Mes051 Study Materials

MES051 : MES051 : MES051 : MES051 : PHILOSOPHICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL

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Explain the concept of EDUCATIONAL THEORY.Differentiate

between descriptive and prescriptive theories of education. Support

your answer with suitable examples.

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Educational theories: The nature of educational theory Descriptive theories of education-T.W.Moore Prescriptive theories of education-pedagogical theories Platos, philosophy of education Froebels philosophy of education Rousseaus philosophy of education

Deweys philosophy of education Educational theory and education practices Logical analysis Practice

Philosophy of education: critique of educational theory Educated man Logical structure of educational theory Place of educational aims Assumptions about human nature in educational theory

CONCLUSION

Explain philosophical concepts of EXISTENTIALISM and discuss its educational implications with examples.


Historical beginnings of existentialism Philosophical concepts of existentialism Meta-physics Epistemology Axiology Educational implications of existentialism Aims of education Curriculum Methods of education Personalities associated with the origin of the Philosophy of existentialism 1.Soren Kierkegaard(1813-1855) 2.Sriedrich niezsche(1844-1900) 3.Jean-paulsartre(born-1905) Existentialism and education Meaning of education Aims of education Character of curriculum Methods of teaching Role of the teacher Existentialist education implications in the emerging Indian society Discipline Conclusion

Explain philosophical concepts of IIDDEEAALLIISSMM and discuss its educational implications with examples.


Introduction. What is reality.

Training in citizenship Health Values Idealism as a philosophical doctrine Meaning of idealism Central philosophical ideas of idealism

Advocates of idealism List of philosophers

1.plato 2.St.Augustine3.St.Thomas Aquinas4.Rene escartes 5.Berkeley6.kant7.Hegel8.Gentile Froebel9.Pestallozzi

Philosophical concepts of idealism Metaphysics Platos originality Epistemology genuine or true knowledge Axiology Educational implications of idealism

Aims of education 1.To ensure a life of spirit 2.To cultivate truth,beauty and goodness 3.Development of inventive and creative powers 4.Development of willpower 5.Conservation, promotion an d transmission of cultural heritage 6.Development ofphysical health 7.Sublimation of instincts into spiritual qualities 8.Development of moral sense 9.Concept of religion and morality

Self-realization Idealist

1. Powers of the human mind and spirit 2. Aims of education of idealism 3. Spiritual self realization of the individual 4. Exaltation of human personality 5. Harmonious development 6. Moral and ethical development 7. Charater formation of the individual 8. Transmission of the cultural heritage

Curriculum Methods of education Teacher

1. Personification of reality for the child 2. Specialist in the knowledge of pupils 3. Excellent technician 4. Personal friend 5. Master of the art of living

Child Idealism and curriculum Idealism and methods of teaching Idealism and discipline Idealism and the child Idealism and the teacher Idealism and civilization Idealism and aesthetics REVELANCE OF IDEALISM IN EDN IN THE EMERGING INDIAN SOCIETY

1.Lofty aims of edn 2.Preservation of cultural heritage 3.Position of the teacher

4.Self discipline 5.Emphasison moral development 6.Integrated curriculum 7.Criticisms

CONCLUSION

Explain philosophical concepts of REALISM and discuss its educational implications with examples.


Philosophical concepts of realism Metaphysics Epistemology Axiology

Educational implications of realism Aims of education The pupil Curriculum

Methods of teaching Realism meaning Realism-definitions ( j.s.ross, butler) Realism principles

phenomenal world is true senses are the doors of knowledge theory of organism opposition of idealism man is a part of material world emphasis on experiment importance of present applied life

Characteristics of realistic education emphasis on present life of child opposition of bookish knowledge limited freedom of child emphasis on training of senses equal importance to individuality and sociability preparing the child for a happy and successful life developing physical and mental powers of child acquainting the child with nature and social environment imparting vocational education limitations of realism in education types of realism native or popular realism scientific or critical realism new realism or neo-realism branches or phases of realism impact of various forms of realism on education 1.humanistic realism and education the concepts of education the impact of humanistic

realism of education 2.social realism The concept of education Impact of social-realism on education 3.sense realism The concept of education Impact of sense realism on education Impact of realism on different aspects of education Realism and aims of education Realism and curriculum Realism and methods of teaching Realism and textbooks Realism and teacher Realism and discipline Revelance of realism in education in the emerging Indian society Emphasis on acquisition of knowledge Scientific teaching methods

Realistic school organization Aims are practical in nature

Conclusion

Explain philosophical concepts of PRAGMATISM and discuss its educational implications with examples.


Pragmatism was founded by c.s.pierce,william james,john dewey, kilpatrick Meaning of pragmatism Basic principles of pragmatism. changeis the essense of this universe Essense of pragmatism Edn philosophy of pragmatism Meaning of education why of education what of education Pragmatism and aims of education Personal and social adjustments Promotion of social and economic efficiency Provides for continuous reconstruction of experiences Harmonious development of the individual Pragmatism and curriculum Principle of utility Principle of natural interests Principle of experience curriculum

Principle of integration Pragmatism and methods of teaching Pragmatism and discipline Pragmatism and teacher An experimentalist A helper and guide Contributions of pragmatism to education Limitations of pragmatism Relevance of pragmatism in education in the emerging indian society Emphasis on practical utility

Emphasis on democratic values Emphasis on learning by doing

Emphasis on education of the whole child Emphasis on universal education The project method of teaching Pragmatism does not banish the teacher Essence of pragmatism The reality of change over permanence

The reality of value Procedure and plan of the method Providing a situation

Choosing a project Planning Executing

Judging or evaluating Recording Discipline Conclusion

Explain philosophical concepts of NATURALISM and discuss its educational implications with examples.

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Introduction Prominent naturalist philosophers

1. THOMAS HOBBES.2. J.J. ROUSSEAU.3. HERBERT SPENCER. Philosophical concepts of naturalism Meta-physics

materialism energism critical naturalism positivism nature as a process

the epistemology of naturalism the logic of naturalism the axiology of naturalism

ethical value aesthetic value religious values social values Educational implications of naturalism Naturalism in education Rousseaus naturalism Rousseaus negative education

1. Attempts to mold the child disregarding his natural inclinations 2. Does not give the child virtue 3. It protects him from error 4. Absence of book learning 5. Proper utilization of leisure 6. Joyful learning

Positive education Aims of education Naturalist aim of education Curriculum Naturalist curriculum Methods of learning Concept of child Freedom native naturalism essence of naturalism naturalism in education three sources of education naturalism and aims of education education should make the human machine as good as possible The aim of education as present and future happiness Aims of education as the sublimation of energies of the propensities Education is to equip the individual for the struggle of existence Education as the process of adjustment to environment Self-expression Education is to be firmly based on the nature of the child Development of individuality

Aims of women education Naturalism and curriculum Methods of teaching Role of the teacher Concept of discipline Relevance of naturalism in education in the emerging Indian society

Paedocentric education Psychological tendency in education Freedom to the child Play as the most natural method of teaching Development of the holistic tendency in education Development of the idea: child is not a little man Naturalists favour residential schools and co-education The teacher is on observer of the childs development

Conclusion

Explain philosophical concepts of BUDDHISM and discuss its educational implications with examples.


