In Luke-Acts, sharing material possessions goes hand in hand with

acknowledgement of the fact that we as humans are stewards of God’s resources

entrusted to us. Sharing generously is a sign of repentance which leads to realization

that material possessions are not for personal accumulation and gratification, they are

not for acquiring honour and fame, for it is better to have one’s treasure in heaven and

not in this world. As stewards of God’s resources the disciples of Jesus should share

their resources with those in need, by so doing the followers of Christ show their total

commitment to the mission of Jesus, model love to God and neighbour and relinquish

their self-worth and accept the new life in Christ, in which it is no longer “I who live

but Christ through me”. In other words, every aspect of life becomes shaped by Jesus’

ethos.

219

It is true that before the arrival of the Portuguese people in Mozambique, most

sharing possessions was already an ethical principle upheld by several tribes and

people in the country. They cared for each other in the society and families. Various

stories and proverbs give an indication that it did not matter much if the people were

from the same tribe or not. Although tribalism was important and valued, when it

came to sharing possessions this was for all. For example, it would be totally

unacceptable to see someone hungry and not provide food for them, it would be

traditionally wrong to see someone in need of shelter and not provide one, even if

only temporary. It did not matter where the person came from (tribe or family), the

Ubunto principles required sharing and caring without any reservation. Furthermore,

it can be argued that the principle of sharing possessions was there in Mozambique

long before the Gospel was brought to the people in this country. Thus it would

appear unnecessary to preach the message of Luke (3:10-14) and Acts (2:42-47 and

4:32-37) to this context, because sharing material possessions was already embedded

in the culture of the people there.

Nevertheless, eighty five percent of the respondents to my research questions

argued that sharing of material possessions is a cultural imperative in the

Mozambican social system. According to this group, although the Bible teaches about

sharing possessions, they did not think that Mozambican Christians and non-

Christians shared possessions as a response to the Biblical mandate. “Sharing happens

because this is who we are and this is expected of everyone in Mozambique; before

Christianity was introduced to us, people were already sharing their possessions with

those in need within their tribes…this is a way of life that defines us”, added the

220

interviewees. People continue to be generous, I have observed that when there is a

funeral or wedding everyone in the family and sometimes members of the community

bring whatever they have to contribute towards the ceremony. These and other events

are communal and their success depends on everyone’s concerned involvement and

contribution.

The principle of sharing possessions permeates all aspects of life in

Mozambique. Thus, if the fruit of repentance is sharing possessions (Luke 3:11), then

this community could argue that we have already done what is being required. But the

reading of Luke-Acts within context indicates that sharing material possessions was

also embedded in the cultural context of Luke-Acts’ audience. However, John the

Baptist (Luke 3:10-14) challenges the people to abandon selfishness, abuse of power

for personal benefit through extortion, by calling the people to repent and embody the

ethics of the Kingdom of God which are only possible as a result of the work of the

Spirit in the life of an individual and the Church as a community of God.

Since sharing material possessions is a principle embedded in the social

context of Mozambique, those involved in corruption can argue that their actions are

not necessarily for selfish interest, but rather to care for others, such as needy

members of the family or others. On the other hand, corruption can become an avenue

or way of life that others use as an opportunity for accumulation of wealth. But the

issue of corruption affects directly the subject of material possessions; hence, I asked

some of my respondents to discuss what they would consider to be important ethical

principles that can be used to address the corruption in Mozambique.

221

I found the following answers interesting and worth noting; sixty three and a

half percent (63.5%) of the students from the Seminary in Mozambique who

participated in this study listed the following ethical principles which they considered

vital in their view: (1) sharing of material possessions with the poor, (2) integrity, (3)

respect for all people irrespective of their social status, (4) no one should abuse power

or position with the aim to gain wealth or to attain control over another person or

group of people. But when asked if they believed that these principles are practicable

today, they confessed that it would be hard because of the social context of

Mozambique. Seventy percent (70%) of the youth who participated in this study at the

Church of the Nazarene in Matola argued that they did not have much hope that

corruption could be curbed. The statement by Fernandinha94

seems to sum up the

feeling of this group: “The Church is only interested in the spiritual life of the people.

She does not care if the people are suffering, she cares less about corruption, the

issues of social injustices are taboo to the church, they are only addressed when a

leader is looking for funding through NGO, and that so often is used for personal gain

and not to share the resources to benefit the rest of the community and develop the

country.” This did not only come from the youth, but it was a general feeling of those

with whom I interacted; they did not believe that the church was doing enough to help

address poverty and corruption. The Church should not be silent or neutral in this

situation. The Church must be at the forefront in the search for solutions to the issues

that affect communities.

