Mesolithic communities of Vlakno cave

9

Dario Vujević,Mario Bodružić

ODJEL ZA ARHEOLOGIJU, SVEUČILIŠTE U ZADRU OBALA KRALJA PETRA KREŠIMIRA IV BR. 2

23000 ZADAR [email protected]

ARHEOLOG D.O.O.LUČINO SELO BR. 36

23275 UGLJAN [email protected]

UDK: 903.3(497.5)(210.7 Dugi otok)”633”IZVORNI ZNANSTVENI ČLANAK / ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER

PRIMLJEN/ RECEIVED 07. 05. 2012.PRIHVAĆEN/ ACCEPTED 26. 10. 2012.

MEZOLITIČKE ZAJEDNICE ŠPILJE VLAKNO

The authors present preliminary results of the research into the early Mesolithic layer of Vlakno cave. The remains of material culture are viewed in a broader context of the life in hunter-gatherer communities of the Mesolithic period in the eastern Adriatic. The focus is placed on the importance of archaeological artefacts in the life of the cave inhabitants, with regard to the climate and environmental change as well as the economic background in which the population lived. Results are also given of the typological and technological analysis of lithic materials which indicate an intensive production of lithic artefacts and various technological activities of the inhabitants of the cave.

KEY WORDS: Vlakno, Dugi otok, Mesolithic, Mesolithic burial, lithics

Autori donose preliminarne rezultate istraživanja ranomezolitičkih slojeva špilje Vlakno. Ostaci materijalne kulture gledani su u širem kontekstu života lovačko-skupljačkih zajednica u periodu mezolitika na području istočnog Jadrana. Naglasak je stavljen na značenje arheoloških artefakata u životu stanovnika špilje s obzirom na promjene klime i okoliša, kao i privredne podloge u sklopu koje se život stanovnika odvijao. Ukratko su izneseni i rezultati tehnološko-tipološke analize litičkog materijala koji ukazuju na intenzivnu produkciju litičkih artefakata i različite tehnološke aktivnosti stanovnika špilje.

KLJUČNE RIJEČI: Vlakno, Dugi otok, mezolitik, mezolitički pokop, litika

MESOLITHIC COMMUNITIES OF VLAKNO CAVE

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1. UVOD

Dugi otok jedan je od najvećih otoka naše obale. Okosnicu otoka čini uzdužna kosa s najvećim vrhom Vela straža (338 m/nV) i dubokim zaljevima na oba kraja. Strmi rubovi rezultirali su velikom dubinom mora oko gotovo cijelog otoka.1 U krškom okolišu nalaze se brojni speleološki objekti koji predstavljaju veliki potencijal za istraživanja prapovijesnih razdoblja. Među njima se u posljednje vrijeme ističe špilja Vlakno, koja se nalazi s unutrašnje strane otoka, na pola puta između naselja Luke i Savra. Unutarnji špiljski prostor veličine 40 m2, sa širokim otvorom okrenutim prema jugoistoku, poslužio je kao idealno mjesto za boravak manjih zajednica lovaca-skupljača tijekom gornjeg paleolitika i mezolitika.2

Mezolitički slojevi u osnovi započinju od same površine. U površinskom sloju (Stratum 1 - Sl. 2), uz dominaciju mezolitičkih nalaza, pronalazi se i manja količina nalaza mlađih razdoblja, što je posljedica niske stope sedimentacije, ali i čišćenja prostora u kasnijim razdobljima korištenja špilje. Zbog miješanja materijala iz različitih razdoblja taj je sloj izdvojen iz analiza donesenih u radu. U radu su obrađeni nalazi iz Stratuma 2 (Sl. 2) koji započinje na 30 do 35 cm dubine od površine.3 Uz pomoć AMS analize uzorka kosti stratum je datiran u vrijeme oko 7500 kal. god. pr. K. 4 Geološki i klimatološki to je vrijeme samog početka holocena, koje označava prekid turbulentne klime posljednjega ledenog doba. Već prije 10 tisuća godina temperatura je porasla do mjere slične današnjoj, što je donijelo

1 K. Džaja, 2003.

2 Prema nalazima keramike na rubnim dijelovima, špilja je sporadično bila korištena i u kasnijim razdobljima prapovijesti, a pregradni zidovi na vanjskom platou govore o njezinu korištenju i u novije vrijeme.

3 Debljina Stratuma 2 iznosi od 40 do 50 cm.

4 Beta-311088: 2 Sigma kalibracija: Cal BC 7570 do 7450 (Cal BP 9520 do 9400) i Cal BC 7390 do 7380 (Cal BP 9340 do 9330); 1 Sigma kalibracija: Cal BC 7530 do 7480 (Cal BP 9480 do 9430).

1. INTRODUCTION

Dugi otok (Long Island) is one of the largest islands on our coast. The backbone of the island is a longitudinal ridge with its highest peak of Vela straža (338 m above sea level) and two deep bays at each end. Steep edges resulted in great depth of the sea around the whole of the island.1 In the karst environment there are numerous speleological objects which represent enormous potential for exploring the prehistoric period. Among them stands out Vlakno cave, which is located in the interior of the island between the villages of Luka and Savar. The inside of the cave with an area of 40 m2, and a wide opening facing southeast, was an ideal place for smaller communities of hunter-gatherers to live in during the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic.2

Mesolithic layers basically start from the surface itself. In the surface layer (Stratum 1 – Fig. 2), along with the predominantly Mesolithic findings, a small amount of findings from later periods was also unearthed, which is the result of a low rate of sedimentation, but also of the cleaning of the cave in the later periods of its use. Due to the mixing of materials from different periods, this layer has been excluded from the analysis presented in the paper. This paper deals with the findings from Stratum 2 (Fig. 2), which begins at the depth of about 30 to 35 cm below the surface.3 With the help of AMS radio carbon analysis of a bone sample this stratum was dated to around 7 500 cal. BC.4 In terms of geology and climatology this was the beginning of the Holocene, which marked the end of a turbulent climate of the last ice age. As far back as 10,000 years ago, the temperature rose to values as they

1 K. Džaja, 2003.

2 According to the pottery findings at the edges, the cave was also sporadically used in later periods, and the partition walls on the outer plateau testify to its being used in recent times as well.

3 The thickness of the Stratum 2 is from 40 to 50 cm.

4 Beta-311088: 2 Sigma calibration: Cal BC 7570 to 7450 (Cal BP 9520 to 9400) and Cal BC 7390 to 7380 (Cal BP 9340 to 9330); 1 Sigma calibration: Cal BC 7530 to 7480 (Cal BP 9480 to 9430).

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SL. 1. Tlocrt špilje s označenim prostorom istraživanja FIG. 1. The layout of the cave with the marked research area.

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brojne promjene u okolišu.5 Svakako najvažnija posljedica rasta temperature je porast morske razine. Nakon početne stagnacije tijekom mlađeg dryasa (12800 do 11500 god. prije sadašnjosti) započinje naglo podizanje razine mora sa zabilježenim razinama Jadranskog mora od -41,5 m (9200 god. prije sadašnjosti) do -10 m (7800 god. prije sadašnjosti).6 Iako se podizanje mora često gleda kroz prizmu gubitka teritorija i resursa, u kombinaciji s promjenom klime on je na ovim prostorima doveo do stvaranja mnogih obalnih izvora pitke vode, močvara i laguna bogatih hranom.7 U takvim klimatskim okolnostima u vrijeme ranog mezolitika Dugi otok je zajedno s okolnim otocima tvorio znatno veći otok te se špilja tada nalazila više desetaka metara iznad mora s vjerojatnim izvorom slatke vode u podnožju i lagunama koje su se stvorile između Dugog otoka, Rave i Iža.8

2. PRIVREDA

Raznolik okoliš osiguravao je dovoljne količine hrane za mezolitičke zajednice, što se primjećuje i u količini pronađenih ostataka faune. U manjem postotku pronađene su kosti sitnih kopnenih životinja, npr. lisice (Vulpes vulpes) i kune (Martes martes), uz ostatke većih preživača, prije svega jelena (Cervus elaphus).9 Zastupljenost kopnenih životinja pokazuje da lov nije osnova privrede, ali isto tako nije niti zanemarena komponenta u prehrani mezolitičkih zajednica. Izraženo manja količina lovnih životinja u odnosu na starije slojeve može biti rezultat promjene privrednih aktivnosti kao prilagodbe novom okolišu i klimatskim

5 U holocenu slijedi amelioracija klime iz hladne i suhe prema toploj i vlažnijoj klimi. No ovisno o lokalnim karakteristikama mnoge promjene su započele i prije onog konvencionalnog početka mezolitika; W. J. Burroughs, 2005, 47; M. Pluciennik, 2008, 335.