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Introduction Buddhism teachings of Buddha

The four noble truths Suffering

Cause of suffering Cessation of suffering NIRVANA

The eight fold path to nirvana Right faith Right resolve Right speech Right action Right living Right effort Right thought Right concentration Dependent origination Educational implications of Buddhist philosophy Buddhist system of education Merits Buddhist school of thought Philosophical ideas Meta-physics Epistemology Axiology Educational ideas of Buddhism-pabbaja Aims of education Curriculum Methods Buddhist system of education :methods of teaching Verbal education Discussions Tours Conferences Meditation in solitude Medium of instruction Conclusion

Explain philosophical concepts of JAINISM and discuss its educational implications with examples.


Introduction Philosophical ideas of Jainism Metaphysics-dravya Two basic categories: Jivas(souls) Ajivas(non-souls) Ajiva five categories: Kala(time) Akasa(space, vaccum) Pudgala(matter) Dharma(motion) Adharma(rest) Consciousness Jnana Darshana Epistemology Five different forms of knowledge Matijnana(perceptual knowledge) Srutijnana(scriptural knowledge) Avadhi-jnana(clairvoyance) Manahparyaya-jnana(telepathy) Kevala-jnana(perfect knowledge) Mati-jnana Perception Inference Karma Syadvada: Syadasti-real Syannasti-unreal Syadastinasti-real and unreal Syadavaktavyam-indescribable Syadastica avaktavyam-real and indescribable Syannasti caavaktavyam- unreal and indescribable Styadasti canastiavyaktamcha-real, unreal and indescribable Axilogy :three precious principles of life called tri-ratna Samyajnana(right knowledge) Samyagdarshana(right faith) Samyak caritra(right conduct) Educational implications of Jainism Aims of education Curriculum Methods and process of education Conclusion

Describe educational implications of Tagore's views on education.


Introduction Rabindranath Tagore(1861-1941)

Life sketch Tagores philosophy of life Humanism Individualism Universalism Spiritual harmony

Influences on the educational philosophy of tagore Influence of the home environment Influence of the school environment Tagores educational philosophy

Autonomy of the child Creative self-expression Active communion with nature and humans Liberationist pedagogy

Meaning and aims of education Humanism, Individualism, universalism, spirituality

Concept of school-shantiniketan Curriculum,Methods of teaching,Teacher-learner relationship,

Medium of education,The Religious Movement, The socio-political movement,Literary movement

His philosophy of life, Tagore A follower of ananda yoga Tagore A vedantist,TagoreAn idealist,Tagore A Humanist Tagore-A Naturalist, His philosophy of education Realization of harmony with all things Principle of freedom,sympathy and joy The union of man and nature Literature as the true vehicle of education Unity of all races of the world Emphasis on the childs mind Meaning of education Aims of education Curriculum Subjects included in the curriculum

Languages and literature,Mathematics,Natural sciences, Social sciences,Agriculture,Arts, music, dance, Religion, philosophy and psychology

Methods of teaching Teaching while walking, Activity method Debate and discussion method, Heuristic method Medium of instruction, Literature, Social service Religious and spiritual education, The school system The student, Student teacher relationship, Discipline

His experiments Shantiniketan and visvabharati

Special features of santiniketan Homely atmosphere, Religious and spiritual atmosphere Natural atmosphere, Organization of classes

Programmes of daily activities at santiniketan Early morning Forenoon and afternoon

Vishvabharati Conclusion

Describe educational implications of Vivekananda's views on education.


Introduction Life sketch(1863-1902) Philosophical views of vivekananda Epistemology Axiology His educational philosophy Meaning of education Education is not information

Blind imitation of the west is not true Education Book learning is not education

Aims of education Proximate aims of education Physical development Mental development Development of character Observation of Brahmacharya for concentration Vocational aim Ultimate aims of education Development of personality Faith in ones own self Developing shradha Developing a spirit of renunciation To promote universal brotherhood Importance of yoga in self-realization Curriculum Synthesis between science and Vedanta Education for leadership Education for patriotism and freedom Physical education Languages Vocational education

Fine arts Humanities Method of teaching Concentration methods Methods of realization Discussion and contemplation method Imitation method Individual guidance and counselling Lecture method Activity method Place of the teacher Qualities of a teacher Man making education Education for culture Education of women Conclusion

Describe educational implications of GANDHIS views on education.


Introduction Gandhi (1869-1948)

Life sketch The phoenix settlement and tolstoy farm Sabarmati and sevagram ashrams

Gandhis philosophical ideas Concept of man Freedom of individual God and truth

Gandhis educational philosophy Gandhis concept of education Aims of education Self-sufficiency aim Cultural aim Character building aim

Content and processes of basic education Compulsory free primary education Education for self-sufficiency Craft-centered education Vernacular as medium of education Non-violence Methods of education correlation Role of teacher

Causes of the Failure of basic education The concept of basic education is not made clear. Muslim opposed this system Subject through craft was not appreciated. Faulty Time table Development of some ethithets lack of qualified teachers This system lays less emphasis on primary education Apathy of the Kothari Commission The plan was not tested at the national level Apathy of the Administration Matriculation minus English Want of Research Want of Adequate Staff and Equipment Want of Textbooks Development of White-colour Attitude Report of the Kher Committee

Conclusion

Describe educational implications of Krishnamoorthys views on education.


Introduction Life sketch(1895-1986) Philosophy of life

Truth-the pathless land To be a first hand human being Freedom Knowing, knowledge, thought and memory Religion and religiousness Change

Educational ideas of Krishnamurthy Critique of present education Concept of education Aims of education Development of integrated whole personality Freedom Development of self knowledge Development of love towards and right relationship with others

Methods of education Discipline Conclusion

Describe educational implications of AUROBINDOS views on education.


Introduction Life sketch(1872-1950) The life divine Integralism Philosophical ideas of aurobindo

Integral metaphysics Theory of mind

Educational ideas of Aurobindo Aims of education Curriculum

Physical education Vital education

Mental education Psychic and spiritual education

Integral education Methods of teaching Role of the teacher spiritual education supermental education self realization liberty nature of examination

Auroville Conclusion

Describe educational implications of JOHN DEWEYS views on education.


Introduction Life sketch(1859-1952) Deweys educational thought

Thinking, experiencing and education Education is life School is a miniature society Experience is education Education is the process of reconstruction of experience The individual and social factors in education

Aims of education Natural development as an aim

Social efficiency as aim Culture as aim

Methods of teaching and learning The laboratory school:Dewey

Freedom and discipline Conclusion

Describe educational implications of IVAN D ILLICHS views on education.


Introduction Life sketch(1926-2002) Origin and development of de-schooling Human nature Critique of development and institutions School Origin of school Hidden curriculum : the real face of school Radical critique of schooling School is anti-educational School is a divisive institution School alienates an individual School is an institution of political manipulation De-schooling: an alternative to education Educational resources in convivial society Reference service to educational objectives Skill exchanges Peer matching Reference services to educators at large Conclusion

Describe educational implications of BERTRAND RUSSELL views on education.


