Mery Douglas Witchcraft, Confessions, Accusations

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W 7 C F T C R A F r r

C O N F E S S I O N S A C C U S AT I O N S



First p?cbZi~hed ? l )70hy il'trvisfoc.7; I'ub licts tio7 ~s Liw?,ittidI 1 N elr ? J l ' r t t ~ ~c tn ~ , o.rtdo?zECY4

Z 'h is hook ha s b e ~ n ~ tn Modrrn Seriesand was p ~ i ~ ~ f ~ dy T f A . I ? o ~ ? ~ t ~ ~ h l eimi ted ,

Ed inburghAsi;orintio?z of , )cia1 Anth rop oloy ists of the Com7~~ o?~~niecnlth

1'970

II1hirv JOIU YIZPd e r i ? ) ~ ~n,ainly from papers prcisented at the annualco~tSe~r?zcef ~ P ~rioci/l,tio;r2 f 8 0 c i a l A n t h ~ q o l o g i ~ t sf the( : o ~ ~ ~ n a o n ~ ~ ~ r l ; rth on the th eme of witch crcgt. ?'he co.pzfr?rencc, wa sheld (r t King 's Coll~ge,Can~br idge ,3-6 A p r i l 1968, and theAssociation u7ishr.s to record its gratitude to the Provost and.Fellows of Ki r~ g's ollege for their hos1)italit on that occasion.

Thc papers inrludotl in this vol~lrvltfare ofkred s a tribute to

Professor E. E. Evans Pritchnrdk7011nder and First Presidel~t f thr.

Associatian of Social Antlrropologists



I N T R O D I J T I O N

J f u ~ ? y ouglas

'I'llirt y Years

after Witchcraft , O~cncles nd Magic1

ITistorians and aathropologists have a conllnon interest in thesubject of witchcraft, but until very recerltly their outlooks havediverged. Historians dealirig with si~ te en t~ h- icl seventeenth-coiit~ry urope or Massachusetts cannot but see witchcraft axp r t of a, cum~llaitive rocess with frequeritly a, violent and tragicclimax. Its scale may not have nlatclied the religious persecu-tions of earlier times, bu t i t is difficult not to see i t in Eur ope nsanother scourge, a destructive belief liable to run away wit11reason, as Norm an Gohn corlvilicingly slzows below. The a n t h o -pologists of the 1950s developed insigh ts int o tlie fulictiorliiig of

witch beliefs which seemed abo ut as relevant to t he Etzropeanexperierlce as if t hey came from another planet. Darigerous inEurope , th e ssine beliefs in Melanesia or Africa apyjeared t o betame, ever1 d~rn esticat ~ed; hey served useful furictlio~is ncl wereriot expected to run amuck.

I s th e difiFerelluc objectively valid ? Does i t really result ikon1a difference it1 the social conditions, or is it due to prejudice inthe eye of the observer? Forrtierly antl~rol~ologists sed toenlpliasize the diRererlt quality of the ixlf'orniation a,cceasi bletie the t w disci~)lille8 f research . Now this diffcrerice is beilignarrowed: tlle historiz~lrs who liavc c~rltribut~ed o this volumehave succeeded in delvirlg into rnatcrial very coxnpartzblr: to

th at used b y an 2lrol)ologists a11d the l atter are gradua llyimprov i~ig he time-scale of their ol~servation. ['he ~llotnent ascoriie for t survey of the su1)ject.

For a good tlecadt:, betivce~~ ts pill)lir:stion n 9 3 7 ;LIIC Idllebegirlriixig o f post w a r rosearch, Il itehcraft , Oracles m d J2ngiccxmonq tlee Axa~zde had little inftrreilr:~. (Clyde JClnckholzr ~ ' sVaz~< ho Witchcrnj 2: I 944 wrLa clearly writ ten indc1)enclciri y.) 3ut

ill the nexC twen ty y ears iC canlc: t o dowlinate the ~~ritillgs fanth ropo logi sts irk a remarkable way, s is the ft~te f any

xiii



or-igillrrl ~ r r k , it Ila,ic hren nl~pliecl. n direct ions llotl foreseen, noisi3tr l ~ l o s ~ r ~ t l ,)y its ;l1lt2lor*. Gv;~~rs-I'rit,c.]i~i~rdllenc>ntlces n no

u ilc:t.r.t;rit t3rmi t: c.rlldt? lixilr: ioil;tlisl n to .it-llicli TJ itncllcrnft,stJutfic:s Ila\-e caolll si i) \~ t lci (f"lv;~lrs-I'riI~c*fli~rcl, J( jA, 1,. 1 14). 111

f hr: s11ort r*1rn, 111 t[iall ol' t,lzt-. + ~)l li '14 l1i~11 1 ; 1 ~ Jt:riv(~d i'onl his1 OO k Ltlit~i ~ ( : f ~ l l l ( ~ do fi'~Stl'i~tC li";~)w11 wish t,o brillg t~llthro-~)o'i(qi",s llti Ilisto~.iitns ogt.tl-zcr. 111 asl;i~lg ~ott- his l~ay)~>enecJi

wt3 1"i~i~1:i ~ i i d i ~ ~ t r ~ q ~ t ; t l11~iitiolis I )ol ~t lle list rxre of scl1olarlyre,s(;arch.

k'ilxt itrltl fo re ~~ ~o st his WiLS ;t book a?)olxt tflr ~ociology fI i~ lO \~ ldgc . t ~ l t o n - ~ t io w r znurir, cleve r Z L X I ~ ~ ~ ) p t i ~ i t lLS t h ~ y1 :r8c. could 1oleri~tt: ii~r.repar~cies 11 t heir I~eliefq nt1 coulci lirrlitt Ilc: liil~ds f (~~es t i 011,llcy i ~ ~ k e d~f>out ho U I ~ ~ T - C ~ S L "t lrligllt11;~t'e ) C C I ~ O S I ) C C ~ ~ Y ~ 8th l t ~ l i ~ t ~1 1 0 1 ' ~ ~1~11CZies XI the socialr-r5st ;~iil is ul)r)rl l ) ~ l * ( ~ p to~l . llst ~ t t c lt f:xt,hert&cl tuclies of ~njc ro-f)olific..;. I'llc relatiio-ti Il~t:t.c\eer~ )elic:f a11d soci ety, in st ea d rrf;~ i ) f~~ ; l r " i : g~ sxlfi~~itcly ~or-r~ltlez;,rxl)tle, ait~tl l uid, was yreserlteda1: it ~'oll ' o l r~ i j - s t~e~~~t11 a 11~g;tt ve fcedbarlz. Anthropologistsst tic: tl y liril t'c-lill tho c~tlestiorls hey nslted and rest~,a illed $eir

11i~t1lral vriosity. '1'11~as s l l i~ l~~ t io~ l s ;f their model wcre no nlorcc r- iie;~Ily silr~~ilc~cl 1 1 ~ 1 1 l l o s ~ rlc lchr*lying Jllo L$zar~<lc hcory ofis i t c ~ h c 4 r ; k f t

1711~< f l i i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ~ f i l ~ t t * t ~ ~ ~ tri~ltl )f*r(:~l)tio l ~ I C O I ~o f > ~ l i t i c i ~ lll&-I p i s 1.c n. jmr-l alg7 i t i t to tllcl ir l t rl*rn-~apton of tl1r Second 'IVorlr1TV:ir..1l7l1t.11 t c>;ic*llir~g ~rirl itiltl~c rl; 5%rre res~~rncid vans-Pritcl ltidl i i tiiwlf h;t(l st r i , t b ( i to l ) t~I ) l j s I~ is NI IC ~S[ 11clies an d t ms ~vor lci ~lg; ~ 1 < 0 7 11< V Yu i . q i {f Y?/ri / i li ~ l1 1% I ) .13 is e o ~ i t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ) o r a ~ i ~ s3 er'c1 1 1i l ) l 4 l i i 112 i ~ t t ~ ~ r tL I Z & rts(";l1"i4f~f*~. ~:;Lc II iiew ficldt\-orkcr 1)ro-( I l l ( v r c f llC1\'i t l l i l t ~ f i f l , ~ ,lr l \V idf";l~, ~ 1 1 ( 1 I1(l\. I f ~ i : ~ ~ l l l i ~ a l~ ) T o ~ ) I B I ~ s .I I ~ ~ I * a t ~ g v f so(*i: l , l ~ l s t i t ~ ~ io11s l i a d to ~ ;i~iaI*ys~cl.1 sir~~j)liiie<l; ~ \ ~ ~ ~ r o t ; ' ~ " l1 7 ; ~ ~ ~ C ( Y ~ S S ; ~ I ' Y ijr ;ts;.;iix\ilntil~g s r~rrrc:lr tl123,t isns~ ~ i l f : ~ t ~ ~ i l i : i ~ pf S O I I I ~ > f 1 1 ~P S S O ~ Sof t h v A z z t ~ ~ ~ l c)r~ok re over-lair \\ it 11 01 llcr i t lwss , ~'tlt~at>~ill>e~*lso t ll;r t, Eva~rs-f3rit 2l;lrtl ist i c v h l l r -rr~otic~st. 1 t h tlocls r r o t s t ~ k o ~lotrt inate to ii~ffrrti~lce1111(1tily L st 1t(1~1it tlkoi~gl~ ,. 1 is i ~ i ~ ~ ~ o s s j t > J ~o i t~~itgillc l i n~c a o r l r ) l : t i r , i ~ l ( _ rhat t t~ol'e s lrllrwc i r l his -lir*st, ook t l~ars I~IHbee11; ~ o i i t ~ c ~ t i ,rs tE1;it 1-I >I in4sl)rlr.ri l~lisitltc.r.t~rctccS,