“Corruption has a stubborn tendency to grow. Corrupt officials threatening to

blackmail each other allow corrupt to nourish itself and, thus, permit a culture of

94 Not real name

222

corruption to take root, first in the organs of state, and then in the wider society as

more and more people find themselves engaging in such acts, sometimes

occasionally, sometimes regularly” (Schenone and Gregg 2003:47). Twenty eight

percent (28%) of my interviewees were honest enough to admit that they had at least

once or twice been involved in corrupt activities, mostly by taking a bribe or abuse of

position to attain wealth. The reasons cited for this were the need of resources to care

for the family (immediate and extended). In some cases it was because they were

threatened to lose their jobs if they did not want to join others in the scheme of

stealing, blackmailed to be loyal to their colleagues and/or superiors and feeling that

they had no other choice but to become involved in corruption.

All respondents praised the Church of the Nazarene for her compassionate

ministry in the difficult days in Mozambique. When there was hunger the Church

through Nazarene Compassionate Ministries raised funds and other resources for

distribution to church members and neighbouring communities. During the period of

the floods, the Church helped to alleviate the pain of the loss of property and loved

ones by providing moral support, shelter and food. The Church helped to rebuild

some of the homes, especially in the rural communities. But fifty eight percent (58%)

of these people were also critical to the belief that the Church seems to be focusing on

troubleshooting and not addressing the root cause of the problem of poverty and

corruption in Mozambique. It is because of corruption that some funds that should

help improve the infrastructure of the country, have not been applied to this kind of

project, or at least not in full. It is because of corruption that resources for the

development of the country sometimes end up in personal bank accounts for self-

enrichment.

223

The Church must not be silent and ashamed to address this and other social

injustices. “The Church seems to be silent and too afraid to address economical

issues, however, what we do not realize is that by being silent we are making a

statement, either to say that we do not care or to concur with how things are going,”

one respondent said. We need to continue with sharing of resources, but beyond this

we must also remember that because of the culture of corruption, sometimes this

sharing of resources only benefits a few privileged and greedy government officials

and another few individuals. Sharing of resources must be comprehensive and

inclusive if it is going to make a difference in the lives of those who are poor in the

country. “The call to sharing material possessions must be complemented by a charge

for accountability and integrity. It is important to those sharing the possessions to

have an assurance that these are distributed accordingly, especially in a world where

corruption is somehow becoming an acceptable way of life. The Church needs to

recognize that corruption is a reality and needs to be addressed. The pastors should

guide us on how to live a Christian life in a community such as this”, said another

interviewee.

This means that the concept of sharing material possessions is a noble one, but

there is something more that needs to happen to ensure that this practice is biblically

grounded. Corruption results from man’s inclination to sin. “Identification of the

problem of corruption in this way allows us to posit that the key to minimizing

corruption is…a process of prayer, preaching, and persuasion. We can encourage

people to make the free choice not to engage directly in corrupt activities, and to

avoid actions that amount to formal cooperation with the corrupt acts of others. The

Church can and must morally confront cultures of corruption; this is surely part of its

224

responsibility to witness to the unchanging truth about good and evil. Even if few

listen, the church cannot shy away from this task. While good public policy and

institutions are important, the power of individual choices to avoid evil and do good

in terms of changing a culture cannot be underestimated, and every moral influence

should be brought to bear to encourage people to make the right choices” (Shenone

and Gregg 2003:47-48).

This was the challenge in the Luke-Acts social world. There was sharing of

possessions as required by the Jewish law; the Qumran ideal, as discussed previously,

encouraged sharing of resources with a chosen few that were tied together by

traditional and religious beliefs while at the same time discouraging the sharing of

possessions with those who were considered enemies. The Mediterranean ideal was

that possessions are shared amongst equals in the society and there was always a

motive in doing so which was related to honour and shame tradition. But all of these

needed to be brought under the soteriological work of Christ.

The embodiment of the ethics of Luke-Acts in Mozambique will require

realization and acknowledgement that the key to transformation is repentance. This is

accepting that corruption is sin and it needs to be dealt with from within. There must

be a change of heart and behaviour, which should be a result of salvation. Salvation is

found in no one else but in Jesus. The work of salvation of Christ is not limited to the

soul alone, it is holistic. He seeks to save the whole person and as a result of

wholeness a community of believers is formed that models a Christlike life style in

the world. Furthermore, sharing material possessions as found in Luke-Acts,

demonstrates that the community of believers accept that they are only stewards of

225

God’s resources, thus these are to be shared with others and not stored (Luke 12:16-

21, 14:25-35).