Introduction Life sketch(1872-1970) Philosophical basis of Russells educational ideas Ethics Education:church, state and the crowd On education for conformity Aims of education

Vitality Courage Sensitiveness Intelligence

On freedom and discipline Stage-wise scheme of education The Beacon hill school Conclusion

Describe educational implications of PAULO FREIRES views on education.


Introduction Life sketch(1921-1997) Educational thoughts

Banking concept of education Teacher-taught relationship under banking education Problem-posing education Banking and problem-posing education-a comparison

Pedagogy of the oppressed Praxis Dialogue The word Conscientization

Thematic universe and generative theme conclusion

DISCUSS WITH EXAMPLES THE VARIOUS FORMS OF

DECENTRALIZED EDUCATION SYSTEM.

The complaints of excessive centralization of decision-making in education contain criticism

of those currently making decisions. Decentralization is about shifting power from some

decision-makers to others. All proposals for decentralization can he categorized into one or

more major positions with respect to who is best qualified to make decisions. Three distinct

sources of justifications car, be identified: political legitimacy; professional expertise and

market efficiency. Let us look into the essential nature of these sources.

Political legitimacy

Political legitimacy provides authority of governance to persons who have been selected

through political processes prevalent in a society. Political legitimacy based reforms stand on

the premise that persons who are not education professionals can govern schools effectively.

The authority to manage is inherent in the position and hence, those selected need not be

experts in education or governance. Political legitimacy emerged in the context of

demoralization of education resulting in education system being governed directly by

communities. The important distinction between political legitimacy and professional

expertise is not whether the government is democratic or not, but whether the government is

legitimated by expertise or by political right. Not all forms of decentralization result in

greater political democracy. Many political legitimacy reforms have built governance units at

the school level like a Council in the city of Chicago, elected board of trustees in New Zealand

or Governance Council in Nicaragua etc. The success of school-based management depends

on the ability of the school administrator at the district and the school level to maintain the

involvement of the community in decision-making. Adjudication between competing

community groups becomes the primary task of the administrator. In practice, all reforms

proceed with some caution,-gradually extending authority to communities as they acquire

and demonstrate capacity to govern. Political legitimacy reforms are feasible in 'strong'

states. Societies that are already well integrated, having in place systems for political and

social dialogue, can tolerate higher levels of diversity.

Professional expertise

Professional expertise based reforms assign authority to those with expert technical

knowledge about how best to operate the educational system. Professional expertise

reforms stand on the premise that expert knowledge is produced through science; is positive

and certain; and there is a best answer for every question or best solution for each problem.

even though expert authorities are ultimately under political control in democracy, once the

experts are appointed lo their offices, they act with considerable autonomy.

Professional expertise approach is the most common way of thinking about governance. This

form is so widespread that it is tempting to assume it is a natural condition, the only way in

which education system can be operated effectively.

Decentralization reforms from the professional expertise perspective vary in the level of the

education system to which authority is transferred. It may be in the form of territorial

decentralization or school based management (SBM). In the case of SBM, the reforms may

vary according to whether authority is transferred to the heads of the schools, teachers are

included or community participation is also expected. The impact of professional expertise

based reforms on the management of schools depends on incentives offered to the schools

for ushering of changes in performance. The successful implementation of school based

management run by professionals depends upon objective measurement using indicators of

students' performance, parent and community satisfaction and access to resources

establishment of reward system for group performance; and improvement of the professional

expertise of those who participate in decision-making. Most of the professional educators

agree that community and especially parents' participation is important. However, the kind of

participation they expect most often is in the form of seeking their support to the decision

made by the schools or supply of labor and materials, -supervising the students' homework,

attending school functions and fund rising.

Market efficiency position may focus on the production of education or governance of its

consumption. Proponents of market position assert that professionals lack and can never have

the knowledge necessary to satisfy the desires and needs of those whom education is

supposed to serve. There is nothing in the training of educators, nor of economists, that

enable them to understand what people want. The market position also attacks the political

process as a means to satisfy the legitimate desire and ambitions of the members of the

society. The argument goes on 10 assert that democratic politics are ideological rather than

rational. It is difficult to shift away from the democratically defined policies even if they prove

to be inefficient and ineffective. The market is claimed lo be the best way to use information

on what people want and what satisfies them.

The private control of the production of education is neither necessary nor a sufficient

condition for the existence of education market. When a community is given autonomy in the

design and management of its school system, that system does not cease to be a public

system. If several autonomous schools offer different kinds of education, and community

members can choose the kind of education they wish, there is a market. Markets can be said

to exist when three conditions are met; there is variety in the quality and content of

education; consumers are informed about options; and consumers are able to choose among

the options. It is possible to create a market mechanism within a public education system, to

create opportunities for choice that are accessible to consumers whether they are individual

persons, corporations or governments. Market efficiency can follow three alternative

strategies: through mechanisms that allow consumers to choose the school to which they

want to send their children; by public funding of alternative provision of education; and as a

result of NGO funding of alternative provision. Experts use the term 'School Based

Management' to refer to local control. The market-controlled schools are defined as 'self

managing'. In school based management emphasis is on applying expert knowledge to a local

context. In a. school in the market system, the primary task of the manager is to provide that

kind of education which will attract the largest demand (i.e. which generates largest gross

revenue) and which has me lowest cost to produce.

The market mechanism works best when consumers inform themselves on choices and

exercise their preferences. Competition between providers for revenues from consumers is

expected to lead to improvement of provision as the less desired providers lose market share

and eventually are eliminated. However, a producer can create demand for products not

initially desired by the consumers, which is called market. There are three major forms of

'private' school governance arranged in an increasing degree of 'decentralization': publicly

subsidized, privately owned and managed schools which conform to government guidelines

and do not charge fees; publicly subsided privately owned and managed schools which enjoy

relative autonomy and do charge fees; and privately financed schools that are autonomous

from public control.

EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL

CONTROL.

The education system used to perform only a conservative function in the past. i.e. as an

instrument to conserve a relatively unchanging culture and society. In this context, it was used

as an instrument for social control and maintenance of social order. Further, the education

system had the limited aim of transmitting the traditional skills to the new generation.

But in a rapidly changing society of to-day education seeks to bring about all round

development education which is of in society. It is now seen as an instrument for social

change in a society. This unit discusses how education is used as an instrument for social

change and social control. It discusses the role of education in social change in the Indian

context in general and specific social groups such as scheduled castes, scheduled tribes,

women, and religious minorities, in particular.

Social change and social control: conceptual understanding

Social change is a dynamic process. The word "process" implies taken place on a period of

time, and social change is something that is perpetually happening. This may occur in a variety

of ways. After all. Change is inevitable in life and society as well. Social change does not merely

imply a structural and functional change or change in the organization of the society, its

norms and roles, it also implies a change in the cultural system i.e. change in societal beliefs,

ideas traditions and practices.

In simpler societies, change has- been rare and usually slow. Even those minute changes were

caused by cultural contact or by such disasters as wars, epidemics and famines. On the

contrary, in a more complex society, social change may be caused by internal revolution and

civil strife. It may also take place due to the emancipation and the advent of increased

inventions through the discovery of something like atomic energy and or by the influence of

particular individuals or social reforms in society.

