Mesopotamia and the Near East

Mesopotamia and the Mesopotamia and the Near EastNear East

The Roots of Western The Roots of Western European CultureEuropean Culture

Location of MesopotamiaLocation of Mesopotamia

Meant “Between Two Rivers”: The Tigris and EuphratesMeant “Between Two Rivers”: The Tigris and Euphrates Empires: Sumeria followed by Akad then Assur (Assyria)Empires: Sumeria followed by Akad then Assur (Assyria)

Neolithic: The Fertile CrescentNeolithic: The Fertile Crescent

Fertile Crescent: starts at Levant (E. Mediterranean Sea), upward Fertile Crescent: starts at Levant (E. Mediterranean Sea), upward into Turkey and Syriainto Turkey and Syria

Then down to Iraq and Iran.Then down to Iraq and Iran.

Near Eastern NeolithicNear Eastern Neolithic

Mesopotamia was too dry to sustain Mesopotamia was too dry to sustain local agriculturelocal agriculture

Neolithic began in the Fertile Neolithic began in the Fertile Crescent, comprisingCrescent, comprising

The Levant (eastern shore of the The Levant (eastern shore of the MediterraneanMediterranean

Taurus Mountains of TurkeyTaurus Mountains of Turkey Zagros Mountains of IranZagros Mountains of Iran

Wild Ancestors of DomesticatesWild Ancestors of Domesticates

The Fertile Crescent was the natural The Fertile Crescent was the natural habitat of habitat of

Wild ancestors of domesticated plantsWild ancestors of domesticated plants Wheat --Legumes (peas and beans)Wheat --Legumes (peas and beans) BarleyBarley Wild ancestors of domesticated animalsWild ancestors of domesticated animals Cattle --PigsCattle --Pigs Sheep --Goats Sheep --Goats

Domestication ProcessesDomestication Processes

““Founder” plants were domesticated Founder” plants were domesticated 9000-7000 BC9000-7000 BC

Grains (3) : Emmer and einkorn Grains (3) : Emmer and einkorn wheat, ryewheat, rye

Legumes (5): Lentils, peas, faba Legumes (5): Lentils, peas, faba beans, chickpeas, bitter vetchbeans, chickpeas, bitter vetch

Flax for oil and fiberFlax for oil and fiber

Abu Hureyra: DomesticatesAbu Hureyra: Domesticates

Location:Location: Euphrates Valley in Syria Euphrates Valley in Syria Shift from wild to domesticated Shift from wild to domesticated

speciesspecies Chart shows shift from gazelle to Chart shows shift from gazelle to

sheep and goat bone count around sheep and goat bone count around 6500 BC6500 BC

Cattle and pig bone increases as wellCattle and pig bone increases as well Grain and legume remains also Grain and legume remains also

increaseincrease

Abu Hureya: Other DevelopmentsAbu Hureya: Other Developments

Housing:Housing: rectangular mud brick rectangular mud brick Clay: Clay: There were containers, but no There were containers, but no

fired potteryfired pottery Evidence of trade:Evidence of trade: Cowrie shells (Mediterranean)Cowrie shells (Mediterranean) Turquoise (Sinai)Turquoise (Sinai) Obsidian and other crystalline stone Obsidian and other crystalline stone

from Turkeyfrom Turkey

Abu Hureyra: DeclineAbu Hureyra: Decline

Abandonment: 6000 BCAbandonment: 6000 BC FactorsFactors Arid conditions precluded farmingArid conditions precluded farming Pastoralism (herding) more viable in a grassland Pastoralism (herding) more viable in a grassland

environmentenvironment Likely scenariosLikely scenarios Migration to the Zagros Mountains as herdersMigration to the Zagros Mountains as herders Movement to the upper part of the Tigris and Movement to the upper part of the Tigris and

Euphrates RiversEuphrates Rivers

Mesopotamia: IntroductionMesopotamia: Introduction

Meaning: From the Greek, “between Meaning: From the Greek, “between two rivers” (Euphrates and Tigris)two rivers” (Euphrates and Tigris)

Location: southern strip of land Location: southern strip of land between the Euphrates and Tigris between the Euphrates and Tigris RiverRiver

First villages formed in northern Meso-First villages formed in northern Meso-potamian floodplain about 6000 BCpotamian floodplain about 6000 BC