I t .blr ; i 1)s i t i ; rvc.#tliss.;;\r.,i-. l)clii,r.c>goi rig on, to estnl tli.;l~ 21a.t tjElest ~rrly f r2~:\11(1~t it ( d ~ l ( ~ ; ~ f t;LS i11(tcva(l ofYf:red us t ct)lltril)iit,iolzt r t111. sot%ir~logj- f j~~ r (~y" l " io i r.11 Iris 1ectur.tx.; or1 rlbixgirb irr tlw

tTtiiversi 1)y of (jrtjr.o ( 1 $133,1 )34). I ~ V R I I S -'ritic.h:tr.clt ~ ~ ~ S C I I R R P ~,11e5intelleetlualist' interpr-et,nti ons av oured by tlhc li;x~glish ntl hro-~)ologist~s nd tnlrea the m t o ta sk for. suppo sing t11al. p:ttLttr11s ofthought can he explained by the worl i i l~g f the i l ld i ~id ~~a I 'sxnincl. H e appla uds t he French, especially I>ui~ kheirn nd LiSvy-Bruhl, for their sociologic.al a~~~~m:w11. ndeed, hc is our lastdirect link witls the Frci1cli sociologists of L'.4nnde iYocioloq-lique,

for the reiit of 11s reeeivccll J)urktlrhirn filtlercd th rough i:aclclifYe-I3row11, At this sta ge 1le adlrl its himself a disciple of 1,Bv-y-BrlxSll:

"'he critioisrns of XABvy-Erulll'w theories are so obvious an dso forcil~le hat only ltctoks of excel ~tio~ inl ~rilliance andor'igi11;;llitjr could 11avr survived them, . . Levy-Brulzl issyteiikiug of patterns or xnodes of t l~ oug l ~ t l~ i ch , a ft erelirninatiz~g ll individllml variatiozl, are t he same axnong allthe rrlelnl>ors of a prinzit,ive coninlrlizity ;xrl<ll a re what arecalletl the ir l.)eliefs, . . lilvery individrlal is colr-tl~elled r) adopttlscse beliefs by 1,ressur.e of social circunrstauoes. . 13'lleriLevy-Rrulll says that ;t r c ~ ~ r e ~ e n t n t ~ i o i ~s coilec. ive , h e n-tcailsthat it is ;C i io~i tt ll y ~ t e r r~ ~ i l l cd ode of thongllt aiicl. i s there-fore rn~~lrn ou o all rnenthers of rr ~oc ie t~y3r. of a socinl seg-ment' (1034, 1). 9).

Evi~tns-IVit lra1~3 i rrlt, on to n~alie he necessary li ~l k itfs cctrl-te~ny>orary ~rrccptiot l heory:

\As Jt ~r il es nd 3tig1la110 an ti otl ler s lilairo shon-11, allpi sorllld orsigl lt r1ia-y reach t he b ra in of a person witllont ent eying int ohis corlsciousnews, ll/'e ~ n n y ay hhat he "lleair~" or "sees" i&b 1 3 t does nod l lo tic^' it . 11 n st r~i l l l l of AE~ISC ilnl)res~ic)118only i : ~ec*r)rne o~lsc:ioui: nd t hese ;trc selected or1 account,of ttlscir grr:at'er aff~c i~ix-i t)-, ~ n a n ' s trl.ests are tJhc electiveagent8 2111~1 hr8e a r r t o i\ gr*~17tt xte nt socitxlly dctc.r*~nineci . .(iljid., 1). 18).

hilrutall cbarlier, Marx ha d nr-yurrl that rrl igi ol~ s r~elicfs arc:ixlfluenced by social cxperienoc. VI'I-rcre n-as no rlorcltj- in thet~-e llt iet h entury ill inquiring 410-u- tlic choics t~et~wccn rlekind o f religiou or ; ~rlot l\rr llight b r s dct,cr.nri~rc(l. 2ut the~)rol~lt.rll hat l hvy- 31.irlll set l~irlr elf nmot~lif id to t llc l)r*o;~clc.rorlc o f ;ts.;killg h o ~ v rk>. religir,r~ ti ;ill ~ 0 1 1 1 ~ 1 ~ a(.r.el)tt.tl. J\ 'S I~



slio~lltl )r:lic.f~ ll ir1visil)lc de111o11s stld gods, Y I L I L ~ ~ ~-ild. tab? ,1 l ; l vc ex1 )l;tila ,ol*y vsl me? L'~I';LI ;cc~in I16~y-Rr~l11 's er111~ I l l ~clkt~:qtioll ic;i:Crlis I I I ~ ~ ~ I ~ F S I I ~ C ~ ~ I ) ~ C ,sc:cp i ~)ost ulatizl p special))I-irr~it~ivc' ;tst of ~lti tltl. Nut It3vaiis-jf%it,cllartl solred it byl ) ~ O i ~ d ~ ~ l i l i ~11~: j t ~~ st ~i ot ~till fur th er rmcl cosisidc~-i ng t ais par to f tilir p~*oI)lt:iuf tix]i)l;tn;ttioli n,r such. c aslcetl wily any ~net,:x-1)11j~si:a1 syst clrl slt ou ltl k t? ac.ct.19tjcd. he tlifires1tc bet ween

r*i.ligio\rs t.sl)l:tl ; ~

ion;; ztuzi oth er exy,lnn:ttiorzs tl le ~l ades in tot I~;~(djl~l'Ollll(i.11 $191 ill(j~liry nto 12 it c.l~cr:xft as u prirlciple ofcb;tlrs:t ion, rto rn,yst cbrio~ls; t>iritrra;~l ,rlillgs rtrr postulat,t>d, o111yt l l r : u1~-stesio rrs )owcr.s f 1lunla1i.i. l' lt e belief 3% oil t l ~ ~itrncfimt i ~ r y ts 11r~ l ic f l l t l i ~:onspiracy theory of history, in the I~allc-f t l l ci-lX;~>t,s1 il~tori(l:tt , io~~r i l ~ : ~ t r a, ive v z l ~l e f ~ t sy c> ho an ~ l y i ~

o r IJ rj- proposit iolt t11;nt~ 4;lr1 1 ) ~trc..;ciltetl n th r r nn\-erifixk~lef i ~ r - r l t . l l l c . (jl~rstioll 11t311 I ) C P O ~ ~ C SI ~ C k)out rat,ionality.