6 M. Surić, 2006, 166, 182.

7 M. Pluciennik, 2008, 338.

8 Z. Brusić, 2004, 198.

9 Iako je analiza faune tek u tijeku, zahvaljujemo za preliminarne podatke V. P. Spry-Marques.

are today, which brought about a sea of changes in the environment.5 Certainly, the most significant consequence of temperature rise was the increase in sea level. After the initial stagnation during the Younger Dryas (12 800 to 11 500 BP) there was a rapid rise in sea level, and the levels of the Adriatic sea are recorded to have been from -41.5 m (9 200 BP) to -10 m (7 800 BP).6 Although the rise in sea level is often viewed through the prism of the loss of territory and resources, this occurrence, combined with the climate change, in these areas led to the formation of many coastal drinking water sources, marshes and lagoons rich in food.7 In such climatic conditions during the early Mesolithic, Dugi otok, together with the surrounding islands formed a much larger island, and the cave was several dozen metres above sea level with possibly a source of fresh water and the lagoons that were created between Dugi otok, Rava and Iž.8

2. ECONOMY

The diverse environment provided a sufficient amount of food for the Mesolithic communities, which can be noticed in the amount of unearthed remains of fauna. In a smaller percentage bones of smaller land animals such as foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and martens (Martes martes), along with the remains of large ruminants, especially deer (Cervus elaphus) were found.9 The representation of land animals shows that hunting was not the basis of the economy, but it was not a component in the diet of Mesolithic communities to be neglected either. An extremely small amount of game animals in comparison to the older layers could be the

5 In Holocene there was a melioration of the climate from cold and dry to a warm and wetter climate. However, depending on the local characteristics, many changes had started even before the conventional beginning of the Mesolithic; W. J. Burroughs, 2005, 47; M. Pluciennik, 2008, 335.

6 M. Surić, 2006, 166, 182.

7 M. Pluciennik, 2008, 338.

8 Z. Brusić, 2004, 198.

9 Although the analysis of fauna is only just underway, we give our thanks for the preliminary data to V. P. Spry-Marques.

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promjenama, ali, kao što se to pretpostavlja i za Velu spilu, odgovor možda treba tražiti i u povremenom korištenju lokaliteta, vezanom uz sezonski ribolov.10

Među ostacima prehrane brojnošću se izdvajaju kosti riba te ljušture školjkaša i puževa. Najbrojniji su nalazi morskog puža ogrca (Monodonta turb.) i kopnenog puža vinogradara (Helix sp.) koji su i na drugim lokalitetima obilježje tog razdoblja.11 Najveća koncentracija tih nalaza je uz rubove špilje.12 O korištenju puževa vinogradara postoje brojne teorije, a svakako je najzanimljivija ona Lubella koji spekulira i s uzgojem puževa za potrebe prehrane prapovijesnih zajednica.13 Brojnošću slijede priljepci (Patella sp.) i kamenice (Ostrea edul.), dok se od ostalih vrsti mogu pronaći kunjke (Arca noae), dagnje (Mytilus gallo.), periske (Pina nobilis), prstaci (Litophaga litophaga), Jakovljeve kapice (Vola jacobaea), volci (Murex tr.) i vretenasti puževi (Cerithium V.). Od druge morske faune pronađena je manja količina ostataka ježinaca i rakova, osobito grmalja (Eriphia Sp.). Velika koncentracija viličnih kostiju i kralježaka riba, veličine od 0,5 do 3 kg, u najvećem broju pripada oradama (Sparus aurata). U manjem broju pronalaze se i kosti sipe.14 Slično kao i kod Vele spile15, osim vrsta koje se love s obale, pojedini nalazi ukazuju i na pribavljanje morskih vrsta koje inače žive na većim dubinama.

10 D. Radić, 2005, 334.

11 D. Lubell, 2004a.

12 Na trenutno istraženoj površini unutar Stratuma 2 pronađeno je preko 5 tisuća ljuštura kopnenih puževa, 3 tisuće ljuštura puža ogrca, dok se broj ostalih vrsta kreće u rasponu od nekoliko desetaka do nekoliko stotina.

13 D. Lubell, 2004.

14 Z. Brusić, 2004, 198.

15 D. Radić, 2005, 332-333.

result of changes in the economic activities as an adjustment to the new environmental and climatic conditions, but, as it is also assumed for Vela cave, the answer might be found in the temporary use of the location, connected with seasonal fishing.10

Among the remains of food by their great number stand out fish bones, shellfish and snails. The most numerous are the findings of sea snails called winkles (Monodonta turb.) and land snails (Helix sp.) which were also characteristic of other sites of this period.11 The largest concentration of these can be found along the edges of the cave.12 There are many theories about the use of land snails and the most interesting is certainly Lubell’s theory, which also speculates about breeding land snails for the diet of prehistoric communities.13 Along with the above-mentioned the most numerous are limpets (Patella sp) and oysters (Ostrea edul.), while among other species there were clamps (Arca noae), mussels (Mytilus gallo.), pen shells (Pina nobilis), date-shells (Litophaga litophaga), scallops (Vola jacobaea), dye murex (Murex tr.) and spindle snails (Cerithium V.). From other marine species a smaller amount of urchins and crabs was found, especially shore crabs (Eriphia Sp.). A large amount of jaw bones and vertebrae of fish, size of 0.5 to 3 kg mostly belong to gilthead (Sparus aurata). A smaller amount of cuttlefish bones have also been found.14 As in Vela cave15, apart from the fish caught from the coast, some findings point to the provision of marine species which otherwise live at greater depths.

10 D. Radić, 2005, 334.

11 D. Lubell, 2004a.

12 On the currently explored area within Stratum 2 over 5 thousand shells of land snails and 3 thousand shells of winkles have been found, while the number of other species ranges from several dozen to several hundred.

13 D. Lubell, 2004.

14 Z. Brusić, 2004, 198.

15 D. Radić, 2005, 332-333.

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SL. 2. Stratigrafski profil FIG. 2. Stratigraphic profile (Tefra; Floor of rammed soil; Pebbles; Soil and soot; Soil and ash).

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3. NAKIT

Među pronađenim ostacima morske faune postoji manja skupina koja ne govori toliko o privrednim aktivnostima, koliko o drugim aspektima života. Riječ je o puževima koji su se isključivo prikupljali i upotrebljavali za izradu nakita. Najraniji dokaz o korištenju školjki i puževa kao sirovine za izradu ukrasnih predmeta su 82 tisuće godina stare probušene školjke Nassarius gibbosulus iz Grotte des Pigeons (Maroko)16, a prema novim istraživanjima u Europi izrada predmeta od školjki započinje još u vrijeme neandertalaca, s velikim porastom u brojnosti s dolaskom anatomski modernih ljudi.17 U Vlaknu, kao i kod većine drugih mezolitičkih nalazišta na Jadranu, najbrojnija je vrsta kokica (Columbella rustica).18 Ona se može naći na cijelom prostoru Mediterana pa čak i na bližim obalama Atlantika. Upotreba je dokumentirana još od orinjasijena, iako su njeni nalazi u gornjopaleolitičkom kontekstu poprilično rijetki. Kako je to vrsta umjereno toplih voda, logično je da se pojavljuje tek sa zatopljenjem klime i stvaranjem pogodnog okoliša.19 S dolaskom kasnog epigravetijena njihov broj stoga raste, a u mezolitiku bilježimo iznimno velik broj nalaza na obalnim nalazištima, kao i na područjima daleko od obale.20

Unutar Stratuma 2 do sada je pronađen 251 primjerak probušenih Columbella rustica, uz 58 neprobušenih. Zbog postojanja puževa koji nisu probušeni, kao i onih slomljenih prilikom bušenja rupe, možemo govoriti o izradi nakita u samoj špilji. Analize s drugih nalazišta pokazuju da je,

16 A. Bouzouggar et al., 2007, 9964.

17 J. Zilhao et al., 2010; E. Alvarez-Fernandez, 2007, 4, 15.

18 Do sada najveći broj primjeraka te vrste (89 komada) pronađen je u mezolitičkim slojevima Pupićine peći, a u manjem broju probušeni puževi pronalaze se i na drugim nalazištima u Istri, kao i u Veloj spili na Korčuli; v. D. Komšo, 2006, 62 i B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005a, 57.