Seasonal rainfall sustained agricultureSeasonal rainfall sustained agriculture Communities comprised several Communities comprised several

houses with roof entranceshouses with roof entrances

Ubaid Era (5300-4100 BC): Ubaid Era (5300-4100 BC): OverviewOverview

Later shifted from northern plains to southern Later shifted from northern plains to southern river valleyriver valley

The Area lacked:The Area lacked: Sufficient rainfall for dry (nonirrigated) Sufficient rainfall for dry (nonirrigated)

farmingfarming Plants and animals capable of domesticationPlants and animals capable of domestication Even usable stone and metal oresEven usable stone and metal ores Despite it all, by 4500 BC, towns and public Despite it all, by 4500 BC, towns and public

buildings dotted the countrysidebuildings dotted the countryside Irrigation sufficient to support a nonfarm Irrigation sufficient to support a nonfarm

populationpopulation Shrines and then temples emergedShrines and then temples emerged

Ubaid Era: Main AttributesUbaid Era: Main Attributes Spread of irrigation canals Spread of irrigation canals Construction of temple Construction of temple

complexes complexes A monochrome pottery designA monochrome pottery design Triangles, grids, zigzag lines Triangles, grids, zigzag lines

were commonwere common Less decorative than the Less decorative than the

polychrome Halafian pottery polychrome Halafian pottery originating in Syriaoriginating in Syria

Ceramics made on slow-turning Ceramics made on slow-turning potter’s wheelpotter’s wheel

For lack of workable stone and For lack of workable stone and metals, tools were made of fired metals, tools were made of fired clayclay

SicklesSickles Hammers and axesHammers and axes Mullers (implements to grind Mullers (implements to grind

paints, powders, etc.)paints, powders, etc.)

Eridu (5000-3100 BC)Eridu (5000-3100 BC) Most of the early structures Most of the early structures

at Eridu were residentialat Eridu were residential Later, public and ritual Later, public and ritual

centers were erectedcenters were erected At its peak, population was At its peak, population was

50005000 In one site, a series of In one site, a series of

shrines were constructed, shrines were constructed, one over another (see one over another (see diagram)diagram)

Earliest, dated 5000 BC, Earliest, dated 5000 BC, was a simple shrinewas a simple shrine

By 3000 AD, a ziggurat was By 3000 AD, a ziggurat was constructed in the form of a constructed in the form of a 200 yard square enclosure200 yard square enclosure

Social StratificationSocial Stratification

Little sign of the extreme social Little sign of the extreme social differentiation that was to comedifferentiation that was to come

No elaborate funerary complexes No elaborate funerary complexes found in this periodfound in this period

No sign of a single ruler dominating No sign of a single ruler dominating southern Mesopotamiasouthern Mesopotamia

In fact, this city was the prototype of In fact, this city was the prototype of the city-state organization that the city-state organization that was was to to comecome

Uruk Period (4100-3100 BC)Uruk Period (4100-3100 BC) The first city, Uruk with a The first city, Uruk with a

population of 10,000 population of 10,000 Overshadowed by the Anu Overshadowed by the Anu

Ziggurat and later the White Ziggurat and later the White TempleTemple

Named after the principal god Named after the principal god AnuAnu

Like Eridu, constructed over Like Eridu, constructed over earlier shrinesearlier shrines

The White Temple was The White Temple was constructed over the Anu constructed over the Anu ZigguratZiggurat

Both temples entailed massive Both temples entailed massive manpower inputs—7500 man-manpower inputs—7500 man-years aloneyears alone

Structures separated priestly Structures separated priestly residents from the populaceresidents from the populace

Walls were constructed in Walls were constructed in Early Dynastic Period (3100-Early Dynastic Period (3100-2370 BC)2370 BC)

Uruk and Vicinity: Technology and Uruk and Vicinity: Technology and TradeTrade

PotteryPottery Fine design of UbaidFine design of Ubaid Gave way to crudely made utilitarian Gave way to crudely made utilitarian

objectsobjects Plow was inventedPlow was invented Wooden blade with metal tipWooden blade with metal tip Far more productive than the digging stickFar more productive than the digging stick Agricultural base diversifiedAgricultural base diversified Wheat, barley, flax, datesWheat, barley, flax, dates Cattle raising and fishingCattle raising and fishing