The concept of social change is different from the concept of development. The concept of

development in terms of Gross National Product (GNP) does not load to bettering the quality

of life of the people, since it places too much emphasis on the development of the capital,

industrialization, etc. Countries such as India have experienced the inadequacies of this

concept of development in terms of growth rate and social scientists have questioned the

basic approach to development.

For example, inequalities in access to education, health and other essential services leave one

to question whether the strategy of growth and development would deliver the goals. Hence,

this concept of development is very limited in scope and the very concept is susceptive to

various criticisms. Keeping in view all the contradictions regarding the usage of the term

'development' the concept of social change is preferred. The concept of social change is a

broader concept meaning changes within society. The changes may vary from the patterns of

movements in population general scientific advance.

However, the concept of social control is slightly different in the sense that, in sociological

literature, it is widely, used to refer to social processes by which the behavior of individuals

and groups is regulated. Since all societies have norms and rules governing conduct (a society

without some such norm is inconceivable all equally have some mechanisms for ensuring

conformity. Functionalists would argue that social control is of value 10 the whole society as it

is essential for the maintenance of social order.

Other sociologists such as Marxists suggest that there are sectional interests in any given

society, which are primarily served by the process of social control. This view represents the

idea of lack of consensus and prevalence of conflict in society which facilitates social change.

In this view, education forms the ideological apparatus operating at the level of ideas, values,

and attitudes, to effect change in the society. Here, social control will be discussed mainly as a

factor governing continuity as well as change in the society. The discussion on education and

social change in the Indian context will bring out the issues of continuity as well as change

and different aspects of social control and social change.

Social change: some definitions

Social change has been defined in a number of ways. The International Encyclopedia of Social

Sciences defines social change as important alteration that occurs in the social structure Or in

the pattern of action and interaction in society. Alterations may occur in values, norms;

cultural products, and symbols in a .society. Sociologists like Maclver and Page (1981) define

Social change as a process responsive to many types of changes and include changes in the

man-made conditions of life, changes in the attitudes and beliefs of man, and changes that go

beyond the human control.

The term 'social change' is also used to describe variations in or modifications of any aspect

of social processes, social patterns, social interaction, or social organisation. Gillin (194&)

observed that social changes are variations from the accepted modes of life, whether the to

alteration in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of the population or

ideologies and whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group. Anther

prominent sociologist Kingsley (1949) distinguished between terms like social change; and

cultural change. According to him, cultural change embraces all changes occurring m .my

branch of culture including art, science, technology, philosophy, etc., as well as changes in the

forms and rules of social organization. On the other hand, Kingsley argues that social change

means alteration in social organization of a society, including changes in the structure and

functions of the society.

SOCIAL CHANGE AND MULTIPLE LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

When we attempt to dissect change, the first question that comes to our mind is: Change, at

what level? Social scientists generally conceptualize four levels of analysis of change in social

systems such as schools and education.

1. The individual level refers to change that is initiated by or directed toward person holding

roles within the system - teachers, students, or others.

2. The organizational level refers to change within the educational system or the school

3. The institutional or societal level refers to the larger system change. This is usually related

to changes in other parts of the society such as the economy or the polity.

4. The cultural level refers lo change in societal attitudes and values. These are often, the

slowest to change, lagging behind technological innovations

WHAT IS MEANT BY SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ? DISCUSS THE VIEWS OF PARSONS, MARX AND WEBER ON SOCIAL

STRATIFICATION. SSOOCCIIAALL SSTTRRAATTIIFFIICCAATTIIOONN

The division of social groups into various strata is a universal feature of all societies. Social

stratification thus is a ubiquitous phenomenon that existed at all times and in all societies.

Studies have indicated that even in the primitive societies some form of differentiation

existed in terms of age or possession of skills and courage in hunting and gathering. Therefore,

the study of social stratification introduces us to the nature and scope of social relationships

in a society.

VIEWS OF PARSONS ON SOCIAL STRATIFICATION. Parsons (1961), the leading proponent of the functionalist model, differentiated societies on a

continuum between ascribed status-based societies and achievement-based societies.

Societies in which individuals' values were based on their family position, sex, race, or other

traits of birth are at the traditional end of the continuum. At the other end is the modem

society, in which a system of rewards is used to aid in fulfilling a complex division of labour-

According. to Parsons, the positions that demand considerable responsibility require a system

of rewards to motivate individuals to take them. In his view, stratification - which is, by

definition, social inequality - is both necessary and agreeable. Parsons believed that

stratification was necessary to provide rewards for people who would take on the additional

responsibility tied to difficult positions, and in his view, stratification was desirable because it

allowed the social system to function smoothly.Two American sociologists, Kingsley Davis and

Wilbert Moore in their essay 'Some Principles stratification', published in American

Sociological Review in 1945, further developed Parsons' ideas on social stratification. They

shared with Parsons the notion that social stratification is universal, functional, and integral to

fulfilling the division of labour in society.

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The Marxist perspective generally regards modern society as being divided primarily into two

classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat - based on property ownership or non-ownership

of property. Marx understood classes to be economically determined by the difference

between owners of the means of production and non-owning direct producers. Class

differences therefore are determined by the mode of production. Karl Marx and Frederick

Engels(1965), in their work on 'The German Ideology', have divided history into five distinct

epochs of production: primitive communism, Asiatic, ancient Greece and Rome, feudal

society, and capitalism. Of these, only the ancient, the feudal and the capitalist phases

received special treatment by Marx and Engels. Ancient society was based on slavery; feudal

society was based on serfdom, and capitalism on wage labour. Each of these societies was

divided into two major classes: the oppressors and the oppressed or the exploiters and the

exploited. In every case, the exploiters are made up of those who own the means of

production but do not produce. The exploited are those who do not own the means of

production but are the direct producers of social goods and services. Because the exploited do

not own the means of production, they are forced, in order to live, to work for those who own

and control the productive conditions of life. The exploiters live by means of the surplus

produced by the exploited. As a result, the social mode of production also reproduces the

social relations of production. Thus, the relationship between the exploiters and the exploited

is constantly renewed and conserved. The Marxists therefore, in contrast to the functionalists,

regard stratification as a divisive rather than an integrative structure and then focus was on

social strata rather than social inequality in general. Marx also spoke of the hostilities

between the two classes. Three terms, 'class consciousness', 'class solidarity' and 'class

conflict', are important in understanding the dynamics of class conflict in the Marxist

approach to the study of stratification. Class-consciousness refers to the recognition by a

class, secrets workers, of the role its members play in the productive process and their

relation to the owning glass. 'Class solidarity' refers to the extent to which workers act

together to achieve political and economic aims. Finally, class conflict has two aspects (1) the

unconscious struggle between the workers and the capitalists for shares in the productive

output at a time when class- consciousness is not developed and (2) the conscious, deliberate

and collective struggle between the two classes when the workers become aware of their

historic role. According to Marx, social change occurs as a sequel to class struggle. Marx said

that the revolution of the proletariat would bring an end to the class conflict i.e. the

conflicting interests between the ruling bourgeoisie class and the subject proletariat class.