' 1 ' 11 ~ ar Etcllvritft 1t rlit.f~ f t lzc I"irr,nr~c3ci.il-c3re x+otecte d, bvans -I"*i c>li:~r'ci ho~rchtl, I O ~ nly by- secol~dr try lal,orat,io~ls of t llc~ r l ; t i l r I q - p o t l ~ ~ s w )1 lt,by a s ~ t , f social processes. First, theizitcal\c>r:tft k)tllicfs s~ist&i"tjflf*~{ j 7 , i l ~ l f j ~r l o r. t . t l raliacls and their

i l t q f j l ~ ~ t i o n ~ .l(ll'on(l, h y 77(qX.r Pstri("t(?(l SO as lrover to ap plyi 11 c ~ , l l t xts ill ~tl~ichlr -o~lllict illg cc*tlors nigllt ]rave fo und a ni l i t c~cxst rl cirlr tgil~g 1lrc*n1. For rxat t l l ~ l r. lic 1)elief that witch-rar;i,f: c\:ls ht:r't~clit;\~~~n. thcx r>l;cs.: of cbotrllnoncrs. fcricX tha t tiherul i 11q ("~:Lss1:1(3 110 t :till t of it, G I I R I . I I C ~ 1121 t eonlnronerg would~ i c ~ ~ ( ~ ~ i ( : ( * l i l s ( *t~' i"i ocr ats . i:t~riially, he r3orrriestic ~t~r rrac ture -as~ ~ { ~ l t t l l t lrl so f;lr ~ 1 10 son c-aorrltl ;Icc2zlse Isis owrl fa t, lt i~ r without1)1';~11(lillgiillisrlf as llf4r to L t ; ~ i u f d inc of ilc~scrnt. lznllde badn orlilt~cl ut IS ;t1 IIav l ~ rocin1 irll~)lici;~t orls of fierctlitgary nd n on-1lc~1~t~~lit~:tr.yit~c~frt:raf 'f ,) ~ i t lrc?rc still a,I)lc t,o igtlorr: therz~ whent Iwi - 0 - r ~ I io<Xivi(lu;:\l a s ~ )c)i ~ktrt l ,n r.c.ln tionslii~ts it h wjtcllrs.\\Tllf*rtb l l i l I ~ t ~ l i t ~ f f kr~f~tlrr~tll i o s t r.rrlrlcr.;tl,lc t o irlt,t.llectrr;tl

cal~;~llcrlgc%uitl had n o t I~c.c?rl ~)rorid(:tl \iLll ~)rot~tactivc ccha11-~ Q I I I ~ ~\ c aqt t~t wi A i z : ~ ~ ~ < l ~ ~11~01~1i~:ttlts1 xlat3 ~ ) ( ~ a ~ ) z n l ~ l ~f sl)i)ttii~gi l c j ~ l * o ? ~ l ~ ~ ~ l .J'lroy c : o ~ ~ l t fr o f srbc, c~s 1xnnzplc, any diffific'1llt;l.w i t r tJtcki t I l f ~ ~ r f l t(::tl 5 ~c \s' lll;ttj C I ; C I ~ dr i~t l r U-a s c ; t~ ~ ~ t " ( ixitlic3r1 ~ .t itjc*lrc~r;lfi r- 1 ) ~ -i l i ~ ~ t b i i l i ~ ~ t .rl;rgic:~gainsi the gnilty nritcl~.It1 1 l c l i l - ~~*;t(*"fical~xjjc>t*ierlc.c lvthry detttll ~ ; t i i ~ lnr~li~tl x) witch-cat*;l l . \ \ ; l ic\rl 111~ t i t4 l~~r,i)ologihl illrtcirl t o t o t ~ 1 ' ~" t l r s of

i t calrrs' .;-icltirt~s tgniltst tlc~~,tIis f v i t ~ ~ l r t ~ s;illtltl i l r \rcngcnlrrlc.1 1 0 O I I P I i r r c b t r ;rltytlii~-rir ~ , c ~ t t tt l l c I i r t t r 1 1 T31;lt i t .tv;l,s r io t rlifficarglt

for h il ~l ,o discern tllc sc t of int,t:rcsts t h t t blilzlieretl hclierchrsztlld ena ble d t t t s ~ n l,o relnain collt1ellt nit,ll all esl)larlz~tory ystemt)llat> erved so ntangr practical ~ ~e ei ls . lze soinrrc of his insightlay in oxalniiii~ig eliefs a l~v svs ro111 the ljoint* of view of iihenct,ors in a given 8oci;cl wituation. 'Chrr he tljscalosed tlrc? ar ea sof th c great$r:.it oncenl, and tllose ilr wlliclt tllrliu ouri osity could.lie dormant. Ga8ps (Ii~crel)alzri(~ij C ) I I J ~1je tolt1r:kted ~vii,liorat

in tilw least ~list~urbing he ill~lsiori of a c o ~ l l f ) l e t ~ d ircle of1)c~Iirf's.Evans-P~i i t~hnr t l lS extj l)ook, T h r Y ? A / P Y10 3-0:1), C X ~nds

furt,hr>r his i r~tcrest n t hc social st t3uc>t,rrr.iag f cxl~criclice. -$scllap ter con Nuer perception of til m is S I L C ~ Ia11 exerci at*. 7'he ~r.raint he n~ e f t ht ? I,ook is .2 disctrssion of ho\-r- t pcc)plc ~ ~ 1 1 1 se anuoccl>t l)le idiom to ~)rcscrlt ihc?ir' oli t ic:nl systtlnl t o t ltcn~sel\*clsuitl iout m-orvying nI)or~t o ~ v ittle it corresponds to the f;tctls(194l)h, p. 288). T3y t h r tirllc l ~ e rites Nuer .lleligio?z ( 1956) heis rnuch. closer to I)nrkllci~r~ h an t o I,&vy-Rruhl. But in t,hcinterval T /~ ,P S n7z.tcs.1: f Cyren,nicn (1 49 nn:llyses Glle socialstrtlctllring of corlvcrsion. So 116 has eoi~sist.erltly ol lo ~~ ~e d is

early ilrtxrest in tllc social restlraint1s n perception. It won Id 1:xc t ~ t l ' ~ c t l d l ' -crg ~nucl i n t hc i;j)irit of these books to rlot,e the soci. 1

ing of blind spots and ir~sight~s n 13-ork tlt. ri~ -etl rom tJllt*ln.Tlsrcc lrrnitl prir1eitl1t.s of th o 12zalltXe a~ l; ~ ly s i s avci beell

applied in lat er respnrch. Fir st. t,olcranne of forcign beliefs: Pro -fmsor Scligrnazl's in t rocblct ion point s 011 i t hut the Aznntlt3 n-erefar from being i>ppressrtl l y wi t,chr r ; ~ f l ~c~nrs ba l r s- Plait 211nrt1,1 ):37, p. xi ), stld E va~ls-Prit,c)lartI pz)ilits out the 1ubric:nt-r.ffcct of alloiq-ing grudges t o I.)e broi lght out into tile ol)c:11 andof ljroviding a fonnuln for at:tioli in misfortulre.

Geco~ltl. hc Ilostilitjes th at Mere cxl~rcssed by m-itellc~'aft~t~eliefs wrerc c1t.arl-y pa t tenilrxd. Accusntioll e cl nst rr crl il l ar ea s of

;\nrhigrrons social i~clatliorls, Whclre r.oli_.s n-rw 111iErr-ctl by 1111-r q ~ t a l x)wthr , wrc;~l a?. or other forms ) f soc3i;ll tlisiaircc, m-it1c;h-~ '~ ' i t f t ( T C " I I S ~ ~O J I R ~-<*rtv~lot11 ;1<lc: l l ~ y I l j l ) ~ ; ~ ~ * ~ dvll rr~ rasirtnst)et8\vee~l lciglll)ot~rai~lp ivals colr ld not otllrrn ist: 1 c I-esolvecl.7%e rnec1x:tnislrr for 1)ro duci lig th is pat{ 1 ~ 1 1 f :rtxcusat i )ns l a yin the way in wllic t~ rscles wcrtx u~ co ns c- i i o i ~ iia~,ililrl;ltc.tl.

Tllird, \rit vt l 1)eliefs ha d n ~rt,x.lll:~tii-c I1Ftict) or1 I)fhhrivicnur,'il'llus the morirl syst cnll ;~ri ci oeinl ccrclcs \~--n.r c i11~l)oi.t d by t lrc~:1nt.t on of at t r:tclt,ing iiusf,iciolr of 1 iicIler*;t ft, sit-tc*ch .t i i c l ~ t ~ s

x.; ii



~ PIT^ t \ I ()11g11 i o K ~3 t ~ l t a .in(::ti~, 1, s ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ( ~ l ~ i ~ \ g .4or~ovc~r) f2iiigl)c*i-\-i(41cc-l : t ~ I P \ ( 1' ~ ( ~ ( : r q ~ ) t ~ ~ ? ( ltjq i l l 1 OXC'I ISC f01 1l101';tl 01 t ~ ~ b l ~ i c f ~ lt l t ~ f j ~ * t r ; ;+~I ( . I .O .i*csl)o~lsiI)ilit,y :orlltl 1 1 t p t ~ t~ ; ~ I~ l i s l ; l r ( f f .