19 M. Mussi, 2002, 355.

20 E. Alvarez-Fernandez, 2008, 106.

3. JEWELLERY

Among the remains of marine fauna there is a small group of them which does not say much about the economic activities but rather about other aspects of life. They are snail shells which were collected and used exclusively to make jewellery. The earliest evidence of the use of shells for making decorative items is the 82-thousand-year-old pierced shell Nassarius gibbosulus from Grotta de Pigeons (Morocco)16, and according to new research in Europe, the production of jewellery made of shells began as early as the time of the Neanderthals, with a large increase in their number and with the appearance of anatomically modern humans.17 At Vlakno as well as at most other Mesolithic sites in the Adriatic, the most numerous is the Columbella rustica.18 It can be found throughout the Mediterranean and even on the closer coasts of the Atlantic. Its usage has been documented as far back as Aurignacian, although the findings in the Upper Palaeolithic context are rather rare. As this type lives in moderately warm water, it is logical that it appeared only with the warming of the climate and creation of a suitable environment.19 With the arrival of the late Epigravettien, their number therefore increased, and from the Mesolithic an extremely large number of findings is recorded at coastal sites, as well as in areas far from the coast.20

Within Stratum 2, 251 specimens of pierced Collumbella rustica have been found so far, along with 58 unpierced ones. Given the existence of unpierced snails as well as those which were broken while being pierced, we can talk about making

16 A. Bouzouggar et al., 2007, 9964.

17 J. Zilhao et al., 2010; E. Alvarez-Fernandez, 2007, 4, 15.

18 By far the largest number of specimens of this type (89) was found in the Mesolithic layers of Pupićina cave, and a small number of pierced snails were also found at some other sites in Istria and in the cave Vela cave on Korčula; see D. Komšo, 2006, 62 and B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005a, 57.

19 M. Mussi, 2002, 355.

20 E. Alvarez-Fernandez, 2008, 106.

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zbog oblikovanja te prostornog i stratigrafskog položaja nalaza, takav nakit nošen kao osobni, svakodnevni ukras, i da vjerojatno nije izrađivan za specijalne prigode.21 Osim izrade za osobno korištenje, velik broj pronađenih primjeraka ostavlja mogućnosti i za druga tumačenja. Na nekim je manjim nalazištima tirenske obale (Gr. della Madonna, Gr. della Serratura i Riparo Blanc) primijećeno da broj daleko odskače od lokalnih potreba, pogotovo kad se uzme da su neka od tih nalazišta mala i sezonski nastanjena, slično kao Vlakno. Postoji stoga mogućnost da su na tim mjestima školjke prikupljane, pripremane i skladištene prije nego što ih se nosilo na drugo mjesto radi razmjene ili sl.22 Druge vrste puževa koje su u mezolitiku korištene za izradu nakita su Cerithium sp. i Cyclope sp., no selekcija pojedinih vrsta ovisi o regionalnim osobitostima.23 Tek dvije probušene Cyclope neriteae unutar Stratuma 2 govore o slabom korištenju tih vrsta u Vlaknu.

Za izradu nakita od probušenih puževa nije bila potrebna velika vještina. Većina rupa nije pravilno oblikovana, tako da se može govoriti o jednostavnom probijanju. Eksperimenti napravljeni prilikom istraživanja nalazišta Abri Šebrn u Istri pokazuju da se najčešće koristi tehnika izravnog udaranja običnim kamenim čekićima, čime su se dobivali grubi, veliki otvori, što u potpunosti odgovara i nalazima iz Vlakna.24 Tek se na dva primjerka može primijetiti stanjivanje stijenke prije probijanja.

Manji broj Columbella iz Vlakna crne je boje od izlaganja vatri. Postojanje vatrišta na dnu Stratuma 2 moglo je utjecati na to, ali zbog udaljenosti nekih primjeraka od vatrišta, kao i eksperimenata s drugih nalazišta koji ukazuju da se slučajnim izlaganjem vatri teško

21 S. Benghiat et al., 2009, 734-735; D. Komšo, 2007, 36.

22 M. Mussi, 2002, 355.

23 E. Alvarez-Fernandez, 2007, 14-15.

24 D. Komšo, 2007, 36; S. Benghiat et al., 2009, 734-735.

jewellery in the cave itself. Analyses from other sites show that, given the shape and spatial and stratigraphic positions of the findings, this jewellery was worn as a personal, everyday decoration, and probably was not made for special occasions.21 Besides being made for personal use, a large number of the found items leave the possibility for other interpretations as well. At some smaller sites on the Tyrrhenian coast (Gr. della Madonna, Gr. della Serratura, and Riparo Blanc) it was noted that their number was far above the local needs, especially if you take into account that some sites were small and seasonally inhabited, very much like Vlakno. It is therefore possible that in these places shells were collected, prepared and stored before being taken to another place to be exchanged, etc.22 Other species of snail shells which were in Mesolithic used for making jewellery were Cerithium sp. and Cyclope sp. but the selection of some types depended on regional characteristics.23 Only two Cyclope neriteae within Stratum 2 tell us about the poor use of this species of snail shells at Vlakno.

Making jewellery of pierced snail shells did not require a great skill. Most of the holes are not properly shaped, which tells us about simple piercing. Experiments carried out during the excavation of the site of Abri Šebrn in Istria showed that the most used was the technique of direct strikes with an ordinary flint hammer, which would result in rough, large openings and which entirely corresponds to the findings at Vlakno.24 Only in two specimens the thinning of the wall before piercing may be noticed.

A small number of Columbellas from Vlakno are black from exposure to fire. The existence of a fireplace at the bottom of Stratum 2 could have influenced the colour but given the distance of some items from the fireplace as well as the results of experiments from other sites which indicate

21 S. Benghiat et al., 2009, 734-735; D. Komšo, 2007, 36.

22 M. Mussi, 2002, 355

23 E. Alvarez-Fernandez, 2007, 14-15.

24 D. Komšo, 2007, 36; S. Benghiat et al., 2009, 734-735.

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postiže boja i očuvanost puža,25 nije isključena mogućnost i namjernog izlaganja vatri. Slično je već predloženo za nakit izrađen od vrste Cyclope neritea iz špilje Franchti, gdje je to rađeno zbog promjene boje, čime se na nakitu stvara kontrast između tamnih i svijetlih puževa.26

Minimalno ulaganje u vrijeme, tehniku i tehnologiju izradbe privjesaka, pri čemu je estetika stavljena u drugi plan, kao i obilje sirovine koju je bilo lako prikupiti na obližnjim morskim obalama, ukazuje kako ti puževi nisu egzotične izrađevine velikih vrijednosti,27 iako je, zbog postojanja takvog nakita na nalazištima udaljenim od obale, jasno da su one ipak bile dio razmjene između različitih zajednica.

Nakitni predmeti izrađivani od jelenjih očnjaka, česti u slojevima gornjeg paleolitika, unutar Stratuma 2 zastupljeni su tek jednim primjerkom.28 Obilježje je to i drugih nalazišta tog vremena,29 a posljedica je promjene ekonomske osnove zbog prilagodbe novim klimatskim uvjetima, pri čemu lov više nema odlučujuću ulogu u životu zajednica uz obalnu liniju, što se očigledno odrazilo i na izradu nakita.

4. TEHNOLOŠKA I TIPOLOŠKA ANALIZA ORUĐA

Uz ostatke faune, kao najbrojnija kategorija nalaza unutar Stratuma 2, ističu se nalazi litičke produkcije. Do sada je pronađeno 4119 komada litičkih artefakata. Tehnološka analiza provedena je po principu lanca operacija, u neznatno modificiranom

25 C. Perles – M. Vanhaeren, 2010.

26 C. Perles – M. Vanhaeren, 2010, 308.

27 D. Komšo, 2007, 36.

28 Uz još jedan pronađeni neprobušeni zub.

29 Nalazi ove vrste zabilježeni su samo u Pupićinoj i Nugljanskoj peći, gdje je sveukupno pronađeno 6 privjesaka; v. D. Komšo, 2007, 36.

that by accidental exposure to fire it is difficult to achieve the colour and preservation of a small shell,25 the possibility of an intentional exposure of shells to fire is not excluded. A similar thing has already been proposed for the jewellery of the Cyclope neritea species from the cave of Franchti, where this was done because of the colour change, which thus creates a contrast between dark and light snail shells on the jewellery.26

The minimum of time devoted to the technique and technology of making pendants, with the aesthetics put aside, as well as an abundance of the raw material which was easy to collect on the nearby coast, indicate that these snail shells were not exotic artefacts of great value,27 although, given the existence of such jewellery at sites remote from the coast, it is clear that they were part of exchange among different communities.

Jewellery artefacts made of deer canines, frequent in the Upper Palaeolithic, in Stratum 2 are represented with only one item.28 This is also characteristic of the other sites of the time,29 and is a consequence of the change in the economic basis due to the adjustment to the new climatic conditions, when hunting no longer played a decisive role in the life of communities along the coastline, which clearly reflected in the making of jewellery.

4. TECHNOLOGICAL AND TYPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE

Along with the remains of fauna, as the largest category of findings in Stratum 2, are the findings of lithic production. So far 4,119 pieces of lithic artefacts have been found. The technological analysis was

25 C. Perles – M. Vanhaeren, 2010.

26 C. Perles – M. Vanhaeren, 2010, 308.

27 D. Komšo, 2007, 36.

28 Along with another pierced tooth.

29 Findings of this kind were recorded only in Pupićina and Nugljanska Caves, where a total of 6 pendants were found; see. D. Komšo, 2007, 36.