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The work of the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) represents one of the

important developments in stratification theory. Particularly Weber's work on 'Class. Status

and Party' (1947) is important for understanding his theory of social stratification. According

to Weber, stratification is based on three types of social formation namely, class, status and

power or party. Property differences generate classes, power differences generate political

parties and prestige differences generate status groupings or strata. Like Marx, Weber sees

class in economic terms, classes as groups of individuals who share the same position in the

market economy. Weber distinguishes four class groups in the capitalist society

(a) Propertied upper class

(b) Property-less white collar workers

(c) Petty bourgeoisie

(d ) Manual working class.

EEDDUUCCAATTIIOONN FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBLLEE DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT

What does sustainable development connote? Development normally means change for the

better. But the meaning of 'better' varies from one societal context to another. In the context

of developing countries in Asian and African meeting the basic needs of the population

becomes 'better'. In the context of the developed countries of the West development

represents transition to meeting aspirations beyond these basic needs. Invariably,

development processes arc in the form of human activity of production involving use of

natural resources and consumption to satisfy human needs and aspirations. Both production

and consumption also lead to byproducts in the form of waste. Since the life of human beings

is organized in the form of socio-political structures with definable boundaries {like

communities, regions, nations etc), the distributional aspects of the resources needed for

production, fair and just access to consumption and appropriate control over waste becomes

an integral part of the conditions required for development. The sustainability of

development hinges upon production, consumption and distributional aspects of resources

and goods essential for the survival of all and better management of waste generated in both

production and consumption related activities. Initially, the World Commission on Environment

and Development, 1987, defined 'sustainable development' as, "Development that meets the

needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs''. It poses challenge rather than clarify the concept, Subsequently,

sustainable development has been defined in a variety of ways. Jacobs 1993) has suggested

that al! definitions have a core characterized by three elements:

Need for consideration of environmental issues and objectives interdependently with

economic issues and objectives.

A commitment to social equity and a fair distribution of environmental costs and benefits, and

An enlarged view of development that extends beyond 'growth to include qualitative

improvements in daily life.

The point of view of the above analysis serves a limited purpose as ii only provides for a

perspective rather than action. But merely ensuring resources and goods for all at any given

point of time does not fulfill the conditions of sustainability. Dependence upon non-

renewable natural resources and unintended consequences of the byproducts of the

production technologies and habits of consumption would compromise the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs.

The World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987 (p 43) says:

When development is viewed as a process of change, the change becomes sustainable if "the

exploitation of resource", the direction of investments, the orientation of the technological

development, and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and

future potential to meet human needs and aspirations"

Hence the concept of sustainable development is complex and has a deeper value dimension.

Sustainability of development depends upon the choices of technology, developmental goals

and consumer behavior starting from individual level to human kind as a whole at every point

in the march of lime. Il becomes necessary to think in terms of global objectives, local goals,

the circumstances under which individuals live and make their living, their capacity to adapt to

and change their circumstances to their advantage (Roy F. Weston 1995). Hence, coping with

the demands of sustainable development depends heavily on education of all human beings.

The biggest challenge of education for sustainable development is to develop appropriate

curriculum materials specific for different target groups under EFA. i.e. children studying in

elementary schools and adult illiterates covered under adult education initiatives and life long

educational efforts through non-formal and informal means. The second challenge in formal

educational contexts is to build teacher competence and capacity to think about sustainable

development and transact the curriculum with reference to sustainable development.

The structural bases of present day schooling in many developing countries exhibit three

major defects from the perspectives of sustainable development:

The issues related 10 sustainable development in terms of the developmental necessity and

the inevitable adverse consequences are dealt separate from each other in educational

contexts. While advances in physical and material sciences and their application to solve

human problems are dealt under the science curriculum and taught by science teachers

without any exposure to the social sciences, the consequences of the application of science

to -solve specific problems of the physical and social environment become the focus of social

sciences and are taught hy teachers without exposure to physical and material sciences.

The distilled knowledge in the form of conclusions without giving reference to the associated

problems makes school knowledge universal and uninvolved. The leaching of such knowledge

becomes mere information transfer rather than experience based internalized learning.

The values underlying much of school learning are rooted in Western history or current

encounters with problems. They are not motivated by future end-states. This is in spite of the

future orientation of much of the development rhetoric.

Thus, the three infirmities of the present day curriculum namely, compartmentalization,

knowledge as universal and abstract, and values derived from alien experiences are not

conducive for education for sustainable development particularly in Asian and African

contexts.

GLOBALIZATION The last decades of the 20'h century have seen developments in communication, international trade and commerce, political changes, and effects of human activity on environment Geographical distances have vanished thanks to satellite communication and the Internet. Various nations and societies are realizing the stark realities of interdependence on one another for survival. At the same time, the new developments have opened up new opportunities for children entering schools today. The probability in favour of an individual child settling within the geographical vicinity or among one's own cultural contexts for livelihood when she grows is diminishing drastically. The state policies in the areas of economic production and distribution have changed the direction from state domination to market domination. However, obligations of modern welfare democratic states mandate the state to play the role of equitable distributors of opportunities in facilitating each individual to take pan in the changed economic context through adequate provision for general education and health to help all citizens to survive and thrive in a competitive world. But globalization challenges national education systems in different ways.

Let us understand the meaning of the concept of globalization. The term globalization refers to the issues and processes related to movement of peoples, goods and resources across the boundaries of nations. It also represents relationships between and among nations and groups , of people living in different parts of the globe. Finally it has to do with shared awareness of the causes and consequences of movement of entities and shaping up of relationships across national borders. As can be seen, all the three aspects have been taking place throughout history all over the world. During the medieval period, people from one country conquered and built empires in others; merchants roamed around the world through land and sea routes exchanging goods and trading slaves. During the colonization era, the world saw organized exchange of goods through appropriation or trade and movement of people from Europe to preside over the colonies established in Asia, Africa and America. Also, people from the colonized countries were shipped and employed in plantations in different parts of the world. For example, people of Indian origin form a considerable proportion of population in some pacific islands like Fiji and the West Indies. During the post war period, new forms of international and regional organizations for arbitration across nations and multi-national corporations have emerged, weakening national boundaries in trade and commerce.

If globalization existed historically then why is it that the present day discourse accords more space" and attention to it? The answer to this question probably lies in the scale and rapidity of globalization and its massive impact on the status quo rather than the conceptual similarity of historical developments. The historical instances of globalizations took place in selective fashion affecting a segment of society with a sequential pattern over a long time frame. Hence the time to effect realignments and adaptations for survival. But today's globalization processes are taking place fast and thick. For example, first, today's globalizing trends emerge out of technological advances in information processing and communication technology (ICT). The communication revolution and the invention of the Internet have made common phenomenon of instant interaction of multiple entities separated by thousands of kilometers of space and national boundaries. Secondly, the collapse of the Soviet Union, which represented the other ideological pole of world political economy and worked towards containing the spread of capitalist modes of production, facilitated unfettered spread of capitalism. The emergence of free trade and multinational corporations controlling unparalleled capital has resulted in the undermining of economic nationalism leading to liberalization of international trade. This has led to large-scale voluntary migration of peoples for employment and also migration of jobs across national boundaries. The corollary of internationalization of trade is developments of mass media equipped will modern communication technologies to create market for consumption of goods. Thus national cultures are getting assaulted in the process of creation o "consumers; markets. The new culture even encompasses the functional role of education limiting it to human capital development for the capitalist order of multinational corporate variety; all forms of education is equated with consumer goods. Thus, globalization can be seen as a process of rapid, simultaneous social changes affecting all aspects of the political-economic structures. These

changes, in turn, have implications for the continued existences of the individuals, social institutions, structures and processes. Let us sum up the issues affecting the process of globalization in recent times:

Globalization is a process that has been going on throughout the history of mankind. Most of the times it has been happening through trade and commerce. Later from I5'h century onwards, trade controlled by West European companies backed by stale sponsored military support established colonies to transfer goods and labour from Asian, Asia- Pacific, African and South American regions. From the 19th century many colonies, particularly controlled by British companies became integrated to form the British Empire to appropriate wealth for industrialization and to ensure markets for industrial goods. Currently, globalization is influenced by the unipolarity of capitalist ideology, communication revolution and multi-national economic entities operating across state borders.