4 : ~;nlr.:-J$,it(:llilt'~l'*~l;bin ilitt(:rcvti ~ Y C I ~ X S1 0 l l i t ~ ) c ~ n n c;hoi%i ~ ~ grori- ;1 ~~rc ' t~ ;~~ ) I~y. ; i~ ' : ~ lystclri~ ii)rtltl c*o l t~ l ) ~ lw1ic.f Iry n varietyof stxlf'-sr;ilitl;zt 11g procccltircq. R u t 1 1 1 ~ :L I I ~P ~ ~ ) ~ ) l ' ~ i % f la,s wellltcitx 1)twJ o t r~lor-c: sit~1~ 1lis t ~ f ' l l l ~ ( t i ~ ) i t i ~ l ly l)ot hc-:+is. Tl tc

r * r * vc~ ; r l *c~ l r i . sfR i i ~

RI:rrrt ialt (I )lriJ) f(iT,) :r r~ il f ( jly tlc Rlit c:tltlllI )#?(i) i r ( h r t al Afaric.:t c:rlrltIlasixi.,rd tht: 111o r;il ity- snst? ti~~ irsp ,

~lorn?nt~i\r. , ird t.xl)l;lti;ttor.y f i i r~nt i t r~~sf niici1ler;ifi. l u t t , ' f l~y: i c l ( l ( l t Z ;I trc.w 1cvt.l of irl sicht.

-1rjrollg the Az:~~iilo, ~ - i t ( : l ~ ( q i ' i t f %)(:lic43 i i ( i f l ~ l i 'o lie like s1,;~tirr l l r l c+ tl ic>i ty ttctiv;~t d 1)y inir*i~lt~ii~iali.icaf on, -\sfzorca,~ xl Iv:to:ulrl "7;t (*olll~lllltlit w I,klt"il' J)O\I CT mT:ts 111ol)i i i . , c b r t f(or h r v ~ j ~ l i ( ~ 1cah;l,rig,rcbi; llc sorain1 syst crtl wo ~l lt l )cr it) (iic~: tlly lrlrlrrgo. VFTl.ltbn t141cli t l~ t-i1l;rgc rstac~tlt~l sizcl 1:irgcr t h n t s frail rr:solirrt3s of:I ~ i ilorit y C ~ O I Id ( i o ~ i tY ~ ,wi tJc;llc~~3:~ftc * < * I I s ~,ions \wrcl an idio~rlin n ~i tdj~)lcyi):~i~iflll )B"OCTSS of ficisiolt~ ~1)111~1 ~ et going. l llr-:

i r r i ~ ~ n l1 x ; ~ ~ l d ~)ict I I ~ Pvi1s O Fa so(ii;tll S ~ R ~ C I I I ~ r ~ ~ ~ i t ~ i e ~ l ty

I ~ : I1.l)r>trl*iirg rclac of ill -rirlfiilritl rcll;-t iolrslli 1s ill J$ hie11 nitrll-cnr* ; \ f i;~t:~*als;:\t,iolls lonr*islit:td. Now t l i i s I ~ I S 1r.t-clopcd b - ~ ncavr t l o t l c l wl~ic>l-, oulti t :1 ;1 i~ t w r n o ~ ~ tf reca~~rrclit hanges in tirnc.* I t otlc3 ~ x > i l l i .r k t itii Iliqtor,~ f :I, s r1 l ; r l l f 'c*11tr:kl / \ h i c a n t~illage,11 i i ) c * l )3t,;l r rr<*~>116:i\ions woultl I ) r : r n r r. at nnotlrer point they1% otnl(X i~lt crr sif y ts I-ir-nls corrtl~rtrri O I *>tr*tionttI dvc?ixit nge.

i~'ii~l(livor.li. olr t i~lurlci o clot t,llc: 3's atad r1ros;;s he t's, confirnl-i lg t rllrl iiscfull~rss f t Ilr g ~ ~ l ~ c : l ll31t"'ua,c41. Il ere -v,-it,cll accusn-t or t s t\-clrr t~s;i(:(l ) c*ltl:tllrngc tl)rtsc, of ;~u thor it, y, ,ilere tost rcrlgt llr.11 i t . \l\'lrel,clvtkr. hr~ l io fin wit cb1-rcr2aft was fourld totlotirii;lr, l IP I1y1,otil.lrsi-r T f ;-tr*cbn,.;:xtons cvo-rtld Gcnd t o c'itlsl r rill iiolltxs xs I l c ~ t l ocia wl:~ , i o l~s i~ irt3 1 tltlfi~~e(iLII($ c o ~ n p ~ tt vc

c ~ , i ~ l ( li o f ail l o n iwl,. l ) c * a . ; ~ , r l r r. cao121 ) e l l ir--rnrss nxld nml~igtlitywckrx. i t f c t i t i f i f * d f)y r?icx:lll.; of wit c*ll ~ctauciat ons, 13uf i~rilr-it;tl)Jyt , l r c lsrr1)jt.c.t 1)r.g;trl i, lost1 l l1c*lxxst n , ~ IC nrli of 1)rcrlic.t vi. powcbr*in t 1 - r ~rrcf'u taljlc. govr.rrlirzg lzg ~?ot~llr.;is sas ~m~vealcd. t 1rr2tlirzg-l)i>irlt is ltrnrIcfb(l 1 ) ~ - )ar,yII X?ort3e7s (ctissrrrsqiorl of the Yaliijc.osrllologj- it : ;1 snj)cxrrlr:ktllrnl c3or l0 l r ly of 1:ll~~tills Ill(l e n d s( I II2X . I 3 h . r ll:r 1,s ' I 1 r t r ~ l l c ~ r " s ;a t a t c . l " c a It t .. fi.iur )( i l ) . 111 J r i c a l r11cc8ll:rIlcbrtgt1,.: Iscas I I I I ~f' t I r c kst~-r~;iIIr~dtrrlril ~rrxl ~ ~ ) ~ ) I - O : H ~ .ll;rr'li:4

t l r v ~ 1 1 1 .

7'he -4zttnde st t~ il y crt~; til-t ly ~l i t~l ' ibut?d its sl1a.r~ o tlllr gulf1)cLn-sc.n hist oluiarrs nt1 ;-ill Ihr.ol)olo;?ic;t illc;r. Lht: ich?:i: of' t, itch-cwft as ~);irt , f i t llr,i~loost;it,iv olrf 1.01 sj-stoln dcvsi~ 3iircctlyfro111 it . I\br*ll;il)s 1 0 0 1 1 ~ li t~ olii\ f ~ l r t l f ~jllitll I-"f.~ilij) l ayer irlj ~ , ~ l ) l j i w 1r;tt)w itchllcraft t,t.~lic$'s at 1 6 ~ ; 1 ~ in Afi.ic.;i ll t - : or igi~~i l ltllltonrllcrl ~t ,iklr ~t~f'orc l l ~ S S ~ U I I : L I - ~ ( Y, %P]I, t l l i i i ~olor i i~ts adtlisttrrbetl i llt. 1~alnrlc.t.) ercX ;t frilly tiotllr:st icated P~ )C' C'~ OS , oti

ti(> )c co~ulmreti till the .\z ilti, I_r;~u*ope;xn ort ( I 954):11 a ~lorr~~nl l ; l -t;tblc society the ~viic*hcrnfi, s r~feci.ii~clg- oll-

t rolJt:tl. I t ;idrtijt,ticidly ~~r~ovic icst vclit fill E1:~tretls 11ltl ~ ~ ~ x i ( " ~ i t stllznt sociit.t,y (2~llllot x1 r i ~ ,Cjlrt t hi.; ~'clnltti 1s i ~ f t ~ ~ ~ i l lI ~"011-trolled olltlcit : til~c? i.cirlurlt~cay OJ sci.r-wity of' ~~011vi(d~ii01lsssoln~lron ;c.l)t i~ t Elill f)o1111ds1 1 )34 . 11. 15).

'An 12ngli~c2i1 nt Item tl ernanr ls ""ie tha t ye love orle a1.1otllrr.rfertr(?~itly". 3eliefi is1 th e lina1ic.e of u t chcr~x ft iltl i l l th e -csr;xt'hof itlleestral s;;r)irits do more than ask this ;ts an ;net of grace;tihey aftirrml t 1mt if you do not love onr: arlotfiol. ferv ellt ly, r nis-f o r t u~ l e will comuc. Bad feelilig is charged with nlysticaldanger ; r i r uc in it sclf ~>rorli-\~ ces rc3lt.r tJhrongll on t themnir~crse. Thci-rtgll tt chttrgc: of viitr:hcraftt .fi)r*c.ml,;sirrg a zrlis-forttune In y i"?ii~l_ilg~r;~t ~ I ~ C I~ s ; L ( ~ c ~ ~ ) ; c ~ ~ c( ~ I ~ ; L J T ~ , lit: 1)chlit:fc~lll)ll:isist~s ,llii threati to tlw vvidfl* ocial or(1f1~1 lirll is con-tJaislod ill rnlt~trl~;tl i w titnent s. Slctret: tlit: l,s~lis~.f;-,lses.t, Fiorlle

III'CSS~XX'C. 11 111 C : ~ I ;~11cd tt-t~ltleil o olt)sen r t ltrl sot4 nl T. i r t rcfi,ttllt3 to ftlcl rhs right sclitirrit~nt~s, cst tllrby s~ls t~rc .t~t .cl f1)~i i lg $it,el~es' ~ i l t ~ c I c i t ~ ; ~ t l ~9 Z 5 , 1). 14).