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conducted on the principle of chain operations, in a slightly modified manner, adapted to the material from Vlakno.30 Thus a total of 20 categories was defined, which represent the forms of knapping characteristic of various phases of the crafting of raw material and production of tools. The typological classification of tools was done according to the typology drawn up by Demars and Laurent.31

The technological analysis identified the categories of all tool production phases except the initial (i.e. zero) phase of collecting raw materials (Table 1). The initial phase-removal of cortex and formation of cores is represented in primary and secondary flakes which account for about 10 % of the lithic inventory. Among them prevail flakes, while blades and bladelets occur incidentally. A similar situation exists in the inventory of the next phase. Flakes and small flakes are here a preferring product of knapping (they account for 40%). It is easy to recognise features of the knapping technique with a hard hammer since most of them are characterised by a wider and generally larger

30 I. Karavanić, 1992, 15; 2008, 82-89. Among the primary flakes, blades and bladelets, are pieces on which more than 80% of the dorsal side is covered with cortex, while pieces covered with 20-80% of cortex be-long to secondary flakes. Small flakes of smaller dimensions are speci-ally separated from standard flakes (< 2 cm). Size was also the main criterion for dividing blades and bladelets (< 3 cm). All the pieces witho-ut proper knapping properties were categorised among the chunks. There is a specially added category of indeterminate pieces, which very often contains tools that due to their fragmentation or unrecognisable knapping properties because of intense retouching could not have been fitted into the basic technological categories. The category of “fra-gments of a blade/bladelet” was added for the fragments where it was impossible to determine to which of the two groups they belonged.

31 P. Y. Demars – P. Laurent, 1992. So among end-scrapers, two basic groups are singled out, based on their technological characteristics (end-scrapers on flakes and end-scrapers on blades/bladelets). Thin end-scrapers (thumbnail and circular) are specially separated from the thick ones (keel-shaped end-scrapers, snout-shaped end-scrapers and push planes). Burins are viewed as a whole so there are no subtypes. From notches denticulates are separated as a distinct group. A special category of retouched fragments has been added, which relates to fragments of tools formed either by breaking i.e. damaging the working edge or by intentional knapping of the entire edge in order to retouch or modify the tool. Tools with edge retouching which did not cover most of one of the edges of the tool and could not have been placed among the existing types are classified into a separate group of retouched pieces. Flakes, blades and bladelets with small traces of use (frequently) on sharp edges were singled out as a special group of pieces with traces of use. Although drawn up for Upper Palaeolithic, the chosen typology also proved to be suitable for analysing the Mesolithic assemblage of Vlakno.

obliku, prilagođenom materijalu iz Vlakna.30 Tako je definirano ukupno 20 kategorija, koje predstavljaju oblike lomljevine karakteristične za različite stupnjeve obrade sirovinskog materijala i proizvodnju alatki. Tipološka klasifikacija alatki provedena je prema tipologiji koju su ustanovili Demars i Laurent.31

Tehnološkom analizom utvrđene su kategorije svih faza proizvodnje alatki osim inicijalne (tzv. nulte) faze pribavljanja sirovine (Tablica 1). Početna faza odbijanja okorinskog sloja i formiranja jezgre zastupljena je prvotnim i drugotnim oblicima koji čine oko 10% litičkog inventara. Među njima prevladavaju odbojci, a sječiva i pločice javljaju se usputno. Slična je situacija i u inventaru iz sljedeće faze. Odbojci i odbojčići tu čine preferirajući produkt cijepanja (zastupljeni su s oko 40%). Na njima je bilo lako prepoznati osobine tehnike cijepanja tvrdim čekićem, jer ih se većina odlikuje širim i općenito većim plohkom, te naglašenim bulbusom. Osim toga, na odbojcima je često prisutan i preuranjeni prekid pucanja pri distalnom kraju karakterističnog

30 I. Karavanić, 1992, 15; 2008, 82-89. Među prvotne odbojke, sječiva i pločice ubrojeni su komadi s više od 80% dorzalne površine prekrivene okorinom, dok su komadi s 20-80% okorine svrstani pod drugotne. Od standardnih odbojaka posebno su odvojeni odbojčići manjih dimenzija (< 2 cm). Veličina je bila glavni kriterij i pri razdjeli sječiva i pločica (< 3 cm). Među krhotine svrstani su svi komadi bez pravilnih osobina loma. Posebno je dodana kategorija neodredivih komada u koje su najčešće ubrojene alatke koje je zbog fragmentiranosti ili pak neprepoznatljivosti osobina loma uslijed intenzivne obradbe bilo nemoguće svrstati u osnovne tehnološke kategorije. Kategorija ulomak sječiva/pločice dodana je za lomljevine kojima nije bilo moguće odrediti kojoj od dviju skupina pripadaju.

31 P. Y. Demars – P. Laurent, 1992. Tako su među grebalima izdvojene osnovne grupe prema tehnološkim karakteristikama (grebala na odbojku i grebala na sječivu/pločici). Posebno su razdvojena tanka grebala (noktolika, kružna) od debelih (kobilična, njuškolika i blanje). Dubila su promatrana kao cjelina i nisu izdvojeni podtipovi. Od udubaka su kao posebna grupa izdvojeni nazubci. Posebno je dodana kategorija ulomaka s obradbom koja se odnosi na ulomke alatki nastale ili lomom odnosno oštećenjem radnog ruba ili namjernim odbijanjem dijela tog ruba u svrhu dorade ili modificiranja alatke. Alatke s rubnom obradbom koja nije pokrivala veći dio jednog od rubova alatke te ih nije bilo moguće smjestiti u postojeće tipove svrstane su u posebnu grupu komadića s obradbom. Odbojci, sječiva i pločice sa sitnim tragovima uporabe na (najčešće) oštrim rubovima izdvojene su u posebnu grupu kao komadići s tragovima uporabe. Iako izrađena za gornji paleolitik, odabrana tipologija pokazala se prikladnom i za obradu mezolitičkog skupa alatki iz Vlakna.

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izvijenog oblika (hinged termination).32 Upotreba mekog čekića nije sa sigurnošću potvrđena. Nije utvrđeno postojanje specifičnog usnatog plohka na odbojcima i sječivima, ali može se pretpostaviti njegova upotreba, pogotovo za dobivanje ravnih sječiva koja općenito imaju manji odnosno uži zadak i nenaglašen, gotovo neprimjetan bulbus. Sječiva i pločice u ovom sloju čine oko 10% materijala. Karakterizira ih nepravilan dorzalni izgled s negativima različitih oblika. Iako sječiva čine najrjeđi produkt cijepanja, u ovoj fazi karakterizira ih vrlo visok stupanj iskorištavanja za alatke (65%).33 Djelomično se to može objasniti pogodnim oblikom sječiva odnosno većim prirodnim radnim rubom, zbog čega su češće nego ostali oblici intenzivno korištena kao neformalne alatke te samim time uvrštena u kategoriju komadića s tragovima uporabe. Međutim, odbojci i dalje čine najbrojniju tehnološku skupinu među alatkama (235 komada).

32 C. Butler, 2005, 37.

33 Stupanj iskorištavanja odbojaka za izradu alatki je 27%, a pločica 19%.

butt and a prominent bulb in addition, on the flakes, there is a frequent premature termination at the distal end of the characteristic hinged form (hinged termination).32 We can however assume the use of a soft hammer. The existence of a specific lip butt on the flakes and blades has not been determined, but we can assume what its use was, especially in making straight blades which generally have a smaller i.e. narrower butt and an unaccented almost invisible bulb. Blades and bladelets account for about 10% of the material. They are characterised by an irregular dorsal appearance with negatives of different forms. Although blades are the rarest product of knapping, at this stage they are characterised by a high degree of exploitation for tools (65%)33. This can be partly explained by the suitable form of blades i.e. a larger natural working edge, which is why they were more extensively used than other forms as an informal tool and therefore included in the category of pieces with traces of use. However, flakes still account for the largest technological group among tools (235 pieces).