ICTs have added knowledge as the new dimension to capital and labor in economic production function. In the mass production of goods through assembly line processes (attributed to Automobile Industry and labeled as Fordist economy), knowledge was an attribute of the labour quality. The invention of computer and satellite and digital communication technologies separated knowledge from labor and the invention of Internet compressed geographical space in managing industrial enterprises. This separation of components of production differentiates the characteristic of present day globalization in most essential ways.

All other changes that are being witnessed in present day world in the spheres of civil society, livelihood, culture, education and most importantly politics associated with administration are responses to the changes emerging in the sphere of the global political economy.ACTIVITY 15

SSCCHHOOOOLL CCUURRRRIICCUULLUUMM IINN IINNDDIIAA

According to NPE 1986, the National System of Education will be based on a national curricular

framework, which contain;, a common core along with other components that are flexible.

The common core will include the history of India's freedom movement, the constitutional

obligations and other content essential to nurture national identity. These elements will cut

across subject areas and will be designed to promote values such as India's common cultural

heritage, egalitarian ism, democracy and secularism, equality of the sexes, protection of the

environment, removal of social barriers, observance of the small family norm and inculcation

of the scientific temper. All educational programmes will be carried on in strict conformity

with secular values. (3.4, NPE, 1986)

Thus there has been a large-scale change in the content aspects of the curriculum during the

post independence period, especially during the final decades of the 20"1 century. But the

structure of curriculum with its underlying assumptions inherited at the time of independence

continued to govern the curriculum construction exercises. They can be summarized as

follows:

Formal Schooling should start from the age of 6+

Children pass through several distinct stages of development and the stages in school

education should correspond to the stages of development. Thus Primary, Middle, ,

Secondary and Senior Secondary stages cater to the child development concerns also along

with other concerns.

The entire school education can he organized in a linear fashion in yearly incremental

installments

All children entering the school have to pursue a common course and reach the expected

standards of learning to a minimum level and more as measured through examinations

conducted at the terminal stages of education.

Cognitive components of the curriculum can be organized in the form of disciplines and

the affective aspects should pervade the processes employed to attain the cognitive

objectives. The Psychomotor (doing/action/skills/muscular coordination etc) learning

would take place in informal setting, provided time and space are allocated in the school

routines.

The unstated principles governing the curriculum structure which were evolved when

schooling was introduced to mine talent for government jobs continued even after

independence.

Bureaucracy is characterized by standardized procedures and repetitive task performance.

Hence the notion of hidden curriculum assumes importance. What is hidden curriculum? It is

the expected long term influence of the schooling process in developing work habits, values

and loyalties of specific nature in the students as they grow up to become adults. The British

introduced a new system of education with a content and structure alien to the then

prevailing culture in India. The standardization of the structure and content along with the

introduction of the filter of examination woven into the process of moving up the

educational ladder created a system of education that turned out meticulous and rule bound

workers, The system required minor modifications during the transition from mercantile

economy to industrial economy in Europe. Even in industrialized economies, the industrial

work patterns required the mind set of bureaucracy. Hence the curricular aims and purposes

df selection-oriented education to sieve talent did not come under pressure during the

transition of the Indian government from a colonial status to a sovereign status. In fact it

suited very well the nature of political economy of development adopted by the Government

during the early decades of independence. This monolithic model of curriculum structure

served the education system to manage the aspirations of the social categories like rurai

poor, urban poor, marginalized dalit classes etc. without rocking the boat of the urban

middle and upper classes.

The National Policy on Education (1961 states that," To promote equality, it will be necessary

to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access, but also in the conditions for

success. Besides, awareness of the inherent equality of all will be created through the core

curriculum. The purpose is to remove prejudices and complexes transmitted through the

social environment and the accident of birth."

Describe Peters' (1965, 1980) analysis of the concept of education.

To get further clarification about the meaning of education let us look into Peters (1965, 1980)

analysis of the concept of education. (Peters looks for the rules or criteria according to which we

employ or do not properly employ the concept of education. This is one of the fundamental

techniques of conceptual analysis and is grounded in Wittgenstein's philosophy. The meaning of

a word, as Wittgenstein points out, is its use in discourse. Any attempted definition of a word

will include a list of criteria for its use. Peters' analysis of the concept of education is a fine

example of this procedure. He argues that There are three criteria which an activity must satisfy if

it is to be called 'educational'.

1) The first and most important criterion is that education implies that something worthwhile

and or value is passed on. and it is done in a manner that is morally unobjectionable.

2) The second criterion is that education involves knowledge, understanding and cognitive

perspective. What ever is learnt is seen not in an isolate way but in relation to other things

in a coherent pattern of life.

3) The third criterion spells out that education implies commitment, care and concern that

come from being on the inside of a form of thought and awareness,

Considered on the basis of these criteria education is not a concept that marks out any

particular type of process such as training or an activity such as lecturing. Rather, it suggests

criteria that such processes or activities must conform to in order to be called educational.

Under such criteria, all training need not necessarily be educational. One may well train someone

in the art of pick-pocketing or of torture; and, such training obviously cannot be called

educational. They are simply not worthwhile. 'Worthwhileness' of what is being transmitted is a

part of what is meant by calling it educational (and not that what is worthwhile is merely an

extrinsic end). Those who consider education in terms of processes or activities which produce

worthwhile ends believe in instrumental or moulding model of education. In such situations

processes or patterns are imposed from without on a child's mind.

Clarity about the concept of education can be further obtained by a brief examination of the

concept of 'aim'. The term 'aim' can be understood by the example of shooting or throwing.

Aiming is used when there is concentration on the field of activity. It is distinct from terms like

'purpose' or 'motive' which suggest some end external to the activity. Asking a person what he/

she is aiming at is a way of getting him/her to concentrate on what he/she is trying to do. The

term is frequently used in the context of education. To ask questions about aims of education is,

therefore, a way of getting people to get clear about the focus of their attention on what is

worth achieving. It is not to ask for producing something extrinsic to education.

Explain as to how philosophy influences education and gets influenced by education ?

Philosophy is theoretical and speculative: whereas education is practical. Philosophy asks

questions involved in the educative process examining factors of reality and experience. The

actual process of educating, however, is a matter of actively dealing with those factors, i.e.

teaching, organising programmes, administering organisations, building curricula etc.