5.3 How Can the Church be Enabled to Resist the Perverted Influences that

Make Corruption Seem Inevitable and Acceptable Practice?

The proclamation of the Word is vital in both Old and New Testament to

enable its listeners to know the truth. The truth sets the people free (John 8:32) from

perverted life style and helps them to be all that God meant for them to be. Therefore,

the preaching and teaching of God’s principles as found in the Word is central to

addressing the issues of corruption. Like Paul, the disciples of Jesus in Mozambique,

should recognize that “the gospel is the power of God for the salvation of everyone

who believes…for in the gospel righteousness from God is revealed” (Rom. 1:16-17).

John the Baptist in Luke, sets the example of how this might work, he goes

everywhere preaching and calling people to repentance (3:3). He became the

prophetic voice that prepares the way of the Lord, the prophet who proclaims the

coming of the kingdom of God and challenges his listeners to respond to the call to

model a life that witnesses to the world what a transformed life should look like (3:3-

6).

“Spiritually speaking, the nation of Israel was living in ‘wilderness’ of

unbelief, and the roads to spiritual reality were twisted and in disrepair. The

corruption of the priesthood and the legalistic hypocrisy of the scribes and Pharisees

had weakened the nation spiritually. The people desperately needed to hear the voice

from God, and John was that faithful voice” (Wiersbe 1996). The current situation of

Mozambique is no different; many Christians live in wilderness of unbelief, and the

226

truth has been twisted to justify actions that are not in accordance with the Word of

God. What is unfortunate is that the Church has justified her silence in the face of

social injustices, as an act of preserving her role of evangelism. The Church, as

argued earlier in this study, defended that it feared that her involvement in addressing

socio-economic and political issues could result in hindrance for the Church to be

permitted to continue her ministry of proclaiming the good news of Salvation in

Christ Jesus. However, according to the Gospel of Luke, a faithful voice that

proclaims salvation, is persistent in removing every obstruction that might hinder the

people from seeing the Salvation of God. Thus, Luke adds that when the people of all

tribes and races around us see the transformation in action, they “will see God’s

salvation” (Luke 3:6). In other words, because the obstruction has been removed the

people around us will become aware or conscious of the transformation that is

possible in Christ. They will perceive or discern visually, that Jesus is the hope for the

eradication of corruption in Mozambique.

Besides preaching against sin and proclaiming Salvation in Christ Jesus, he

also taught the people how to live a life of righteousness (Luke 3:10-14). Religious

profession in Luke-Acts is not enough, the disciples are to practice ethical principles

of the Kingdom of God. The Church is growing tremendously in Mozambique and

many parts of Africa. However, in most cases those who are members of the various

denominations do not bear fruits worthy of repentance. The growing number of

syncretism is one example of the failure of embodiment of the Christian beliefs as

proclaimed in the Word of God. The inclination to accept and practice corruption by

some members of the Christian community is yet another illustration that there is need

to teach the disciples of Jesus to assimilate the Word of God. Therefore, to enable the

227

Church to resist corruption the pastors and church leaders need to be well equipped to

address corruption and related issues with conviction and power. In Matthew 28:19-

20, it reads, “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptising them in the

name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey

everything I have commanded you.” That is, as people respond to our invitation to

accept Christ as Saviour and to join the membership of our denominations, beyond

the preaching or evangelizing the great work is to effectively teach them to obey the

teachings of Jesus.

My years of working with pastors in Mozambique and the responses from the

interviews convinced me that there is reluctance in the part of the pastors and other

church leaders to engage in teaching their constituency to obey God’s directives in

socio-economic issues. One of the reasons for this failure is the inability or

inadequacy of the ministerial training that they have received which did not equip

them to be critical thinkers or students of the Bible; rather it equipped them on how to

manage well a local church and to preach the doctrine of the Church. To effect change

in Mozambique, the pastors and other church leaders or teachers of the Bible need to

be effectively equipped with context, so that they will present themselves, “to God as

one approved, a workman who does not need to be ashamed and who correctly

handles the word of truth” (2 Tim. 2;15). Contextual training is of utmost importance,

because it will enable pastors to be aware of their socio-cultural context and the value

of interpreting the biblical truth anew for their context. This process will include

training pastors, Bible scholars and theologians who will be highly trained African

voices weighing in on denominational and broader Christian theological discussions.