32 C. Butler, 2005, 37.

33 The degree of the use of flakes to make tools is 27%, and plates 19%.

Tablica 1 i 2Stratum 2 - Tehnološka analizaTip lomljevine: kom %gomolj 0 0,0%prvotni odbojak 142 3,4%prvotno sječivo 17 0,4%prvotna pločica 12 0,3%drugotni odbojak 217 5,3%drugotno sječivo 31 0,8%drugotna pločica 41 1,0%odbojak 865 21,0%odbojčić 873 21,2%sječivo 173 4,2%pločica 250 6,1%ulomak sječiva/pločice 34 0,8%jezgra 25 0,6%ulomak jezgre 6 0,1%krijestasto sječivo/pločica 17 0,4%dotjerujući odbojak jezgre 7 0,2%odbojak od obradbe 413 10,0%iverak dubila 22 0,5%krhotina 946 23,0%neodredivo 28 0,7%UKUPNO 4119 100,0%

Table 1 and 2Stratum 2 - Technological analysisType of knapping: pieces %nodule (pebble) 0 0.0%primary flake 142 3.4%primary blade 17 0.4%primary bladelet 12 0.3%secondary flake 217 5.3%secondary blade 31 0.8%secondary bladelet 41 1.0%flake 865 21.0%small flake 873 21.2%blade 173 4.2%bladelet 250 6.1%fragment of blade/bladelet 34 0.8%core 25 0.6%core fragment 6 0.1%crested blade/bladelet 17 0.4%core rejuvination flake 7 0.2%retouching flakes 413 10.0%burin spall 22 0.5%chunk 946 23.0%undetermined 28 0.7%TOTAL 4,119 100.0%

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Završna faza proizvodnje alatki posvjedočena je odbojčićima od obradbe i specifičnim ivercima dubila koji predstavljaju sporedni proizvod obradbe radnog ruba formalne alatke. Njihova brojnost upućuje na to da se završna izrada alatki odvijala unutar špilje. Analiza horizontalne disperzije odbojaka od obradbe pokazala je veću koncentraciju u kvadratima na južnom dijelu istraživane površine. To upućuje na zaključak da je taj dio procesa izrade bio intenzivniji na dijelu u blizini ulaza. Među odbojcima od obradbe i ivercima dubila nađeni su komadi koji s dorzalne strane, na proksimalnom ili lateralnom dijelu (ovisno o kojoj se kategoriji radi), imaju dobro vidljivu sitnu obradbu. Oni su uvršteni u tipološku klasifikaciju kao ulomci s obradbom (da bi se dobila potpunija slika o ukupnom broju formalnih alatki na lokalitetu), ali je njihova prisutnost zanimljivija s tehnološke strane jer predstavljaju odbojke nastale doradom i modificiranjem radnog ruba

The final phase of tools production is affirmed by small retouching flakes and specific burin spalls which represent a by-product of the retouching of the cutting edge of a formal tool. Their number means that the final phase of the crafting of tools proceeded in the cave. The analysis of the horizontal dispersion of retouched flakes showed a higher concentration in the squares on the southern part of the excavated area. This suggests that this phase of the crafting process was more intensive in the area closer to the entrance. Among the retouched flakes and burin splinters, some pieces were also found, which from the dorsal side, on the proximal and lateral side (depending on the relevant category) have a clearly visible small retouching. They are included in the typological classification as retouched fragments (to obtain a more complete picture of the total number of formal tools at the site), but their presence is more interesting from the technological point of view

Stratum 2 - Typological analysisType of tool: pieces %endscraper on flake 15 2.7%endscraper on blade/bladelet 3 0.5%thumbnail endscraper 14 2.5%circular end-scraper 2 0.4%keel-shaped end-scraper 1 0.2%snout-shaped end-scraper 2 0.4%push plane 7 1.3%bladelet 13 2.4%truncation 16 2.9%sidescraper 20 3.6%raclette 16 2.9%borer 9 1.6%burin 40 7.2%notch 18 3.3%denticulate 9 1.6%splintered piece 28 5,1%backed bladelet 8 1.4%Dufor bladelet 1 0.2%leaf-shaped piece 2 0.4%backed triangle 1 0.2%retouched fragment 39 7.1%retouched piece 53 9.6%piece with trace of use 236 42.7%TOTAL: 553 100.0%

Stratum 2 - Tipološka analizaTip alatke: kom. %grebalo na odbojku 15 2,7%grebalo na sječivu/pločici 3 0,5%noktoliko grebalo 14 2,5%kružno grebalo 2 0,4%kobilično grebalo 1 0,2%njuškoliko grebalo 2 0,4%blanja 7 1,3%obrađeno sječivo 13 2,4%zarubak 16 2,9%strugalo 20 3,6%strugalica 16 2,9%svrdlo 9 1,6%dubilo 40 7,2%udubak 18 3,3%nazubak 9 1,6%iskrzani komadić 28 5,1%pločica s hrptom 8 1,4%duforska pločica 1 0,2%listoliki komadić 2 0,4%trokut s hrptom 1 0,2%ulomak s obradbom 39 7,1%komadić s obradbom 53 9,6%komadić s tragovima uporabe 236 42,7%UKUPNO: 553 100,0%

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postojećih alatki. 34 Ostatak ulomaka s obradbom čine dijelovi alatki nastali lomom, dio kojih je nakon oštećenja vjerojatno bio odbačen. Može se zaključiti da su u litičkom skupu dokumentirane gotovo sve faze „životnog ciklusa“ sirovinskog materijala, kako proizvodnje, tako i modificiranja odnosno popravljanja postojećih i odbacivanja oštećenih alatki.35

Izdvojena su 23 tipa alatki, od kojih najveću zastupljenost imaju komadići s tragovima uporabe koji čine čak 42% alatki. Radi se o neformalnim alatkama, odbojcima i sječivima koji na rubovima (najčešće oštrima) imaju sitne tragove nastale intenzivnijim korištenjem. Osim njih, u većem postotku zastupljeni su i različiti komadići s obradbom. Različite vrste grebala zastupljene su s nešto više od 7% udjela. Među njima se najčešće javljaju noktolika i jednostavna grebala na odbojku. Deblja grebala rjeđe su zastupljena, a većinom se radi o blanjama.36 Međutim, za većinu primjeraka utvrđeno je da se radi o iscrpljenim jezgrama koje su došle u upotrebu kao alatke. Tek manji dio možda je izvorno bio odbijen kao veći odbojak, ali je također poslužio za proizvodnju manjih pločica prilikom oblikovanja radnog ruba. Različita dubila čine brojniju kategoriju. Najčešće su izrađena na sječivu, nešto rjeđe na odbojcima, a većinom se radi o transverzalnim i diedričnim dubilima. Iskrzani komadići javljaju se u dvije varijante: kao odbojci ili kao jezgre reducirane do kraja. Od ostalih tipova zabilježeni su u različitim

34 To je dobar primjer kako su tehnološka i tipološka metoda dva jednako važna i međusobno nadopunjiva metodološka postupka, iako ponekad kontradiktorna. Promatrani isključivo s tehnološke strane, odbojci od obradbe i iverci dubila s ostatkom obradbe na dorzalnoj strani bili bi samo svrstani u završnu fazu procesa proizvodnje alatke zajedno s ostalim komadima istih tehnoloških osobina. Artefakt bi bio stavljen u kontekst procesa proizvodnje (s ciljem rekonstrukcije) a ne promatran izdvojeno (F. Blaser – R. Videka-Blaser – I. Karavanić, 1999-2000, 367). Primjenom tipološke metode uzeti su u obzir drugi kriteriji (položaj retuša), čime su komadi svrstani među alatke (ulomke s obradbom). Pritom je naglašeno i njihovo posebno mjesto u lancu operacija kao produkta naknadne modifikacije alatki.

35 I. Karavanić – J. Balen, 2003, 16.

36 Blanje se obično smatraju alatkama bliskim kobiličnim grebalima koje ponekad mogu nastati i njihovim krajnjim reduciranjem; P. Y. Demars – P. Laurent, 1992, 48.

as they represent flakes created by retouching and modifying the cutting edge of the existing tools.34 The remainder of the retouched fragments represent segments of tools formed by breakage, part of which was probably discarded after the breakage occurred. It can be concluded that in the lithic assemblage all the phases of the “life cycle” of raw material are present, both the production and modification or repairing of the existing as well as the rejection of the damaged tools.35

23 types of tools have been singled out, among which pieces with traces of use are the most represented accounting for as much as 42% of the tools. These are non-formal tools, flakes and blades which at their edges (usually sharp) have small traces of intensive use. Apart from them there is also a higher percentage of various retouched fragments. Different kinds of end -scrapers account for a little more than 7%. Among them the most common are thumbnail and simple flake scrapers. Thicker types of end -scrapers are rather scarce and appear mostly as push planes.36 However, most examples are believed to be exhausted cores which came into use as tools. Only a small part may have been originally detached as a larger flake, but they were also used for the production of smaller bladelets, while the working edge was shaped. Various burins account for a larger category. They

34 This is a good example of how technological and typological methods are two equally important and mutually complementary methodological procedures, although sometimes contradictory. Viewed exclusively from the technological aspect, retouched flakes and burin splinters with the residue of retouching on the dorsal side would be placed only to the final phase of the production process along with the other pieces of the same technological features. The artefact would be placed in the context of the production process (with the aim of reconstruction) and not viewed separately (F. Blaser – R. Videka-Blaser – I. Karavanić, 1999-2000, 367). In the application of the typological method other criteria are taken into account (retouch position), which classified the pieces among tools (retouched fragments). Here, their special place in the chain of operations as a product of a subsequent modification of the tool has been pointed out.

35 I. Karavanić – J. Balen, 2003, 16.

36 Push planes are usually considered as tools similar to keel-shaped end-scrapers which can sometimes be created by their ultimate reduction; P. Y. Demars – P. Laurent, 1992, 48.