Uruk and Vicinity: TradeUruk and Vicinity: Trade Resource poor itself, Sumeria relied on Resource poor itself, Sumeria relied on

tradetrade Main routes: the rivers (especially the Main routes: the rivers (especially the

Euphrates) and overland east-westEuphrates) and overland east-west Products importedProducts imported Persian GulfPersian Gulf Precious metals and stone: gold, silver, Precious metals and stone: gold, silver,

carnelian, lapus lazuli, onyx, alabastercarnelian, lapus lazuli, onyx, alabaster Textiles, skins, and ivoryTextiles, skins, and ivory TimberTimber Northern regions: copperNorthern regions: copper

Uruk: Writing and Accounting, A Uruk: Writing and Accounting, A Five-Step ModelFive-Step Model

Main source: Denise Schmandt-Main source: Denise Schmandt-Besserat: Besserat: Before Writing: From Before Writing: From Counting to CuneiformCounting to Cuneiform

Step 1, 9000 BP: 16 basic shapes, Step 1, 9000 BP: 16 basic shapes, geometric, animal, or pottery jar geometric, animal, or pottery jar formsforms

Step 2, 6000 BP: 300 forms with Step 2, 6000 BP: 300 forms with varied markings (e.g.., distinctions varied markings (e.g.., distinctions between raw and finished materials)between raw and finished materials)

Final Steps of Writing and Final Steps of Writing and AccountingAccounting

Step 3, 5500 BP: Bullae, or clay Step 3, 5500 BP: Bullae, or clay envelopes covering and indicating envelopes covering and indicating the tokens inside (upper left; this the tokens inside (upper left; this indicated oil)indicated oil)

Step 4, 5200 BP: Flattened tokens Step 4, 5200 BP: Flattened tokens to indicate kind and amount of to indicate kind and amount of commodities recordedcommodities recorded

Step 5, 5100 BP: Information Step 5, 5100 BP: Information recorded on clay tablets using recorded on clay tablets using cuneiform, or ideographic wedge-cuneiform, or ideographic wedge-shaped, markings (see lower left)shaped, markings (see lower left)

This clay tablet indicates the This clay tablet indicates the sheep and goats owned by sheep and goats owned by someone in Mesopotamiasomeone in Mesopotamia

Writing and Accounting: Writing and Accounting: RefinementsRefinements

Number of symbolsNumber of symbols Early texts: 1500 symbolsEarly texts: 1500 symbols One-for-one relations with commodityOne-for-one relations with commodity Thus, one symbol represented wheat, another for Thus, one symbol represented wheat, another for

chariot, a third for copper ingot or blockchariot, a third for copper ingot or block Later texts: 750 unique symbolsLater texts: 750 unique symbols Advantage: Increased the control by administration of Advantage: Increased the control by administration of

products and peopleproducts and people System was still cumbersomeSystem was still cumbersome Elements could be combined but not in the way we canElements could be combined but not in the way we can Cuneiform is not alphabet-basedCuneiform is not alphabet-based Want to see your name in cuneiform? Log on to Want to see your name in cuneiform? Log on to

www.upennmuseum.com/cuneiform.cigwww.upennmuseum.com/cuneiform.cig and follow and follow instructionsinstructions

Early Dynastic Period (3100-2370)Early Dynastic Period (3100-2370)

City states dominated MesopotamiaCity states dominated Mesopotamia 10-15 were present various times10-15 were present various times Uruk itself increased to 50,000 inhabitantsUruk itself increased to 50,000 inhabitants Defensive walls were constructedDefensive walls were constructed Monarchs became independent of temple ruleMonarchs became independent of temple rule City states rose and fellCity states rose and fell Uruk: Challenged by other city states around Uruk: Challenged by other city states around

2700 BC2700 BC Ur: Located 75 miles away, became Uruk’s Ur: Located 75 miles away, became Uruk’s

principal economic and military rivalprincipal economic and military rival Bands of highwaymen, possibly pastoralists, Bands of highwaymen, possibly pastoralists,

raided the merchants en routeraided the merchants en route

Evidence of Extreme Stratification: Evidence of Extreme Stratification: BurialsBurials