St;~r t~ingro111 t 110111~oi.jt~ittic 11oc1rl f so(4i~"ty l~ l~ irl l i telk-craft beliefs lrely) to rulnisit,;~in lic s;t.;;tlerrl, llc rl:nt~lr';tl Pay oaecouiat for wit ~1l~leaf't ~ e ~ l s n t ~ i o ~ ~ set t i l lg 0111: of (:olltr01 m as byreference t o L gen era l brc;xftclo\v11 of tlre s oci ety . Ottrionsly, thelink 1)etweerl Eurr>pe;~u n d African wit chc.r;ifi STT;LS III ac10 b yrefc3rcric.r: to th e Illt-rclnstrir-tl ft ~v ol tx ti ol l iC$llrcIzrni~~l, f tct..111)- 7 , l U 1 , 102; h t t ~ ~ - e r >p. c i t .. 1). 15)-

111 tjlui case of ilifric:a it3 s t he break-ur, off hc slxlall f i~ w -t - f a c ~ ' ~cs) 11 rtrllllitJy with th e advealt of ~nissiollarics, i ~gch-l;i rour, ant3

s i x



t o n I lifil I a t 1cl1.ocli cat s n r l ~ l t~ l r ) t i l t ~ l~ (~dncrez~sc n .il t#clicraftfis:ll.s t t \ t i iL('clli;&t 01165:

' j \ \ ' t ; t l l filr.1that ;t socaichf f l r ; ~ t , ir tss . x t a c k s s i v r b t)~.oltliiiclic*s o11 i l ( 1 1 ( ~ 1 ~ \ f tl ~ t ~ . ; t 11. ;I sic>l ~ l ~ ( i ( l f ) - , I ; i l l k ~ ~ts t i t ( ; l i - ~ i ~ i ( ~ ~ 1 1I M ~ * N ' - " L I ~ " ~y :I bic~l.;: ~ ) P I - S O I K ; L ~ ~y. 'I'his is chotlfir*rrletf ) j r ant liro-1)olo~ic::rl t ll(llc1.: ii liiel~ t set 131.;~I *;tbtxs rl;~ve lio~ v~ i ir ilicccttseirl wif ~ . ~ ~ - ~ I ~ I G I H ) I H P ~ ~1 ~ ~ c l r t i ~ t l r x r ~ i t i t ~~ldergoir lg ocial br.c.ak-( l o r v ~ ~ .l l l t k 11;it i\-e\ ~w~oplcs f S o i i t 11 A l f ~ a i ( * i ~ltlring th e difficult~)lt;tse f rlr.l~;-trlis;i i o n ~)x-o.l-idr c*vcbr;t1 >ranc1,.i ll poillt' (&lnj-(?r.1 1*74. p. 16).

f i i i t I 1 o t Sr Afi*icn ar c IJf'ilc1li~lg religioll wlricEr(:;\,st s 1t f i ~ t r , )~i f : cionolll e i~ il d ot'i~ tl cllaxlges Exave sosh;t t,cxr.r~cl ril,;11 i t t ~ tt lllioiis ;111~1 111or;11 c.oties t, hc~t , llle resulto f rs llitltx cot~t;tc*t, s in rrialry c;lis.;es (211 i t ~ t rn l 11cre;lise iir th eclrtltttl of rt it,(4itartift, 11itl tlle rof or~ n tihe whole ir icide~lce ftlragic: tt~llst)ug1~out 11t: gro~llt ' I ):fT,, 1 ~ .58 60; see alsoW ; L ~ C ~ ,) l i f i . 1). 4-7).

rltr: gclicrtll ~)~-o~,ctsitioir hat ;tn increase of r~it~(~11craft~

;1,czc*ul=-ntiorls ccurs as L syrl ll)t or~i f diso rder ar id rrlorrtl collaljsewas ~ 1 1 ~ ~ ~ d ) l ~ 7in les t r~l~lr~.Y;~ l . r~~ ieri ousl y i t \1;'0~1ld ave requiredsorr lc ;~~s:r:ssrrlerrt of dllr. 1crt .l of i-ccccrsntio-tls before and after tliec.r*r~c*i:tl ~oi rlt , lnci also mr ir1tjiel)eltclcut niensur e of the static of~noctils mtl tlhcl rcgrllariig of soci;il ~'elat~iol~s.3111y rlow, -rt-it11sol~llist c.;tt,ccS trlcluiicllrcbs of nctrvork al inl ys is, wonrld i t b etb1~clor.c.tvn 1 1 jos;-aiblc o ; k t tempt suclz ztn assessment, ;tncl tlietahlc i s ( l ; ~ u ~ i t i l ~ g .11 XIwt the ~ T O I ~ : C I > Gof r~rorixl h eal t h an d ~ i c k -ricass, tltl trnl t o t hi.: disc~ sssiotl. ttis nc:\rcr beexi annly scd. In st (:ad,

i t was; f:tlsctr as nxiomt~tic hat 3 high tlrgrcc of nritcli nceusntionsits~If'illdicat~r:d hc: luornl bre12Icdor?;~1. tc., tlrnt was ex1)ectecl

to I,() c*orrcli~tort it11 it. Con trnry evidc nrc was ign ored. Morlieaari I (ioclfiey Wil.;orr Irttri Ir,lig po tlcrblnrccl that their rosca~.cllesi ~ rllrb (:oltl~cx bt.lt licl rlob suj,port ill<: iew tlint witeliceaft fear s~ I I ( T Z " ( Y ~ S C ( ~11 ~ ~ l ~ i l l loil(iitiolid l )lCi). 31itr.c. reeclitly, a rnorecic1t:tiltarf. c;~ue-;-;tiltly r;lggc&st,s ltr: s:xtnc (bTitc.l~ell, 965, 11 201).

I f is-i clrcar.aft, cchr s a ions -.\ clst tlced forriuc l to increase wheresoc:i;~l tllatiolrs l i c ~ r * i t l l l c ~norr difrlsc. u r ~ d rlouc easily broktln off,

tl~uraf~ f t,he ficlltl rcseast11 of the 1950s ;trlcl 1960s woultl haveto he ~ ,e i~l t~erprecd. I7or Clydc 14itjclrell ( I )liCi), M a x Marr ick(1 352), J o h ~ i iddlet,on (I O , nncf ITict3or l'urner ( 19 54) (sorneof t,he best 271io~+-11) iad int,erj)retr~d he nccusati o~i f m.itlch-craft) priniarily as ax1 inst,r u~n nt f i r 1)realiiug off relations. Th eaccuser was usitlg a legitimate form of r~ttacli: m-hiell absolve dhizn of u ~ i ~ ~ - - a n t e d1,ligations. I n so far as rootlrssncse andnlobilitly a n d laxitly of rz~ol-als :hara,c~t,r.:rize o.icFli ife, the weaponof u-itchcraft accusation would hc retlundarlt. It ti-ould also bei11eEecttla1, for. it de ~ te ~ ~ t ls or it s suecess on a rclativcl closedcircle of neighI)o~rrs, rr u-hose good opini011 ilit? accused is .;llad~to s ufc r. Thus tJhc ortl lodo xy of the 1 150s nralces id unliltc lp th at,

tchc rnf t acctnsatiotls u-on ld iricrcctsc izr urban soaict,y, clscey~t~ i th i l l l ilni t ed coll ipet it i ~ e ectors. Xor m-ould they ~,lztusiblyincrease with tlie breakdo~v~l f social ohligatio~zs and. moralcodes. It would seem diecult $0 move fmlr the tlieory of thewitc hcra ft belief func'tionirlg a s ax-r i-t ist ru~ nen of s oci r~l ea lt 11to tlre idea of it as ,z syxl-rytorn of a sick soeiet?j-. For this thetheo ry .rtrould have Lo be exy)anded. I n stage one, in slnall-scale