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količinama još i obrađena sječiva (s većim dijelom jednog ili oba lateralna ruba prekrivena obradbom), zarupci, udubci, nazubci, strugala, strugalice i svrdla (većinom manjih dimenzija). Među komadićima s hrptom prevladavaju jednostavne pločice s hrptom. Osim njih javlja se i jedan trokut s hrptom.37 Oni se u funkcionalnom smislu obično tumače kao dijelovi za umetanje na bacačka oružja, možda manja koplja ili strijele.38 Sličnu funkciju mogla su imati i dva listolika komadića.39

37 P. Y. Demars – P. Laurent, 1992, 110. Navedeni primjerak nešto je veći od tipoloških standarda. Obično su izrađeni na pločicama, a dužina primjerka iz Vlakna je 36 mm. Međutim, prednost pri klasifikaciji dana je smjeru, kutu i obliku obradbe.

38 S. Kozlowski, 2009, 40; I. Karavanić – J. Balen, 2003, 45.

39 S. Kozlowski, 2009, 76, Fig 2.4.9. Oba primjerka izrađena su na pločicama.

were most often crafted on blades, less frequently on flakes and are usually transverse and dihedral burins. Splintered pieces occur in two variants: either as flakes or cores utterly reduced. From the other types there are also records of various amounts of retouched blades (with most part of one or both lateral edges retouched) truncations notches, denticulates, side-scrapers, raclettes and borers (mostly smaller). Among the backed pieces predominant are simple backed bladelets. There is also a backed triangle.37 In terms of their function they are usually interpreted as parts to be inserted in the throwing weapons, perhaps

37 P. Y. Demars – P. Laurent, 1992, 110. The above example is slightly larger than the typological standard. They are usually made on bladelets, and the length of the piece from Vlakno is 36 mm. However, in the classification, the advantage was given to the direction of the angle, the angle and the shape of crafting.

SL. 3 Mezolitički pokop (fotoskicu izradio D. Vujević) FIG. 3. Mesolithic burial (photo made by D. Vujević).

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Navedene litičke kategorije izrađene su od različitih vrsta rožnjaka, u velikoj većini lokalnog porijekla, koje se i danas mogu pronaći na Dugom otoku.40 Osim korištenja različitih vrsta rožnjaka za izradu alatki, u Vlaknu je pronađeno 20 manjih (dužine od 3 do 5 cm) i isto toliko većih (dužine od 7 do 10 cm) vapnenačkih oblutaka koji nisu kamenje kakvo se inače nalazi u špilji i koji vjerojatno potječu iz obližnjih uvala. Iako većina predmeta te vrste iz Vlakna nema prostim okom vidljive tragove, zaravnjene stranice, uglačanost ili pak karakteristična oštećenja vrhova na pojedinim primjercima nedvojbeno ukazuju na upotrebu tih predmeta pri različitim radovima. Budući da su analize za Vlakno tek u procesu izrade, možemo se poslužiti analizama i eksperimentima s drugih nalazišta, gdje se vidi da je takvo kamenje korišteno za struganje i trljanje, ali i za aktivno i pasivno udaranje (kao udarači, nakovanj, itd.). Moglo je biti upotrebljavano za obradu kože ili razbijanje kostiju ili, kao kod nalazišta Arene Candide, za mrvljenje pigmenta.41

Koštane izrađevine čine manju skupinu alatki. Sveukupno je unutar Stratuma 2 do sada pronađeno 14 primjeraka, a svi se mogu uvrstiti u kategoriju ubodnih predmeta. Šest primjeraka je sačuvano u cijelosti, dok je od ostalih najčešće sačuvan samo distalni kraj. Za izradu su najčešće korištene rascijepane dijafize dugih kostiju jelena, koje su obrađene i uglačane po cijeloj površini. Dužina u cijelosti sačuvanih primjeraka ne prelazi 10 cm. Nema igala za šivanje, iako se manji broj šila svojim dimenzijama i oblikovanjem približavaju tome, tako da bismo ih mogli okarakterizirati kao neperforirane igle.

40 Analiza sirovinskih osnova trenutno je u tijeku, a navedeni podaci su poznati autorima iz usmene komunikacije sa Z. Perhočom.

41 M. Mussi, 2002, 337-338.

smaller arrows or spears.38 Two leaf-shaped pieces could have had a similar function.39

The above-mentioned lithic categories were made of various sorts of chert, mostly of local origin which can still be found on Dugi otok today.40 In addition to using different species of chert to make tools, 20 small (3 to 5 cm in length) and the same number of larger (7 to 10 cm in length) limestone pebbles were found in Vlakno cave, which are not normally found in the cave and which probably came from the nearby bays. Although most limestone pebbles from Vlakno do not have traces visible with naked eye, flat sides, smoothness or characteristic damage to the tips clearly indicate that these items were used for different kinds of work. Since the analyses for Vlakno cave are still being carried out, we can make use of the analyses and experiments from the other sites, where it can be seen that such stone was used for scraping and rubbing, but also for both active and passive striking (such as strikers, anvils, etc.). They could have been used for the treatment leather or bone breaking or like at the site of Arena Candida for grinding pigment.41

Bone artefacts are a small group of tools. In Stratum 2, a total of 14 examples have been found so far, and they can all be classified as stabbing tools. Six of them have been entirely preserved, while from the remainder most often the distal end is preserved. For their production, the diaphysis of the long bones of antlers were commonly used and they were treated and polished over the entire surface. The length of the entirely preserved examples does not exceed 10 cm. There are no sewing needles, although a smaller number of awls with their dimensions and shape are close to them, so that they could be characterised as non-perforated needles.

38 S. Kozlowski, 2009, 40; I. Karavanić – J. Balen, 2003, 45.

39 S. Kozlowski, 2009, 76, Fig 2.4.9. Both examples are made on plates.

40 The analysis of the raw material base is currently in progress and the authors are familiar with the above-mentioned data through oral communication with Z. Perhočom.

41 M. Mussi, 2002, 337-338.

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5. LJUDSKI OSTACI

Uz brojne nalaze materijalne kulture prilikom istraživanja špilje Vlakno pronađeni su i ostaci ljudi koji su naseljavali špilju.42 Izvrsno sačuvan je kostur muškarca, starosti 30 do 40 godina, koji je pronađen položen u ispruženom položaju u blizini vatrišta na hodnoj površini Stratuma 2 (Sl. 3). Prilikom istraživanja na vrhu stratuma nisu bili vidljivi tragovi jame, a blizina stropa na toj razini znatno otežava ukapanje. Također, zemlja neposredno uz kostur bila je u potpunosti identična okolnom sloju. Stoga se može pretpostaviti da je pokojnik bio položen na površinu na kojoj je i pronađen.43 Direktnim datiranjem jedne od kostiju dobiven je datum 7520 kal. god. pr. K.44 Nisu to jedini ljudski ostaci iz Vlakna. Na dnu površinskog sloja (Stratum 1) pronađeni su fragmenti lubanje i manji broj drugih kostiju. Za razliku od prethodnog slučaja, te su kosti fragmentirane, razbacane uz rub špilje i ne pokazuju nikakav jasan uzorak rasprostiranja. Prema analizi M. Šlausa kosti pripadaju jednom muškarcu starosti 35 do 50 godina i jednoj mlađoj ženskoj osobi.45 Za te nalaze još uvijek nisu poznati rezultati datiranja, ali prema stratigrafskom položaju može se pretpostaviti mezolitičko porijeklo.

O odnosu prema pokojniku u razdoblju ranog mezolitika za sada možemo govoriti samo na osnovi malobrojnih sačuvanih pokopa, pri čemu ne možemo biti sigurni radi li se u tim slučajevima o iznimkama ili o pravilu u ponašanju zajednica. Ako izuzmemo nalazišta koja sadrže fragmente kostiju, pronađen je vrlo mali broj cjelovitih pokopa,

42 Antropološka analiza izvršena je u Odsjeku za arheologiju HAZU, a podaci su poznati autorima prema dostavljenom stručnom izvještaju (M. Šlaus, 2012). Potpuna znanstvena objava rezultata je u tijeku.

43 Za potpunu potvrdu takve pretpostavke ipak treba pričekati konačne rezultate analize sedimenata.

44 Beta-311088: 2 Sigma kalibracija: Cal BC 7570 do 7450 (Cal BP 9520 do 9400) i Cal BC 7390 do 7380 (Cal BP 9340 do 9330); 1 Sigma kalibracija: Cal BC 7530 do 7480 (Cal BP 9480 do 9430).

45 M. Šlaus, 2012.

5. HUMAN REMAINS

Along with numerous findings in material culture while researching the cave of Vlakno, the remains of people who lived in the cave were also unearthed.42 A well preserved skeleton of a male person, aged between 30 and 43 was found in extended position near the hearth on the walking surface of Stratum 2 (Fig. 3). During the excavation on the top of the stratum there were no traces of the pit and near the ceiling at this level the burial was considerably more difficult. Also, the soil immediately next to the skeleton was completely identical to the surrounding layer. It can be therefore assumed that the deceased had been laid on the same surface where he was found.43 By direct dating of one of the bones, the date of 7 520 cal. BC was obtained.44 These are not the only human remains at Vlakno. At the bottom of the surface layer (Stratum 1), skull fragments and a small number of other bones were also excavated. Unlike the previous case, these bones are fragmented, scattered along the edge of the cave and do not show any clear patterns of spreading. According to the analysis by M. Šlaus, the bones belong to a male aged between 35 and 50 years and a younger female person.45 The results of dating of these findings are not still known, but the stratigraphic position assumes their possible Mesolithic origin.