Having Africans trained at this level will result in having those who will research and

228

write responses that are contextual to address issues that face the Church and the

community in Africa. As already argued, contextualization will require a clear

understanding of the original meaning of the biblical text, the canonical context of the

particular text and our own. Hence, in this study I focused and recommended socio-

scientific criticism as a method to read the text. When we fail to interpret the text for

our context the danger of producing a syncretised Church is higher. Therefore, those

that we train to teach the biblical principles must be equipped to help the current

readers of the Bible find new meaning for the time in which they live.

As Wesleyan-Nazarenes, it is important to note that our forefather’s theology

was shaped by socio-cultural needs of their context. When the Church of the

Nazarene began, Dr. Phineas Bresee stated that the new thing that the Church of the

Nazarene was adding to its movement was a determination to preach the gospel to

those in need and to give the poor a church where they could feel at home. This was

not replacing the preaching of the message of salvation and holiness, but it was

putting a new emphasis that the disciples of Jesus care to love and serve those in need.

That is, the poor not only are part of the Church and should make it their home but

they should be cared for. The reading of the Biblical text was done through the lenses

of the following commitment, “We seek the simplicity and the power of the primitive

New Testament church. The field of labour to which we feel called is in the neglected

quarters of the cities and wherever else may be found waste places and souls seeking

pardon and cleansing from sin. This work we aim to do through the agency of city

missions, evangelistic services, house-to-house visitation, caring for the poor,

comforting the dying. To this end we strive personally to walk with God and to invite

others so to do” (First mission statement of the Church of the Nazarene).

229

Compassionate ministry was vital to their ministry. This new emphasis which

addressed the needs of the people in the time of Bresee and the first Nazarenes would

not have happened if these preachers and teachers of the Word of God had not

devoted themselves to studying or investigating the Word anew with the hope to find

new meaning for their time.

“Our challenge then is to be faithful to the heritage and relevant to the times.

To be Wesleyan, we must practice Wesley’s way of doing theology. It seems to me

that Wesley’s theological method was to first survey the needs of the times, the needs

of the people. Second comes the exercise of surveying all the resources of the

Christian faith. Third is the step of fashioning any new synthesis from those resources

that the times and the needs require. Fourth comes the bringing together of resources

and needs. This is what Wesley did, I believe. He saw the desperate needs of the poor

(90% of the population), examined the resources of the Christian faith, noticing that

the only notes being heard were the five notes of Calvinism. He said, so to speak,

‘wait; there are 83 other keys to be played. Let’s try some of these combinations”

(Tracy 1992:51-52). The Church in Mozambique desperately needs Bible scholars

who will be committed to find new emphasis on the teachings of the Bible and

rediscover neglected truth, “this we must do even if what we come up with does not

come very closer to matching the way Bresee believed it” (Tracy 1992:52) or the way

we express it is different from the way others have voiced it.

In summary, the Christian community in Mozambique must be the voice that

prepares the way of the Lord. Preaching and teaching are important aspects of what

this should look like. The contextualization is vital; hence there is a need to equip the

230

pastors to be able to respond to the needs of their time. Although I recognize that the

task of being a prophetic voice is a difficult one and it can pose danger to one’s life, I

take courage in the assurance afforded by Jesus in Matt. 28:20, he promises never to

leave us alone. Therefore, the Church should not be silent in the face of social

injustice and its destructive powers. A community of disciples of Jesus, empowered

by the Spirit of God, will like the apostles affirm that it is better to obey God rather

than people (Acts 4:19-20 and 5:29). “We must obey God rather than any human

authority (5:29) not tame acquiescence to the authority here: the Church has its own

agenda, which as we have seen, includes not only preaching about Jesus but also

reshaping the community’s life in response to Jesus’ teachings. If any authority tries

to hinder this mission, the Church can only stand and testify against that authority. As

the stories … indicated, God will often intervene miraculously to vindicate the

Church’s resistance – for instance, by sending angels to let the apostles out of prison

(5:19-21)” (Hays 1996:128). God’s grace and power can do through His Church,

much more than we can imagine (Eph. 3;20). I believe that in him there is hope for

Africa.

The Church in Mozambique should be the force that helps people turn from

sin and its power to God (Acts 26:18) and “re-socializing them into a community that

lives by very different norms – the norms defined by Jesus’ life and teachings. Such

movement – when lived with integrity – inevitably has an explosive effect in the

surrounding culture. That is Luke’s vision for the transformative power of the Church:

it turns the world upside down not through armed revolution but through the

formation of the Church as a counter – culture, an alternative witness – bearing

community” (Hays 1996:128). Our goal as Christians must not be to turn the world

231

upside down through armed revolution, but through the power of the Word of God,

and moved by the Spirit of God to proclaim the truth, challenge what is wrong, rebuke

and rebuild the nation. The Church must be a prophetic voice to the entire nation,