society, witchcraft wotlld be lrsidtr control; in stage two, m-it11the dislocation of socitrl life, it ~vould Lin wild; in stage three,with the rtdveilt of large-sfscale society and ir~~person;il elations,it wollld f a d e away. 0 11 th is shorn-ilzg i t shoulr l liav e 11ee11 at,stage two (211d well out of eo ~~ t , r o l 1 1 ~t m-as being ol ~ser ved nAfrica in t h e 1940-(50 period ~~rccisr.ly he time it m-as felt toslot so well into the Itomeostntic~ ilncatrionnl heory-. I t shouldhave heell out of co1ltr.01 n Engl:_t~ltl n th e period le adin g 1x1)t oth e Ilndustr.in1 Revolution, th at is in the later seven ecn theerrtury, the prriod T T ~ C ~ I ,ccording to Tceitlr Tllom as b~lIc)~?i',tsdeeli-11~ 7as c:n-ell 1)cgrxn. Fu ~*t lr cr iffic11ltic.s ar isc .r~-he l tlzcrespecatire tinle-scales of antl ~.ol)ologists ant1 historia11 ar e

com~3arcd. Alan M a cf~arlane (below) analysts cases ixi Essexvillages in a period of 120 >-ears. No nnthroi3ologisr; (:;in dr.n~ -

on case-m:~tc~.i;ll ver silch L Ioilg t i l n ~ . I7)1i?t alclj)~~r":cj theanthropologist as .,)art, o f ; stit1)lr 11:lt t(3r*rl f I ' c I ;L~~ oI~s ,o t , h ~Iristoriiln is :I rklcii.ri poiilt i 11 t irncx. I f i ko I+ot c.st a11 f<eforrtl:iiiot~a i l t I nrc nr\T r~lc~nr.ilts n tlw r~lrzll sol-irty of

'r11ilor : t ~ l c i S i l a ~ * t ~ ~ F P A ,o arc ~ ~ o l o ~ ~ i z ~ lt11~ nd ( ' l ~ ~ * i s t i a ~ ~ i t ~ vneu- i n i h ~ \fx'ictrx~ ri(*t rll-e . 'hc 1i01nco.t atic: ~llr,[lr.l o f societycaxii~ot~ eal wit 11 I l~ orr ly clrobIeri1s f ti il ~e- sc ~l le ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ e r$358).



N o r c : ; t ~ j ;a fll11(atio11;~1 heory ;ivoid ilul~ort~ir~g sndth itleas of~~or*l l t r~ l i,y \I hi(> ll fllity gravt~ly dist oxat th e an:;tlysis, 8s I>r13t~itlc~lrn;tn s ; ~oqr l~l ly ijrguctl ljclon (1). 351).

l'fjrl n r ~ t ~ l r ~ ~ o ~ ) o l o g i s t ~~- f10 ~ tl i p h o ~ ~ ~ c ~ s t a t i c ~ t l r ~ o c l ~ lovernt llcir* cilca1lir:g alitl i,lrir~l;illg, n apitc. of its n ~ a n y rnwbaclrs, were; t c ~ c : c a p t l itrg n seic:nt,ific jtnr;t(liqln in zizucll the same -\iiVny is t,lle~ ~ ; ~ t , l ~ i ' i t j ltaicntli s is tl(?;sc>riljccl j y K t l h ~ l ll llis k)o~~li 1 he ~ S t r w ~ c t z ~ ~ eof i r r- i r. i . i f i / i r,l<c? lo l ?c t io~~ . ; l ) t iB). 0 r i c . c : tic sixsgle 12aradigni ofc.orlc~lpt,s bll (1 t,hrtor*ics get s ado~ )tlc ~t3 llrouglzotlt the field,;rc.caorcf ing to I<ulrn, :I t,c.r*iorf of ?~or.tl~al c:ir~ict:Vollo-cvs. n\-i h i t a l l scditl~~tisi,.; I * Y ~ ~ I ~l l ( ~ ~ ~ l l ' i t ~ ~ i ~ l l i111(j1~cstio11illgly rid lirv~itt f l t ~ l ~ s ( ~ l v t ~ slo (l~vf:lol ing ; ~ n d fl~~4lii1lgts irri~)licc?if,ior~s. '0 news r i c l r . 1 1 t s it, is; j,~*esclr r ( l nF csta,~)lisI~c~cllogriri;t. ( ?llt-of -fai~l lionc~o~rc~t~l)tw;trr(X> ~ * o ~ I ~ P I ~ I ~ir(' ~itl'('ly ~ ~ S C U S R C C ~ ; t ~ d r r r t , ~tret r.;tit~thtl t lti vt :f ol ~ ~ x l ~ r t sc bi~ifllill h e aeceptod fr:tnlt..~-orlr.JCrilr l l S ~ I ~ I O S C ~jhitt the rncltl1or3. of tcnchirrg irr the physical,.;c.it>rrc*c;; s 1uor.c: lilcclly to 1)soduc.t: xaigid "n en ta l s;;etI7 l ~ a r l ,21atin t he social scicilcrs. Bu t ev erytl iii~ g ,hnt he says mlsout thellsr of ~)arucEigtn,s rl scaiontifie t llirlliing has stro tig re leva nce for

TSrit isll atst bropol ogy f ol lo ~ -i r~ g he Sechonc3. Wor1c-t Cliar.IVt? are now a t tfic ~)rrdietc.ci tlngth it whicls tlr e accrrxtsu lafionof ;~lroni 1ir.s llns fi,r. r,r~ cf 1s to rt .lco g~~i xt n exist rlg l~arad ignl silj:rtlecluntc. S, I ,. 1)znrzlos 1 3(iX) lxts ;ttJt~cnij)ticti o eomj,,ctre th et,hi l ki;rlg of scaic>rrt sts wlsilc aj,[)lyirrg their* c:u r~ ~e nt )nraclignlwit ls t,hr t,l~itsltirlg f Axantle on tllt sul),jcet of wit c l~crnf t . Vi tjh-o u t >scel*;iilg t o itlel ltify 1,vixnitivclnosi;; in scientific tllouglrt, Ilc1 1 ; ~ r a r r o w ~ dlzc gulf I I ~ ~ ~ F T ~ P I I)"ir~rltiz-e,;: ttlci sc'itk~ltists ~l~iclhs i~nlirclssctl 14vy-13rulll nrltl is ,.;tiill inll~o~"t;lnt, 11 tlrrt ~v orli; fI k v i - s t . ; ~ ~ x i . r s , tlis sccirzs to be tlze only study which has eaxlght1,Ilc. spit-it of the i l z n t ~ d c r)ool; nrltl :gf,l)llic.d it s Icsson s, L et trlethcrt:forr: talccl ihis ol)porti~nit,~\il f a ~ ) p ) l , ~ . i ~ ' ~ g1 1 ~ f hi;-; S ~ I ~ ~ C P -

tio11s. Srien tifi< ~ ,zirttdigins, tlrgues Barnes, can marc c~ si ly 1ec:lrangc.d I h;m social ~~:~r.nclignis:

sciclzt ifie e on 1 his soc:i;~l pnradi gurs allci i l l sctbk to aclliweconsoll;tnr:c I)et lr-clr.11 illem.

If wcl auk nhy 15-e ;~rrt hrop olog ists i;tvt. )t lc ~ oilt8c1~lt it11 atlleoretical sclleusc u-hic4ll coml~incs o little csp1nrlato1.y valnewith sa many djscrel~;xrrcies lrlcI gaps. ~ ; t arl refer to thc3 cionsir~-inlt social 11nr;~digrri f thr titnt?. lil~c.r;il hilosol)by, arid tlo thespec ial positio n of' tlrrb i l l i i 1lso~)olugist s tis r ~ ~ ) r ~ s ~ r l t ; l t i ~ c v a ~ l c ias ~ncctint~or t~twecrr his ilrfosn~tllrt~;;; n d jiilicir cctlollttil r.nli.rs,12~7arrs-Yritc:b;trd7ui ii*tic.le o ~ s Viteb(:raftt' i l l ilf? ii:u (l l35)ivansetl ruissiol ~arios rlcl nclln;: xlist ra t oras no t to try t ) tit~st~royother peol)lc'dbelicfs. e v e n i f ' tJhcy seem nlisguitlcd, 'I'llerespoll&ibilty to jjrotjcet ttnd Lo preac21 t ~ l c . s t ~ ~ r ( ~M.';~S I-iclelyeclloed. To ~ E I O Wwite l l~raf t ~eliefs s l~erforuliisg co~~struetiverole in filrictioning social systetll has been o11c w-ay of cassj~-irlg out this rwesy)olrsibility. Evarlu-f3it 1 s zarlcle stnrctynrli~iirnizer; he gulf betweerr Eusol~eszi a11d ~rrixlliti -ire c~l f~txre .Oue would suppose that any e~z~l ) lmsis n th e gulf T\-oulcl e atvariance with the lslnin 1,rineiylcs of liberal pliilosol>hgr. yet inan ot he r serlse ant1xro~)ologists eridcd to exag gera te th e c1ic:lio-