The burial of the deceased during the early Mesolithic can only be looked at on the basis of few preserved burials, where one cannot be certain whether these cases are an exception or the rule in the behaviour of the communities. If the sites which contain fragments of bones are excluded, then a very small number of complete burials have been found, which leaves

42 Anthropological analysis was carried out at the Department of Archaeology CASA, and the data are known to the authors according to the delivered professional report (M. Šlaus, 2012). The complete scientific publication of the results is in progress.

43 For the full confirmation of this assumption, however, the final results of the sediment analysis should be waited for.

44 Beta-311088: 2 Sigma calibration: Cal BC 7570 to 7450 (Cal BP 9520 to 9400) and Cal BC 7390 to 7380 (Cal BP 9340 to 9330); 1 Sigma calibration: Cal BC 7530 to 7480 (Cal BP 9480 to 9430).

45 M. Šlaus, 2012.

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što ostavlja prostor tek za opće zaključke.46 Iz tog razdoblja na prostoru istočne obale Jadrana gotovo da i nema sačuvanih ljudskih ostataka. Razbacani fragmenti kostura pronađeni su u Kopačini na otoku Braču, a najbogatiji takvom vrstom nalaza su slojevi Vele spile na otoku Korčuli, gdje je pronađeno 5 pokopa.47 Može se primijetiti da se svi navedeni pokopi nalaze u špiljama, ali to i ne treba čuditi s obzirom na općenito slabu očuvanost kostiju na nalazištima na otvorenom i slabu istraženost nalazišta na otvorenom uopće na istočnom Jadranu.

Ljudski ostaci daju nam uvid u fizički izgled i osobine zajednica koje su nastanjivale špilju, a način tretiranja pokojnika daje mogućnost uvida u njihov duhovni svijet. Sačuvani ostaci iz Vlakna govore o općenito dobrim hranidbenim i zdravstvenim uvjetima. Prisutan je tek blagi degenerativni osteoartritis, koji nastaje kao produkt kontinuiranog fizičkog rada.48 Ekološka i topografska raznolikost dostupna obalnim mezolitičkim grupama smanjila je hranidbeni i sezonski stres, tako da se često navodi da su mezolitičke populacije bile zdravije od onih neolitičkih. No ovisno o regijama postoje i suprotni dokazi. Paleoantropološke studije koje ukazuju na periodične nestašice hrane, ozljede i druge traume, uz visoku smrtnost djece ukazuju da život i nije bio toliko jednostavan.49 Slične pokazatelje imamo i za Velu spilu gdje se vidi da je osoba za života bolovala od više bolesti, posebno od onih vezanih uz promjene na zubima, kralješcima i drugim kostima, vjerojatno povezanim sa specifičnim načinom prehrane te prekomjernim i kontinuiranim fizičkim radom.50

46 M. Jochim, 2011, 135.

47 D. Radić, 2005; B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005; D. Komšo, 2006. Apsolutna datiranja slojeva u kojima se nalaze ljudski ostaci dala su slijedeće datume: sloj 7/2 (8230 ± 35 BP – VERA-2344), 7/3 (8200 ± 30 BP – VERA-2341) i 7/4 (7200 ± 30 BP – VERA-2340). Po njima, prva dva bi trebalo odrediti u kraj ranog mezolitika, a posljednji u kraj kasnog mezolitika (D. Komšo, 2006, 72-73).

48 M. Šlaus, 2012.

49 M. Pluciennik, 2008, 352.

50 D. Radić, 2005, 334-335; 2005a, 54-55.

space only for general conclusions.46 From this period, on the Eastern Adriatic coast there are almost no preserved human remains. Scattered fragments of skeletons were found at Kopačina on the island of Brač, and the richest in this kind of findings are the layers of Vela Cave on the island of Korčula, where 5 burials were found.47 It can be noticed that all the above-mentioned burials were found in caves, but this should not be surprising given the generally poor state of the preservation of bones at open sites and a poor degree of open-air exploration in the eastern Adriatic.

Human remains give us an insight into the physical appearance and features of the communities that inhabited the cave, and the manner of treating the deceased gives us an insight into their spiritual world. The preserved remains from Vlakno testify to the generally good nutritional and health conditions. There is only mild degenerative osteoarthritis, which occurred as a result of continuous physical work.48 Ecological and topographic diversity available to coastal Mesolithic groups reduced the feeding and seasonal stress, so it is often said that the Mesolithic populations were healthier than the Neolithic ones. However, depending on the region there is evidence to the contrary. Palaeo-anthropological studies which point to periodic food shortage, injuries and other trauma, along with a high mortality rate in children, suggest that life was not that simple.49 There are also similar indicators for Vela cave, where it can be seen that the person in his/her lifetime suffered from several diseases, especially those related to changes in the teeth, vertebrae and other bones, probably associated with the specific diet and excessive and continuous physical work.50

46 M. Jochim, 2011, 135.

47 D. Radić, 2005; B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005; D. Komšo, 2006. Absolute dating of the layers containing human remains gave the following dates: layer 7/2 (8230±35 BP –VERA-2344), 7/3 (8200±30 BP – VERA-2341) and 7/4 (7200±30 BP – VERA-2340). According to them, the first two should belong to the Early Mesolithic, and the last one to the end of the Late Mesolithic (D. Komšo, 2006, 72-73).

48 M. Šlaus, 2012.

49 M. Pluciennik, 2008, 352.

50 D. Radić, 2005, 334-335; 2005a, 54-55.

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The spiritual world of Mesolithic communities is much more difficult to interpret. Human approach to death varies, and materially it is expressed in many ways and depends on a number of general and individual considerations. In many caves there is evidence of the existence of temporal or at least spatial separation between the funerary and residential areas.51 From the sedimentology of the Vlakno layers it is noticeable that after the burial the community left the cave, which seems to be quite logical, considering this was a small living space.

The findings from Vlakno also point to different burial of the deceased. Although it has often been empha-sised that cave dwellers were simply left on the cave floor, the question should be asked whether indi-vidual Mesolithic skeletons, including the one from Vlakno, would have been so well preserved without being protected in some way. Along with the preser-vation, the way of bone calcification may also indicate that the deceased could have been covered with a thin layer of soil. On the other hand, the scattered hu-man bones in Stratum 1 show the dead were some-times really laid or just left on the ground without be-ing covered with soil, and that by the subsequent use of the cave either by animals or humans their remains were dislocated. This should not necessarily be seen as disregard for the dead; this may have been due to a number of circumstances such as a different concept of death, or different rituals, but the possibility should not be ruled out that the deceased from Stratum 1 were the only residents of the cave at the time and they simply remained in the place where they died without anyone to bury them.

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

In the area of the eastern Adriatic, there is a small number of sites with layers from the Early Mesolithic, comparable to Vlakno.52 The best

51 P. Arias et al., 2009, 654; P. Arias – E. Álvarez-Fernandez, 2004, 236.

52 Due to the analyses of Kopačine cave on the island of Brač, which attribute to the layers, previously dated to the Early Mesolithic, a late glacial and Epigravettian character, it is currently impossible to make a comparison with Stratum 2 of Vlakno; see N. Vukosavljević et al., 2011, 12.

Duhovni svijet mezolitičkih zajednica mnogo je teže protumačiti. Ljudski pristup smrti poprilično varira, a materijalno je izražen na brojne načine i ovisan je o brojnim općim, ali i individualnim promišljanjima. U brojnim špiljama postoje dokazi o postojanju vremenskog ili barem prostornog odmaka između funerarnih i naseobinskih dijelova.51 U Vlaknu je iz sedimentacije slojeva primjetno da je nakon pokopa zajednica napustila špilju, što je donekle i logično ako se uzme da je riječ o manjem životnom prostoru.

Nalazi iz Vlakna ukazuju i na različite odnose prema pokojnicima. Iako je često naglašavano da su stanovnici špilja jednostavno ostavljani na podu, treba postaviti pitanje bi li pojedini mezolitički kosturi, a među njima i ovaj iz Vlakna, ostali tako sačuvani a da nisu imali neku zaštitu. Uz očuvanost, i način kalcificiranja kostiju može ukazivati na to da je pokojnik mogao biti pokriven tanjim slojem zemlje. S druge strane, razbacanost ljudskih kostiju u Stratumu 1 pokazuje da su pokojnici ponekad zaista i bili položeni ili ostavljeni na tlu bez pokrivanja zemljom, i da su naknadnim korištenjem špilje od strane životinja ili ljudi njihovi ostaci dislocirani. Na takav odnos ne treba nužno gledati kao na nebrigu o pokojnicima, nego to može biti posljedica brojnih okolnosti, primjerice drugačijeg poimanja smrti, ili drugačijih rituala, a ne treba niti isključiti mogućnosti da su pokojnici iz Stratuma 1 bili jedini stanovnici špilje u to vrijeme i da su jednostavno ostali na mjestu gdje su umrli a da ih nitko nije pokopao.