preaching, teaching and being a living example of biblical ethical principles. In this

particular case we must teach what repentance will look like in the context where we

seek to address corruption: (1) People will share what they have with others. They

will acknowledge that material possessions are from God and we are but only

stewards of God’s resources. They will share material possessions not because it is

required within the cultural context, but as a response to the work of grace that has

been done in the lives of the believers. There are various reasons why people share

possessions in the various contexts. Even the corrupt people can share possessions

with aim of better tax returns, it can be a way to cover up the corruptive activities,

sharing because of cultural obligations and fear of condemnation within ones people

group or even as an act of worship or reverence to ancestors. But when one

relinquishes all of these at the foot of the cross, the sharing will look like what we

find in Acts 2:42-47 and Acts 4:32-37, new community in Christ sharing with one

another without any expectation of honour and/or return, but simple sharing in

obedience to God’s directives. (2) People will be taught to be people of integrity, to

be honest in their work and not abuse their positions to take more than what they

ought to. One of the reasons why tax collectors were hated is because they were

notorious for their corrupt actions. They robbed the people by charging them more

than what they should. Change of behaviour that results from the redemptive work of

the Lord Jesus, leads to realization and appreciation of the dignity of all people as

equal and deserving to be treated justly in Jesus. Instead of seeing potential people

that might be candidates to pay bribe or to be extorted, Christian public office see

232

God’s children with whom God may want us to join hands and together work to better

the economy of the country and even possibility of sharing with one another material

possessions to alleviate poverty. Selfish interest is replaced by a desire to belong to

God’s community. (3) People must be content with their pay. When a radical

transformation takes place people begin to depend on God and trust Him with every

single detail of their lives and needs (Mat. 6:19-34). Extortion is not God’s solution to

the needs of human beings.

233

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Achtmeier, P, Green J and Thompson, M. (2001). Introducing the New Testament: Its

Literature and Theology. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing

Company.

Aland, B. et. al. (1993). The Greek New Testament. 4th ed. Federal Republic of

Germany: United Bible Societies

Aymer, B. C. P. (1987). A Socioreligious Revolution: A Sociological Exegesis of

“poor” and “rich” in Luke-Acts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Boston:

Boston University.

Balch, D. L. (1995). Rich and Poor, Proud and Humble in Luke-Acts, In L. M. White

and Yarbrought (Editors), The Social World of the First Christians: Essay in

Honor of Wayne A. Meeks. Minneapolis: Augusburg – Fortress.

Barclay, W. (2000). New Testament Words. Westminster: John Knox Press.

Bergquist, J. A. (1986). “Good News to the Poor” – Why Does Lucan Motif Appear

to Run Dry in the Book of Acts? Bangalore Theological Forum.

Blount, B. K. (1995). Cultural Interpretation: Reorienting New Testament Criticism.

Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Bock, D. L. (1997). The Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus and the Ethics of Jesus.

Southwestern Journal of Theology 40.1:63-72

Bond, J. et. Al. (2001). Core Values: Church of the Nazarene. Kansas City: Nazarene

Publishing House.

Broodryk, Johann. (2006). Ubuntu: Life-Coping Skills from Africa. Randburg:

Knowres Publishing.

Brower, K. and Johnson A. (Editors). (2007). Holiness and Ecclesiology in the New

Testament. Grand Rapids. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

234

Brower, K. (2005). Holiness in the Gospels. Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Bruce, F. (1990). The Acts of the Apostles: Greek Text with Introduction and

Commentary. Grand Rapids. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

Burlett, L. (1985). Using your Money Wisely: Biblical Principles Under Scrutiny.

Chicago: Moody Press.

Callen, B. L. and Thompson, R. (Editors). (2004). Reading the Bible In Wesleyan

Ways: Some Constructive Proposals. Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press

Carnes, T. (2005). Can We Defeat Poverty? Unless Africa Tames Corruption, New

Aid Efforts Will Fail. Christianity Today, Vol. 49, No. 10.

Chambo, F. (2003). How Can we order economic practices in the church in such a

way that we give testimony with power to the Holiness Message? In Braaten,

L (Editor). Africa Speaks: An anthology of the Africa Nazarene Theology

Conference 2003(pp 131-136). Florida: ANP.

Conzelmann, Hans (1982). The Theology of St. Luke. (trans. By Geoffrey Buswell).

Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

de Vletter F. (1999)a. Microfinance and Promotion of Sustainable Livelihoods: The

Country Case Study of Mozambique. Report for Open Society Initiative for

Southern Africa.

de Vletter F. (1999)b. The Evolution of Microfinance in a Successful Post-Conflict

Transition: The Case Study of Mozambique. Paper prepared for the joint

ILO/UNHCR Workshop on Microfinance in post-conflict countries 15-17

September 1999 ILO. Geneva.