Sir Leonard Woolley unearthed 2500 burials Sir Leonard Woolley unearthed 2500 burials Fewer than 20 were of royaltyFewer than 20 were of royalty Queen Shub-ad was lying on a bed accompanied Queen Shub-ad was lying on a bed accompanied

by female attendantsby female attendants 2 wagons drawn by oxen driven by male servants 2 wagons drawn by oxen driven by male servants

backed down into entry rampbacked down into entry ramp 59 bodies, mostly female, were on the ground 59 bodies, mostly female, were on the ground

near the tombnear the tomb All retainers were lavishly bedecked with crafted All retainers were lavishly bedecked with crafted

elementselements Oxen dispatched, then all in the party consumed Oxen dispatched, then all in the party consumed

poison\poison\

Lower Class GravesLower Class Graves

Of the other graves in the siteOf the other graves in the site A large number contains modest A large number contains modest

quantity of goodsquantity of goods A far larger number contain none at A far larger number contain none at

allall

The Gods of Mesopotamia: IThe Gods of Mesopotamia: I AnuAnu: The father of the gods; god : The father of the gods; god

of heaven (above left)of heaven (above left) Adad:Adad: the rain god, and of storms the rain god, and of storms Dumuzi (Tanmuz):Dumuzi (Tanmuz): God of God of

vegetation and the Underword; vegetation and the Underword; Husband of IshtarHusband of Ishtar

Ishtar (Innana):Ishtar (Innana): Goddess of Goddess of love, fertility, and war; Queen of love, fertility, and war; Queen of Heavan; Nemesis of Gilgamesh Heavan; Nemesis of Gilgamesh (lower left)(lower left)

The Gods of Mesopotamia IIThe Gods of Mesopotamia II Apsu: God of the primeval sweet watersApsu: God of the primeval sweet waters Ea: God of wisdom and patron of the Ea: God of wisdom and patron of the

artsarts Enlil: God of earth, wind, and airEnlil: God of earth, wind, and air Ninhursag: Mother goddess, creator of Ninhursag: Mother goddess, creator of

vegetation; wife of Enlilvegetation; wife of Enlil Nisaba: Goddess of grainNisaba: Goddess of grain Skanash: God of the sun, judge, and law Skanash: God of the sun, judge, and law

giver; god of wisdomgiver; god of wisdom Sin: Goddess of the moonSin: Goddess of the moon

The Epic of Gilgamesh IThe Epic of Gilgamesh I

Gilgamesh represents a theme of the enjoyments of life Gilgamesh represents a theme of the enjoyments of life That ends sooner or laterThat ends sooner or later

Gilgamesh is part human, part god, blessed with beauty Gilgamesh is part human, part god, blessed with beauty and courageand courage

He blows it when he spurns the love of Ishtar (the Queen of He blows it when he spurns the love of Ishtar (the Queen of Heaven) and kills the Bull of Heaven, (upper left)Heaven) and kills the Bull of Heaven, (upper left)

He is punished with the loss of his dearest (male) He is punished with the loss of his dearest (male) companion, Enkidu (depicted above right) companion, Enkidu (depicted above right)

Epic of Gilgamesh IIEpic of Gilgamesh II

Gilgamesh then goes on a Gilgamesh then goes on a quest for everlasting lifequest for everlasting life

When he finds a plant that When he finds a plant that promises everlasting life, a promises everlasting life, a serpent snatches it away (Left) serpent snatches it away (Left)

He is left with a vision of death, He is left with a vision of death, a “house of dust,” and a place a “house of dust,” and a place of inescapable sadnessof inescapable sadness

The snake recurs in the Book of The snake recurs in the Book of Genesis and leads to the Fall of Genesis and leads to the Fall of ManMan

The Prevailing Theme: Enjoyment The Prevailing Theme: Enjoyment and Despairand Despair

Michael Wood: This theme dominates Michael Wood: This theme dominates the history of Iraqthe history of Iraq

Accordng to him, the Gilgamesh Accordng to him, the Gilgamesh myth sets the theme whereby myth sets the theme whereby greatness followed by disaster recurs greatness followed by disaster recurs throughout Mesopotamian/ Iraqi throughout Mesopotamian/ Iraqi historyhistory

Discussion: Does this theme recur Discussion: Does this theme recur throughout this history, up to and throughout this history, up to and including the Iraq war?including the Iraq war?