There are, according to Butler (1968), two ways in which philosophy and education are related:

a) Philosophy yields a comprehensive understanding of reality, a world view, which, when

applied to education, lends direction and methodology which are likely to be lacking

otherwise.

b) Reciprocally, the experience of the educator in nurturing the young places him/her in touch

with phases of reality which are considered in making philosophic judgements. This is to

say that while philosophy is a guide to educational practice, education, as a field of

investigation, yields certain data as a basis for philosophic judgements.

For example, in the practice of education there is intimate association with children, young

people and adults as students. This close association is an unusual opportunity for observing

human nature as it is. A teacher can hardly avoid the formation of some attitudes as to the

nature of human beings. Is human being an individual, a mechanism of nature, an organism, a

segment of society, or a spirit? The educator may not be able to seek proper answer but he

can at least offer the philosopher some solid observations on which to base his/her

conception of human beings.

Regarding the first mentioned relation between philosophy and education, there are, at least,

four chief problems that philosophy (Teats" with which are also the main concern of education.

i) Most philosophies are concerned with the nature of the self. They ask: Is the self a physical,

social or spiritual unit? Whatever answer is given will go a long way in determining a person's

attitude towards the pupil. If the self is a physical unit, then pupils are biological organisms. If

it is a social unit, then pupils are little pieces of society. 11 it is a spiritual unit then pupils are

souls with destinies, which out reach both biological and social processes.

ii) Among other things, philosophy is concerned with values. Education also must Necessarily

deal with value more than most other social institutions do. Education, in fact, cannot be

defined without reference to 'worth-whileness' of any activity. As you have seen before, no

activity or process can truly be called educational, if it does not involve transmission of

something that is considered worthwhile or desirable. And it is not merely the 'end' or

purpose which should be worthwhile; the process through which the end is to be achieved

must also be worthwhile.

Now some of the questions, that philosophy asks are: What kind of existence do values

have? Are there any eternal, ultimate values? How does man possess or realise values'* Are

values inherited or acquired? Such questions are most relevant in education. If, for example,

it is true that values are acquired by deliberate effort, it is just another way of saying that

experiences which educate are fundamental to any progress in experiencing or realising values.

Value thinking in philosophy is also related to education in another important way. Education

must have objectives if it is to be effective; otherwise it descends to the level of aimless

activity which is antithesis of educative experience. But how can education have valid

objectives unless they are formulated within the context of serious thinking about value in

general? There is a deep relationship between value theory and educational objectives, and we

must be aware of this.

Then, there exists relationship between philosophy and processes of education. For example, if

a pupil is considered as a biological unit, then the context within which objectives are set is

purely naturalistic and the process of educating will be purely a natural process, in no sense

transcending the natural order. But if the pupil is a spiritual being and the objectives of

education are anchored in immortality and an ultimate divine order, then the forces by which a

human being is educated must be carefully refined so that the individual is always treated as a

person, and never as a mechanism.

Philosophy contributes to education in another important way too. As we know, a major

branch of philosophy deals with the theory of knowledge. The philosopher asks What is

knowledge? How do we get knowledge? How do we know that the knowledge we get is valid

or real? Some empiricists would, for example, say that the only way of knowing the world

around us is through sense perception or experience. The rationalists, on the other hand,

would hold reason to be the chief instrument of knowledge. Answers to such knowledge

questions have a direct bearing on the educative process, because knowledge acquisition is an

essential aspect of education and it is philosophy's concern to deal with the theories of

knowledge and truth.

EEDDUUCCAATTIIOONN AASS IINNIITTIIAATTIIOONN

Another way of looking at education is to see it as 'initiation'. Education involves essentially processes, that initiate people to what is valuable in an intelligible and voluntary manner, that create in the learner a desire to achieve it. Terms like 'training' and instruction' and perhaps even 'teaching' are too specific. They can take place in ways which fail to satisfy all the criteria implied by education. Education can occur without these transactions. The term '''initiation'.(which is used by Peters) is general enough to cover these different types of transactions if dial initiation is done towards worthwhile states of mind that are characterized by breadth of understandings Education marks out the processes by means of which individual initiated into these forms of knowledge and understandings. It. consists in initiating others into activities, modes of conduct and thought which have standards written into them by reference to which is possible to think, to act and fee! with varying degrees of skills, relevance and taste (Peters,1968).Yet there have been many like Dewey who have attacked the notion that education consists in She transmission of a body of knowledge. These thinkers, instead, place the stress on critical thinking, individual experimentation, and problem solving. The distinctive forms of knowledge such as science, history, mathematics, religion, aesthetics etc. are taught in many schools in America to attain these goals, as Dewey and others enunciated . There is no doubt that to foster critical thinking in students is one of the cherished aims of education, but it will be absurd to completely ignore the content or body of knowledge. It is ,via content that critical thinking can be fostered or developed in students. The procedures of a discipline can only be mastered by an exploration of its established content under the guidance of one who has already been initiated. So being critical cannot be a substitute for being well-informed.

Your would have realized by now that in the process of education as 'initiation', there is little distinction between teacher and taught. They are both participating in the shared experience of exploring a common world. The teacher simply more familiar with its contours and more skilled in handling the tools and appraising the nuances. About an initiated teacher, Peters (1965) remarked: "Now the teacher, having himself been initiated, is on the inside of these activities and modes of thought and conduct. He understands clearly that some created objects are beautiful and others not; he can recognize the elegance of a proof, or a paragraph, the cogency of an argument, the clarity of an exposition, the wit of a remark, the neatness of a plot, and justice and wisdom of a decision. He has perhaps a love of truth, a passion for justice and a hatred for what is tasteless". But more usually it is a group experience. The great teachers are those who can conduct such a shared exploration in accordance with rigorous canons. What is required of a teacher, in addition to this feeling of fraternity, is respect for persons but not intimate relationships with pupils- They are to be loved as pupils, not as sons or daughters. / Especially at the later stages of secondary education, respect for persons, with n feeling of fraternity provides the warmth in which the teacher can perform his most important function of initiating his students into the form of thought. In the lack of such respect for one's students initiation to the form of thought is simply not possible. The phrase 'initiation' is an apt description of this essential feature of education which consists of experienced persons, turning the eyes of others outward to what is essentially independent of persons. Initiation is also an apt description of the other aspect of education stressed by growth theorists, the requirement that those who are being educated should master the worthwhile things. Initiation is neither coercion, nor persuasion of the authoritarian teacher, nor even cajoling of the progressive child-watcher. For the less intelligent pupils, at least, it may include a little bit of command and direction also. It may also, at least, awaken some rebellion in the child and generate a jet of desire in him/her to do what he/she thinks worthwhile, Education , then can have no 'ends' beyond itself. Its value derives from principles and Standards implicit in it. To be educated is not to have arrived at a destination. It is to travel with a different view. What is required is not feverish preparation for something that lies ahead, but to work with precision, passion and taste at worthwhile things. The worthwhile things cannot be forced on reluctant minds. They are acquired by contact with those who have already acquired them and have patience ,zeal and competence enough to initiate others into them.

Explain the meaning of equity in education. Illustrate with the help of examples.