Du Plessis, I.J. (1990). Philanthropy or Sarcasm? Another Look at the Parable of the

Dishonest Manager (Luke 16:1-13). Neot 24 (1990) 1-20

235

Earle, R. at. el.(1994). Beacon Bible Commentary, Volume 6: Matthew through Luke.

Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Eisenstadt, S. N and Roniger, L. (1984). Patrons, Clients and Friends: Interpersonal

Relations and the Structure of Trust in Society. Cambridge: University Press.

Elliott, J. (1993). What is Social Scientific Criticism? Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Etica. (2001). Corruption Report Mozambique 2001. Maputo, Mozambique.

Gowan, Donald E. (1994). Theology in Exodus: A Biblical Theology in the form of a

Commentary. Westminster: John Knox Press.

Green, J. (1995). New Testament Theology: The Theology of the Gospel of Luke.

Cambridge: University Press.

Green, J. B. (2001). The Theology of the Gospel of Luke. Cambridge: University

Press.

Green, J. B. (2004). Is There a Contemporary Wesleyan Hermeneutic. In Callen, B.

and Thompson, R (Editors), Reading the Bible in Wesleyan Ways (pp. 123-

134). Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Grider, J. K. (1994). A Wesleyan Holiness Theology. Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Hagner, D. (2007). Holiness and Ecclesiology: The Church in Matthew. In Brower,

K. and Johnson, A. (Editors), Holiness and Ecclesiology in the New Testament

(pp. 40-56). Grand Rapids. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

Hanks, T. D. (1983). God So Loved the Third World: The Biblical Vocabulary of

Oppression. Maryknoll: Orbis Books.

Hanlon, J. (1991). Mozambique: Who Calls the Shots? Oxford.

Hanlon, J. (2002). Are Donors to Mozambique Promoting Corruption? A Paper

Submitted at the conference towards a New Political Economic Development.

Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

236

Hanlon, J. (2004). Do Donors Promote Corruption? The Case of Mozambique.

Review of African Political Economy, No. 91. PP 5-72.

Hastings, A. (1976). The Church in Africa, 1950-1975. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Hays, R. (1996). Moral Vision of the New Testament: Community, Cross, New

Creation. San Francisco: Harper.

Herbert, Livingston G. (1991). The Pentateuch in its Cultural Environment. Baker

Book House Company. USA.

Hur, Ju. (2001). A Dynamic Reading of the Holy Spirit in Luke-Acts. Journal for

Study of the New Testament Supplement. Sheffield Academic Press.

Ingersol, S. and Tracy, W. (1998). What is a Nazarene? Understanding Our Place in

the Religious Community. Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Khoza, Ruel. (2006). Let Africa Lead: African transformational leadership for 21st

Century Business. Sunninghill: Vezubuntu Publishing.

Kim, K. (1998). Stewardship and Almsgiving in Luke’s Theology. Sheffield: Sheffield

Academic Press.

Kraybill, Donald B. (1983). Possessions in Luke-Acts: a sociological perspective.

Perspectives in Religious studies 10/215-239.

Lachs, S. T. (1987). A Rabbinic Commentary on the New Testament: The Gospels of

Mathew, Mark, Luke. KTVA Publishing House Inc.

Ladd, G. E. (1993). A Theology of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B.

Eerdmans Publishing.

Linthicum, R. (1991). Empowering the poor Community Organizing Among the City’s

‘Rag, Tag and Bobtail. California: MARC, division of World Vision

International.

237

Litswele, E. (2003). A Memory of the Church of the Nazarene in Africa. In Braaten,

L (Editor). Africa Speaks: An Anthology of the Africa Nazarene Theology

Conference 2003 (pp 117-130). Florida: ANP.

Liu, P. (1992). Did the Lucan Jesus Desire Voluntary Poverty of his Followers? EvQ

64:291-317.

Malina, B. (1991). Reading Theory Perspective: Reading Luke-Acts. In Neyrey, J.

(Editors), The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation (pp. 3-

23). Peabody. Hendrickson Publishers.

Malina, B. (2001). The New Testament World, Insights from Cultural Anthropology.

Louisville: Knox Press.

Malina, B and Neyrey, J. (1991). Honor and Shame in Luke-Acts: Pivotal values of

the Mediterranean World. In Neyrey J. (Editors), The Social World of Luke-

Acts (pp. 25-65). Peabody. Hendrickson Publishers.