6. ZAKLJUČNA RAZMATRANJA

Na prostoru istočnog Jadrana mali je broj nalazišta sa slojevima iz vremena ranog mezolitika koji se mogu usporediti s Vlaknom.52 Najbolja usporedba

51 P. Arias et al., 2009, 654; P. Arias – E. Álvarez-Fernandez, 2004, 236.

52 Zbog novih analiza špilje Kopačine na otoku Braču koje slojevima, nekoć datiranima u vrijeme ranog mezolitika, pripisuju kasnoglacijalni i epigravetijenski karakter, trenutno nije moguća usporedba sa Stratumom 2 iz Vlakna; v. N. Vukosavljević et al., 2011, 12.

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comparison can be made with the site of Vela cave on the island of Korčula, where according to the obtained absolute dates and finds, layer 7/2 would best correspond to Stratum 2.53 The economy which was dominated by fish, shellfish and sea snails, with a small amount of land animal bones (with a higher percentage of the remains of small carnivores), almost completely corresponds to Vlakno. Simple and well-worked bone tools, typologically and technologically match those from Stratum 2. The only major difference is the amount of lithic findings, which in Vela cave is smaller, but within this assemblage of findings, like at Vlakno, a similar smaller percentage of retouching examples may be noticed (10%).54

Parallels can be drawn with the site of Pupićina Cave in Istria, where the layers of the Early Mesolithic were confirmed by absolute dates which determined that people resided at this site between 10,000 and 7,500 years before present.55 The analysis of fauna suggests that the survival strategies were based on hunting various game, gathering land and sea snails, shell-fish and plants. A greater number of hunting species is different from Vlakno, which is a consequence of both the geographical position of Pupićina cave and the character of the site. Namely, in contrast to Vlakno, the collected findings indicate that Pupićina cave was used for a longer stay, probably as the main seasonal habitat of a wider community within the regional settlement system.56 Differences in the eco-nomic basis and the character of the settlement also reflected on the lithic production, where the low inci-dence of points and backed baldelets is noticeable as well as high incidence of transformation tools. Micro-burins, not found in Stratum 2 at Vlakno, in Pupićina cave occur relatively frequently.

Another site in Istria is suitable for comparison. This is Abri Šebrn, where absolute dates place the stay of Mesolithic communities in the period of around

53 B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005, 56-57.

54 B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005, 56-57.

55 D. Komšo, 2006, 60.

56 D. Komšo, 2006, 62.

može se povući s nalazištem Vela spila na otoku Korčuli, gdje bi prema dobivenim apsolutnim datumima i nalazima, Stratumu 2 najbolje odgovarao sloj 7/2.53 Privreda s dominacijom riba, školjaka i puževa, uz manju količinu životinjskih kostiju (s većim postotkom ostataka sitnih zvijeri) gotovo u potpunosti odgovara stanju u Vlaknu. Jednostavna i dobro obrađena koštana oruđa tipološki i tehnološki odgovaraju onima iz Stratuma 2. Jedina veća razlika je u količini kremenih nalaza, koja je u Veloj spili manja, ali unutar tog skupa nalaza može se, kao i kod Vlakna, primijetiti sličan, mali postotak obrađenih primjeraka (10%).54

Paralele možemo povući s nalazištem Pupićina peć u Istri, gdje su slojevi ranog mezolitika potvrđeni apsolutnim datumima koji određuju boravak ljudi u tom nalazištu između 10000 i 7500 godina prije sadašnjosti.55 Analiza faune upućuje na to da su se strategije opstanka temeljile na lovu raznolike divljači, skupljanju kopnenih i morskih puževa, morskih školjaka i biljaka. Veći postotak lovnih vrsta razlikuje se od Vlakna, ali posljedica je to kako geografskog položaja Pupićine peći, tako i karaktera nalazišta. Naime, za razliku od Vlakna, prikupljeni nalazi upućuju na to da je Pupićina peć bila korištena za dugotrajniji boravak, vjerojatno kao glavno sezonsko stanište šire zajednice unutar regionalnog sistema naselja.56 Razlike u ekonomskoj osnovi i u karakteru nalazišta odrazile su se i na litičku produkciju, kod koje je primjetna mala učestalost šiljaka i pločica s hrptom te visoka učestalost transformacijskih alatki. Relativno se često javljaju mikrodubila koja nisu pronađena u Stratumu 2 Vlakna.

Još jedno nalazište u Istri je pogodno za usporedbu. Riječ je o Abri Šebrn, gdje apsolutne datacije smještaju boravak mezolitičkih zajednica

53 B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005, 56-57.

54 B. Čečuk – D. Radić, 2005, 56-57.

55 D. Komšo, 2006, 60.

56 D. Komšo, 2006, 62.

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8400-7610 cal. BC.57 The comparison between Vlakno and Abri Šern is particularly suitable at the level of lithic artefacts. Their numbers, technological and typological characteristics are similar. In Abri Šern, more than a thousand of lithic artefacts have been found, of which 10% are retouching. Among the tools the most common are simple linear tools, then hunting tools and scrapers, borers, burins, notches, splintered pieces and composite tools.58

The cave of Vlakno, although only in the initial stage of research, is a valuable source of information about the Mesolithic period, which only recently, with the research in Istria and on Korčula, has assumed the importance it deserves.59 Future research, in addition to Vlakno, will focus its attention on the wider area of the Zadar archipelago. Based on the analysis of individual Adriatic sites, we can assume that there are dynamic networks, with sites used for various specialised purposes gathered around settlement sites in strategic locations.60 Thus, Vlakno should be just one part of a larger system of the use of space. Accordingly, it seems quite realistic to discover new Mesolithic sites on the island of Dugi otok or the islands around it. The sea distance does not impose a limit to it. As the findings from Vela Cave indicate, maritime navigation, including that between the two coasts of the Adriatic is much older than the beginning of Neolithic.61 Currently available anthropological analysis should be completed by the DNA and stable isotope analysis, which will provide new data on the life of the community, and the obtained data will be used to make a comparison with the other sites and complete the picture of the Mesolithic period in the Mediterranean.

57 D. Komšo, 2006, 67.

58 D. Komšo, 2006, 67.

59 D. Komšo, 2006.

60 D. Komšo, 2009, 294.

61 D. Radić, 2005, 339.

u razdoblje oko 8400-7610 kal. god. pr. Kr.57 Usporedba Vlakna i Abri Šebrna posebno je pogodna na razini litičkih artefakata. Primjećuje se sličnost u zastupljenosti, tehnološkim i tipološkim karakteristikama. U Abri Šebrn prikupljeno je više od tisuću kremenih izrađevina, od čega 10% otpada na obrađene primjerke. Od alatki najzastupljenije su one s jednostavnom linearnom obradom, zatim alatke za lov te grebala, dubila, svrdla, zarupci, udubci, iskrzani komadić i kombinirane alatke.58

Špilja Vlakno, iako tek u početnom stupnju istraživanja, predstavlja vrijedan izvor podataka o razdoblju mezolitika, koje tek u posljednje vrijeme istraživanjima nalazišta u Istri i na Korčuli dobiva važnost kakvu zaslužuje.59 U daljnjim istraživanjima, osim na Vlakno, pažnja će biti usmjerena na šire područje zadarskog otočja. Na osnovi analiza pojedinih jadranskih nalazišta možemo pretpostaviti postojanje dinamičnih mreža, s nalazištima korištenima za različite specijalizirane svrhe, okupljenima oko naseobinskih nalazišta na strateškim lokacijama.60 Dakle, Vlakno bi trebalo biti samo dio jednog većeg sustava korištenja prostora. Sukladno tomu sasvim je realno otkrivanje novih mezolitičkih nalazišta na Dugom otoku ili otocima oko njega. Niti morska razdaljina nije ograničenje. Kao što pokazuju nalazi iz Vele spile, pučinska plovidba, pa i navigacija između dviju jadranskih obala, znatno je starija od vremena početaka neolitizacije.61 Trenutno dostupne antropološke analize trebale bi biti upotpunjene analizama DNA i stabilnih izotopa, što će dati nove podatke o životu zajednice, a dobiveni podatci poslužit će za usporedbu s ostalim nalazištima i upotpuniti sliku o vremenu mezolitika na Mediteranu.

57 D. Komšo, 2006, 67.

58 D. Komšo, 2006, 67.

59 D. Komšo, 2006.

60 D. Komšo, 2009, 294.

61 D. Radić, 2005, 339.

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