The roles of education are manifold. First, it should equip all children with basic tools of

thinking like learning language and numerical skills, provide to all children a sense of

national identity and life skills like learning to learn, communication and work related

attitudes and values. At the macro level, the system should provide opportunity for merit

and creativity of diverse nature to nurture talent and aptitudes in various fields. At the socio-

political level it should provide foundations for responsible participation in civil society.

Education in modem India is considered an instrument for silent social revolution towards

prosperity. Against such expectations the performance of the system in terms of a few

indicators may be worthwhile for making assessment of the education system.

The basic form of education indicator is literacy.

Table 3.3 and Table 3.4 provide a picture of changes in literacy during the last decades of the

last century. The figures in Table 3.3 show outcome at basic level of the education ladder.

Literacy in the population can be attributed to family and primary schooling to a larger extent

and, to some extent, to the adult education drives. But in societies like India with

preponderance of illiterate parents, i( is primary education that contributes to the literacy of

larger sections of population. Lowest degree of benefit has accrued to Scheduled Tribe females

followed by Scheduled Caste females. Males of other category have derived the highest

benefit. The ST-female category living in rural areas is the least attended one by education

system at entry level. This is reflected in Table 3.4.

Educational policy professes participation m higher education based on merit within each of

the social categories like SC, ST, OBCs and unreserved category etc. Even though we don't have

data on Other Backward Classes (OBCs) Government of India under the mandate of the

Constitution has to publish data on SC and ST categories. Table 5 contains some interesting

information on the status of participation of social categories in Higher Education. As per the

MHRD report, there were 9.53 million students studying in various courses beyond senior

secondary stage during 2002-2003. If meritocracy is operating in education subject to social

justice measures, the proportion of students from three categories namely, SC, ST and Other

than SC/ST should be represented in higher education more or less proportional to their

numbers in total population.

Modernisation and its characteristics The term 'modernisation' is used in social sciences to designate the process through which

a traditional or pre-technological society passes as it transforms into a society

characterised by machine technology, rational and secular altitudes and

highly differentiated social structure. These changes have mainly occurred

through the related processes of industrialisation and urbanisation. Il may be borne in mind

that some times the process of modernisation can also come through rising agricultural

productivity and exploitation of natural resources as in the case of Australia and New

Zealand. Further, as Shipman (1971) argues, the technical complexity of modem industry

makes it likely that the latecomers will have to rely more on improvements in agriculture to

provide the necessary resources. Burgin all cases, it has been the industrial urban sectors,

however small, that have moved faster from the traditional to modern ways of living.

Shipman simply puts it as follows: "As traditional societies modernise old habits, old

patterns of authority, old relationships and old values are challenged, disrupted. and

replaced"'(1971:p.l3).

ft may be kept in mind that the process of modernisation has been promoted and perpetuated

by the elites of the society. However, the elites themselves have arisen from a variety of social

conditions and have had a variety of objectives. Some were rejecting the feudal and religious

restraints, some were nationalists, some were anti-colonialists, etc. In India, the process of

modernisation came primarily through the access to modern education, which in turn

resulted in the anti-colonial and nationalist movement that has created Independent India.

Though the process of modernisation is triggered and promoted by the elites of the society,

soon it opens up for other groups as well.

The notion of modernisation is not immune from the criticisms, and is also open to some

ambiguities especially in the context of societies such as ours. In the Indian context in

particular, the concept of modernization involves a value judgment. It carries with it the idea

that it is something good or desirable. When political, social or religious institutions are said to

he modernized, there is the implication that the changes referred to are something that the

speaker does not disapprove of. And these conceptions about the process of modernization

stem initially from an attitude, a belief that society can and should be transformed, that

change in a specific direction is desirable. For M.N Srinivas, modernization is a process which

one cannot simply approve, disapprove, and also remain neutral. The whole ambiguity arrives

out of its relation to the concept of tradition. For a society like India, tradition and modernity

are . intertwined and both go together side by side. Through this logic behind tradition and

modernity, one may conclude that modernization in India is not supplanting the tradition, but

it is in fact supplementing it.

Modernisation does not simply alter the technology, scale and tempo of life and work, but

changes the expectations that govern behaviour itself. That means modernisation results in a

new social order. For instance, in a work place, the modern worker has to accept an

environment that is impersonal, assessment that is based on his performance and which is

not affected by iiis status away from his work. These are the norms of bureaucratic

organisations

Discuss Talcott Parsons' (1961) views on the functions of school.

Talcott Parsons (1961), an American sociologist, in his path-breaking article 'School Class as a

Social System' says that schools are involved in four simultaneous functions in the society:

1.Emancipation of the child from the family.

2.Intemalization en social values and norms at a higher level than available in the

family

3.Differentiation of the school class in terms of actual achievement and differential

valuation of achievement

4. Selection and allocation of children into the adult role system '

School as a socializing agent

As mentioned earlier, school is one of the most important socializing agents in the

development of a child, it is the organized part of (he process through which each successive

generation learns the accumulated knowledge of a society. When we are young, our

behaviour is governed by certain values and norms that are particular to that society. For

instance, we are told that the teacher is like a god and we should respect our teachers. The

school in early stages keeps reminding us that we must have the highest regard for our

parents. This soil of knowledge has accumulated over several generations from times

immemorial in Indian society Cultural transmission is necessary to make people fit into the

existing pattern of life and associate with others in a predictable, efficient and humane way.

For instance, a baby is transformed into a social being by his/her parents and near kin,

particularly through the learning of language. After this initial training, societies differ in the

organization of further learning, not only in the content and length of education, but also in

the agencies involved.

The involvement of school in the process of converting children into useful, responsible adults

means that it is never concerned solely with knowledge and preparation for occupation. This

moral education transacted by the school must be accompanied by social training in

appropriate behaviour. Its objective is a disciplined as well as an informed adult.

School and out-of-school influences

Further, the preparation for and regulation of social life determines the content of schooling.

Schools as agents of socialization do not function in isolation. They operate alongside the

family ,peer groups, neighbourhood. community media, and the society at large. In primitive and

proliferate societies, all these might have similar value system and hence there would be

perfect harmony within the society. However, in complex modern and industrial societies

such as ours in the present day context, there is no guarantee that these different agencies of

socialization share common values. They may, at times, lead to conflict of value systems and

orientations. This is what is often noticed by most of us in our everyday lives within and

outside the school. Particularly, as educators, we find that the more squalid the area which a

school serves, the greater will be the contrast between its values and those of the school. The

teachers, mainly from middle class backgrounds, meet children whose beliefs and behaviour

are rooted in very different environments. The result is frequent frustration for the teachers

and a rejection of the school by the children. Consequently, the influence of the school is less

on those children who could otherwise benefit most

School as a stratifying agent

According to sociologists, the school is also an agency which differentiates the school class

broadly along a continuum of achievement. Talcott Parsons argues that differentiation along

the achievement axis is a source of strain, because it confers higher rewards and privileges on

one group than on another within the same system. This strain is alleviated by what he calls as

integrative mechanisms of the family and the school. However, the way the school and the

family view the differentiation differs mainly in three respects:

a. Family differentiation cuts across achievement differentiation and (he family supports the

child in directions other than achievement

b. Teachers like or respect pupils on the grounds other than their achievement status

c. Peer group friendships cross-cut the achievement status.

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