Malina, B. J. and Rohrbaugh, R. L. (2003). Social-Science Commentary on the

Synoptic Gospels. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Malina, Bruce J. (1982). The Social Sciences and Biblical Interpretation.

Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 37/3.

Maluleke, T. (1999). The Africanization of Theological Education: Does Theological

Education Equip You to Help Your Sister? Concept Paper.

Mandela, Nelson R. (1994). Long Walk to Freedom. Randburg: Macdonald Purnell.

Manual of the Church of the Nazarene. 2001-2005. Missouri: Nazarene Publishing

House.

Maranz, D. (2001). African Friends and Money Matters. Dallas: SIL International.

Marquardt, M. (1992). John Wesley’s Social Ethics: Praxis and Principles. Nashville:

Abingdon Press.

238

Matsinhe, David. (2004). Masculinities in an African Context: The Case of

Mozambique. University of Calgary: MA Thesis.

Mbiti, J. S. (1998). African Theology in Maiela, S & Konig, A (Editors), Initiation

into Theology: The Rich Variety of Theology and Hermeneutics, 141-158.

Pretoria: Van Shaik.

McGonigle, H. (2001). Sufficient Saving Grace. Cumbria. Paternoster Press.

Meeks, W. (2003). Assisting the Word by making (up) History, Luke’s Project and

Ours. Interpretation, Vol. 57, No. 2.

Meyers, B. L. (2006). Walking with the Poor: Principles and Practices of

Transformational Development. Moryknoll: Orbis Books.

Mlay, G. et. Al. (2003). Agricultural Policies and Forestry Development in Malawi,

Mozambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe: Complementarities and Conflicts.

Available from: http://www.tanzaniagateway.org/docs/agricultural_policies

_and_forestry_devel_malawi_moz_tz_zim.pdf. (Accessed 2007).

Morton, R. (1999). Studying Text in Wesleyan Context (A Response to Robert Wall

and Joel Grenn). Wesleyan Theological Journal, Vol. 34. No. 1.

Motaung, W. (2003). The Great Commission: A Socio-Ethical Comment. In Braaten

L (Ed). Africa Speaks: An Anthology of the Africa Nazarene Theology

Conference 2003 (pp 228-235). Florida: ANP.

Mouton, J. and Marais, H. C. (1993). Basic Concepts in the methodology of the social

sciences. Human Science Research Council.

Mozambique: Precolonial Period. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at:

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/395363/Mozambique/261033/Pr

ecolonial-period). (Accessed in 2008).

239

Nave, G. D. (2002). The role and function of repentance in Luke-Acts. Boston:

Society of Bible Literature.

Nees, T. (1996). Compassion Evangelism: Meeting Human Needs. Kansas City:

Beacon Hill Press.

Newsome, C. A. and Ringe, S. (1998). Women’s Bible Commentary: Westminster:

John Knox Press.

Neyrey, J (ed) (1991). The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation.

Peabody. Hendrickson Publishers.

Ogden, G. (2003). Transforming Discipleship: Making disciples a few at a time.

InterVarsity Press.

Osborne, G. R. (1991). The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to

Biblical Interpretation. Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press.

Oswalt, J. (1999). Called to be Holy: A Biblical Perspective. Indiana: Evangel

Publishing House.

Phillips, T. E. (2001). Reading Issues of Wealth and Poverty in Luke-Acts. Lewiston,

NY: Edwin Mellen Press.

Phillips, T. E. (2003). Reading Recent Readings of Issues of Wealth and Poverty in

Luke and Acts. Currents in Biblical Research. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen

Press.

Pilgrim, W. (1981). Good News to the Poor. Wealth and Poverty in Luke-Acts.

Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Pub.

Polak, Fred. (2002). The Competitiveness of Nations in a Global Knowledge-Based

Economy. London: Elsevier.

Prior, M (1999). The Liberation Theology of the Lucan Jesus. Studii biblici

Franciscani Liberannuus (49).

240

Restrick, David W. (2001). The Church of the Nazarene and the Mozambican

Revolution, 1975 To 1982. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Boston: Boston

University.

Quanstrom, M. (2004). A Century of Holiness Theology: The Doctrine of Entire

Sanctification In the Church of the Nazarene 1995 to 2004. Kansas City:

Beacon Hill Press.

Republic of Mozambique. (2000). Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy. Maputo

Richards, L. (1985). Expository Doctrine of Bible Words. Grand Rapids: Regency

Reference Library.

Robbins, V. (1991). The Social Location of the Implied Author of Luke-Acts. In

Neyrey, J. (Editors), The Social World of Luke-Acts (pp. 305-332). Peabody.