tonly, since their ersthusitzsrrl for 11litt vc. culttares l ed tllrbxn totake up t t theoretical pasitiorz which t veat tl co~lf ick as ljenig111x1 pri rrl itiv e soeirlt y. c2 pos j ti on t,lsey ~vollIC1. rot e x t cxid to t heirown soc ie t j~ . zld so the I\--hole rgunlcrl t a,lt,orrt "l'hcir' ~r rc nt nl it ya r ~ d Ours' has Elad to proce~cd as if the AXnlzdc study lrrtd norele vanc e to ourhel\?c.s arid ou r h ist ory , Arsot,her facbtor is the':speci:~l po sit io ~i f Afiic'arr fielciwork ill t lre llistory of an hro -pology. I t is itlterestillg t o rcflcr-t on x~ lla t r?;ould have h;il,l,rliedin Brit islr arltl~r ol~olo gy f' u-ark in Nen7 Gu illcia llacl d r ~ ~ c l o l ~ e d

s yujcklp as in Afrir.n. I f Xlel;tur:siarl crlrni~alitillt of theluternatioisal Afr.ic:;i I 11 sti t~ rt c tlad 1)eeli orga irized by a

opposiite ~ l u ~ x ~ b e r.o l juryl l I[c"~*tlc>, l i t l hctrzzcostasin tlrro l-y cori ld

sure ly not k ia~c ;ur~rivcltl or so long 1111c.llt~llr~r1g~~(1.11 Africln,colonial r u 1 ~ a d I I P C I ~r ~ t : ~ l ) J i b l : z ~ ~ Iijr (IV('I' fifty ye;rr,- ;r,ntltir*ib:ll socaieties 1r:~cl l o ciloulit ;~(l;rj~ic>ci y III-otlucii-zgc.orltr01irsc~chanislns t l l i r~ 6.i i s tritciit ctrr t r l irist t ut iorrs. l i w;~s 3;isierdo overlot,lt t l r ~ igrrific>a~lc.ri f the ~ , o i s o t ~ r*cic*al t t ~ t l i i lis-a p ~ ) c " " ~ ~ ' : ' 9 )tntl aillc;ll-c*lcnilsi~~g ilovt:lllelllr; (;;1~cesi;i'ully 1.v-

~)si:ssc(l f ~ i i f l t 011 i f f t otrt*rl~j~Zc 1 1 ~41 I I I I ~ ~~resclri rl I)yeargo cult's in tlllosr> : \rats of &/Pel;~ucsi;r it 21~rc1 \ iolclif r r l i llc~r~i~iirlolrtbur-stx ofrcr. ; tbc,rlf i l ~ t ~ ; i lihailcllgcl t o r ~ ( , l ~ l l i t i l~rllllol'it',,



In troducfion

So 11111(*11fi)r 1 1 0 ~ ~t : ( < i 1 ~ 1 ( : o ; ~ ( 1 0 1 ) tk 1)rc~ratligrrl rttl to find its f i t i s f i t a t o t y. Ailti so ttluclr filr i ts l i111i fl t~ tiol ls . C U ~ ~ I rgnrtls tlrrrigi(l ;I / [ Ii(b:tt io11 of' :t \j;ira(i igln lic?ci:ss:~ry ird uscftll st i~ geit] s * i t i ~ ~ c t l .o tire r*r*(itlit f' this olle wl: should chalk up t\vol)f:11~fi,s. 3y :~ci:(:pt,i~ g (:onfli~t 1 ;1 I I O ~ ~ I H ; ~ ~);ir.t of an)- ~oci;xlsystlol 1 \\ ti Ilnvc tlevelopotl L n1or.c x~ali~tic rlodcl. Anthro-1)olopists hcbtic.clfi,i*t r c.o~ivic.tt:tl f ~~ai'-\-cti.~ s en they reportJ;I c * o r l f i i c ' t tiaclii socia.1 w st,cxrn t itihout i~ <ldl~(li llg p~3~ir21 vidcllcc~t,o ])"'KC if>s or;ist,crrc.c. "I'llc Iorlg ytAnr-s f rlsic2roscol~is: tten iont o (i(^t:til ll hocial tx~l:~f ons llavo givtlrr us further soj)histicationallor~t lw vity in \vljir:li ideology rrl;~tcs bo ~o ci al t,ruc:trxrc.;;.lo~no il~lcls f 1rlist;iikc;;r nntl loose tliillkirlg will br rul etl o ut ever1111 r, lc. ~rl.c"setrt per~i od f 11;trkidignl eo il fn ~i ol ~.

1 tt .zt tit e tlo 11l;ikc 1 fresli star? to tlle classifying of m i tch-crsaft 1)c~liefs. rawillg or1 csistilrg fic1lc.l rcports, w would (lo wellto t)cgilr wit11 tlii: c2l;nus of itlcm t11at it t t r i ~ ~ ~ t ~elief but arei r r i i c ti v e i t r 1:laril;~ii Kail's. I"cc,l~lc: may bclicve in the l~ossibi lityof u i t e h c ~ a f t ~ , etJ never r l r :tlie accrrsalions of wit ellcraft . Severalrlxi~lrl),l<bs we given in this book. U . 11. tJones mairrt:rirls tf it ~t fre

Iho , dr~r*i~lghe 19criorl in wlticlr llr knew tllern, though theyliolicivrd ill witc:lrct.:lfi, rarely felt illelnstilves troubled l)y\\.it i1lt i;(1). 321 l ~ e lo w ): n i s h r t u n e encted to he traced t o ghostsor. to I ) I . I~ ; I (~I If rit ual . Alalcoltrl Ilrlril, in his ncsrount of Earlgal rgU-i (+t lftclliefs, r.ert1arl.r~ ha t 13;in yung rtxrely ZLcclrse oxre arrot he r(1" 33:i . 'I'hr sit~~lc. rns l~ e e n aid of th e l>inl?;:li eorlcep t of\\. it\rl~car.;~ft lilcrll\;~rc3Lt, 95 1) . For ot1zc.r peoples wc have ;I rrrore(1) r l r ir l l i c * 1)icture: Johrl Middlc.torl (lWti0) 11mns deseribecl t lieT A ~ ~ g l ) : ~ r ~ ~ ~cc>el~i~lg llcir wit clr l~c lit> fs rlactive dllrirrg the c~trlyphtzstls of lillcitgt. growt l~. ut, bring i~l g ;her11 out in act ive fi>rrnl218 i i X%c / ) O I L of ztitl: ~(*k +rl~C~ll olitical S L I C ~ C ~ S S ~ O I Ixld { he ~ ) l i t t i ~ ~ gof' t hc. l i t~c~ngti)0.-;t1 ~)rolt>lorrrs f ro1r:-tbefir~itio~~. 'lrrk Uak~7cx.i f'

\ \ t b b t I I I P I * ~ O ~ I .z~llo ~ l wclcbl 1 ~ ( i ,(c 1 ~o111 natecl by j ~ a ~ l o ~ ~ s y; l ~ l ( I t , ( * l l ( ~ ~ ; i f t .1 fx;~(if;t~tly ut ]lot lr aside llr.11 th ei r ccoliol x~ic~ ~ o s i to t ~ ilrpro.irclri s o tnrrc- 1 t lltxt c:orrr pet it ion M s not, dchr:ruretl;I t , l l r ~ . : t to cotrr l l l t ? it j - . 1-ct 14kl\\rii A4rcie~lr.r. bclou.) suggclst s

1;11 t l l c b l,ttlic.kfs x c k l tl;ri r l c l t l ill t litbir. c>osnlologj-, clntly for. ac.tivr1~ t ~ t 1t.( slrorr tii )cbc*;lsio~r *rcjrlirmcl. IVc hll:~ll ~ ~ 1r1l iat T 1 o t l l f l~f li ~ i q tt l ~ ( r - 0 1 c i j t l i a * : 7 1 ( ~ i 1I ~ ( * l i ~ f k .

I \ l i r ~ r - ~ ~t c-lrr,r+:tfsti r 4 i r , f > :trn ib \ c a t ill socbiitl l i f i l ,t llt~~~rb\ rstx t n o

lm f i l s o f ~ I ~ ; I I J T ~ S .~ i~~cli%-iflt~tillrd 4 K ~~ a o i t r t ~ ~ t i ~ i i i y.