Hendrickson Publishers.

Robertson, A.T. (1997) Word Pictures in the New Testament. Oak Harbor: Logos

Research Systems

Saul, J. (2005). The Next Liberation Struggle: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy

in Southern Africa. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu Natal Press.

Scheffer, E. H. (1990). The Social Ethics of the Lucan Baptist (Luke 3:10-14). Neot

24/1.

Schenon, O and Gregg. S. (2003). A theory of corruption: Christian social thought

series. Grand Rapids: Acton Institute.

Scholtz, S. (2000). Exodus and Moses: The Complexity of His Liberation Talk: A

Literary Feminist Reading of the Book of Exodus. In Brenner, A. (ed), Exodus

to Deuteronomy: A Feminist Companion to the Bible. Sheffield: Sheffield

Academic Press.

241

Schottroff, L and Stegemann, W. (Editors) (1986). Jesus and the Hope for the Poor.

Maryknoll: Orbis Books.

Scott, Jr. J. J. (2002). Jewish Background of the New Testament. Baker Academic.

Shellard, B. (2002). New Light on Luke. Its Purpose, Source, and Literary Context.

Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement series – JSTS 215.

Sheffield Academic Press.

Shoemaker, M. (1992). Good News to the Poor in Luke’s Gospel. Wesleyan

Theological Journal. Vol. 27 (Accessed online in 2007).

Simler, K, et. al. (2004). Rebuilding after War: Micro-level Determinants of Poverty

Reduction in Mozambique. Washington: International Food Policy Research

Institute.

Stacey, D. (1992). Groundwork of Biblical Studies. London: Epworth Press.

Stegemann, E.W. and Stegemann, W. (1999). The Jesus Movement: A Social History

of Its First Century. Minneapolis: Fortress.

Stone, R. H. (1999). The Ultimate Imperative: An Interpretation of Christian Ethics.

Thomas, R. (1998). New American Standard Hebrew-Aramaic and Greek

Dictionaries: Updated Edition. Logos Systems.

Thompson, R. P. (2007). Gathered at the Table Holiness and Ecclesiology in the

Gospel of Luke. In Brower, K. and Johnson, A (Editors), Holiness and

Ecclesiology in the New Testament. (pp. 76-94). Grand Rapids: Wm B.

Eerdmans Publishing Co.

Tracy, W. (1992). Economic Policies and Judicial Oppression As Formative

Influences on the Theology of John Wesley. Wesleyan Theological Journal

Vol. 27 No. 1 & 2.

242

Tuckett, C. M. (1996). Luke: New Testament Guide. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic

Press.

USAID. (2005). Corruption Assessment: Mozambique Final Report. Washington,

DC.

Varughese, A. (Editor) (2006). Discovering the Bible Story and Faith of the Biblical

Communities. Kansas City. Beacon Hill Press.

Vincent, M. R. (2002). Word Studies in the New Testament. Bellingham, WA : Logos

Research Systems, Inc S. 1:456-458

Vilakaze, H. W. (1991). The roots of Ubuntu/Botho. Midrand: Paper delivered at

SECOSAF Seminar.

Wall, R. (1998). The Future of Wesleyan Biblical Studies. The Wesleyan Theological

Journal. Vol 33, No. 2.

Wall, R. (2004). Toward a Wesleyan Hermeneutic of Scripture. In Callen, B. and

Thompson, R (Editors), Reading the Bible In Wesleyan Ways: Some

Constructive Proposals (pp. 38-55). Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Wall, R. (2004). Facilitating Scripture’s Future Role Among Wesleyans. In Callen, B.

and Thompson, R. (Editors), Reading the Bible in Wesleyan Ways (pp. 107-

120). Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Welch, R. (1974). Luke. Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.

Wenk, Matthias. (2000). Community Forming Power: the socio-ethical role of the

spirit in Luke-Acts. Sheffield Academic Press.

Wheeler, S. (1995). Wealth as Peril and Obligation: The New Testament on

Possessions. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Wiersbe, W. (1996). The Bible Exposition Commentary. Wheaton, Ill: Victor Books.

243

Wittman, George H. (2005). Tribalism Cripples Africa. Available at:

(http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=9

6612). ( Accessed 2007).

Wolf, H. (1991). An Introduction to the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Chicago: Moody

Press.

Wright, J. W. (2003). Divine Blessings Are for Sharing: The Economics of the Tithe

in the Old Testament. Illustrated Bible Life. Kansas City: Word Action

Publishing.

Zodhiates, S. (1992). The Compete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament. AMG

Publishers.

metadidonai as ethical principle on material possessions

Documents