1iidividtl:tls use 1lie :~ccusa,t.ion f witl eltcraft as zli wcnpoml ofmtt)ack where rel;~tioiisliil)s re ambiguous, mid thid 1nay 1~ e orone of t.wo renuolxs. I t 1il;liy lie t, ha t he rel a.tionsl sil)s m ~ornl t~l lycom pet iti ve an d rirrr.c.gul:rted. Thu s 13tltrr Brown (below-) givesus c glilnpse of j~::alous ons in the Late Itotnnn ICmpirc: and ofrhnriotloers ;~ccuxillg ach other: the aocusnt.io~r s just o l i o moreform of attjacli; alrtl eoutlt er- at t acIc 1)etwer11 ivtcl f;ic%t olis. Orit ~nzny )e th at l sornc. class of l lers ons come.-; in lo a11 ultlogetlicrtx~~orrraloue risition of advantage or tlissrlvl~ntage o t lh ;~t l211eurl,brelln of cotrllnrirlity protection is vrit1ldr;xnn i l . ( : f l~l lre111.Alan Marfarlane (belo~r tinds t11;nt do1)endt>1it widoli-s i)tlggingfrom th eir nei ghbours were in this position irr nist,t~c~utIi-c:c.nturyXsse s villages: to srxspect of'%-it'ohcraft a s a 1ne:c11s of justi-f\;ii~g%he Tl'ithllolciirlg of allllfi. The a~ ial ysis 1ost"ly l ~ z t r ~ l l ~ l s Vliitc?'saecout1t of Luvale widon-s accused of n-itclrrrafk ( I 96 . P"7tr1;~lerrloxiey-lenders in. rur al I ndi a la y tllemscl~ yes pen t o t he ciElargeof witchcraft by their defatilding debttors h ~ c a u s e f' lihc arlorrra-lous advalitltge tlrey have gained (Epstein. 1969).

We can ta kc itl th at animosity agtiilrst wit,ches is ;xiwaysac ti vat ed a t tillis irldivic;ilual Icvcl. fi ow it, il-atcrvenes at thecomrrlurrity level tle~)elirls 11 t hc: locttl organiznt iori. Tho acetxsa-tion a ~ n o n n t s o a dclrial of colninon bonds and rcs~)o~lnibilit.y.What. happnm when an accnsr2t;ion lr:ts hee n made del)endi;or1 the state of comlnunity politics and 011 what patt.erii of rcla-t,iomhips treccls rcdcfinil ~g t the tirur For ivit chc raf t bc.licfk ar eesselltially a means of r:larifying an d ;rAir.ming socia l defi niti ons.

Taking up Torn Bcirlclmatl's ch;illrlrgt~ o COIIS~C~CI.h e S ~ L I I -bolic levels of witchcraft beliefs, 1 ~.7'0111d irst axid fc ~ re r ~ l o ~ trolnte these 1)clic.k to dolnillnrlt, ns~,c cts f the social wtruet;ure;for wIlrr(~:is I joiir anyo~ir wlro c.rit ic:i./;rxs I)ln tant ct*l.org it1funotioiralist assl~nlptiol~s. lrlxo file[ that tho ~)ossil~ilific f

firnc.t onal allnlysis have not k)r.tirl e~l.i:?,~mfd. I,il;c C h r ip i;tnethics. it rn11 1 ) ~lr.fi.ndctl a gai ~ls t ts isritics 0 11 t he g r o ~ ~ l r d lrati t I e 3 Y 1 , i t I t i y ;lilrdcarudit of tho l~oirleost rt ic (*ol~tr.ol riodt.1 iil~(i t still 1) ~ ~ r ) r ~ i ( l c sntr exj11:i~ral r"y franlc-twork Ji~nsccl 1 1 t Ire iclett of corn~rr i ~ c*;lt,iorleysterrl. I'eoj~lc~ rc trying to contr ol orlc ;i.rlot hcr . nll )cit v-itlrsni;~II llor.rss. 'I 'llc~ irlcxi~ of t 116. \ ~ - i t v I rs tisrvl t o a I l i l , t.hcir ow11c>o~rs(>i<>~tc<~sr tfwsth of t11ci1- ~*it)~r(is. I 1 j i ~ ~ ~ i t ~ ~ l i - i ~ ~ ~ ; t g t ~s i t s

r1lTtbt.t . i v r l :is t r i(lcx:l of t P b o l t l ~ l ~u l i t y ~ t 1.011::.



1 1 . 1 1 ~ \\ i t 3 1 1 is ;in ~ft,f,it(: li~~'nrf clrcoivt~r. I r : n s w w2l;lt is irnli~rre; ~ l t l )ot t t i r t to ll;r.rn ~r -l in t s 1i1n.o nrlt3 llc~lpless . l'tlc syrill~ols f11 litit n t3 r~t~c~ogllizc~cross t Ilt: globe as n-i elrcritfi all I~ui t 011 tliet llc~tic f ~.-iilriclrai)lt% ll tlerxial goodtress ntlt;rc*li;ed jy cxtlon~nl1x)wt;r- 131lt t l t~sf : j*~nl,o ls ary ; ceort l i i rg o local pat.t,miis o

I H ( Y L H i11g ;tn ~l , hovc a1I, ac:cortli~~g o variations in the soc.iaXst r-ttct ~ I ~ O . ot it11 witc*l~es ich. I)roo~~~st~i(dlis,ot a11 llc2~-r )~I ocY ;I-t ioir, not ; ~ l iicel) fwlrilinrs, not all R U C ~he vi tal jlljc:es of t llcirt-itti,i tll;;. idt:rl,r ot, &llciie v n intioiis, 11s;);-c2honxr:lyt ic irlsightssIro.rlltl wait I I I , ~ I I . soc.i;~l ~n al ys is . or. the j)syc:Ilc conrrnon to 11s;rll i k i l I I I O O by i ts rt lbuut ,r rre ~ l ) l i t i l ~ ur diftilrel~ces. Tht: t hcrnes ofil~sitfo t r lcl outsitlc, rr~;tlrifr,st ll m it (>It sy~liboliisnl, re not ex-hallst ocl ljy th e c>ltilt l7s sl~ericncr. f lii: lrody and his ~nother'w, r:ljy tr~livv~-sully $xtrh~ldiug 1hrsc clxj)orio~lcrs s an i~lt~erl,rc.t.atix-e1 ; t t v r ~ . 40r ii~sitlc and oiltsitlc ciLil bc chaxged with Inore~'om-~rfirl n ~ . ; ~ ~ l i i ~ gy t l I~ r xl)cricrlc*o f n I~o~ul t led oc:inl unit.

1 firztl it, ~iscfill o uotc tn-o rli:lin ~)at,tcrns f witch I~elief: a )~ ltlrc? It<. -\-it is a n ot1tsidc.r; I,) where Ireis the ilrternalcllexny.

1 f ~ r c ~tlt: v-ould c:xpect th e irrr pt~t cd ornl ol' ;1,1t,ack t ) 11~3 hescar (ling o f long-ra lgc: nlissilcs, M'CZ L~ OI IS llnt, in rudc into tireIjoily of th e virbtiru. O n c worxltl nssoci;ttc the 1)rlicf with ;t very;;n~;~ll-sca;tlo trlcl s i n l ~~ le orirk of ol*gsL~iizatim flc function oftlit: ;~c:c.rlc;;~f on i s to rriaffirt~~ roul) 1)ottticltrrics an d so li da ri 3.l hc it it c a l l\I.-onltl .a r ~ l y 1c icltlil ifieril. More n tc~ntion wolnltl I)c1)aitl t o c.t~ririg t lto viet r l r or. ~)r;t( fi ~illg I O I Z ~ - P ~ I I ~ Ci t l t l i ~ l

\-(3~lg,r(x;tll('~.Zutj so ~~ ~~ f , i~ i i tthe i t t ~ ( : ~ ~ t i t i o l ~s Irvc~llrd at ;r~ r t ~ l l ~ i) P J ~of t 1~ g r o ~ w h o is f'ortIl~ ri i11 tIcr~o~~ll~c:clxss an in t~-~i(lc>rfr~ot li ~llt~siclc.. 1'11is gis-ci; u s l ,m 6 srtl~--I~ypr~~:

( i ) \Tit ( 11t l o t itlc.~tt~ificltl r. l)t~rtishcltl

I+;\ ; I , I II 1 ) l ~ :N;i,vaIlo *f :~ r-a \v ;~ j . 'tch11 11 a t ; i ~ k s i t i ~ ~ t( t s i ~ - ( \ ~ l i w i i i wjliltrr*lcltoliti. 9 3-t .

( i i j \Vit(all ~ ~ x ~ ) ~ l l ~ ~ ~ ~l4: i : r rrr lilcl: i r-io 1 t h n I t o w i v t b : i p o t l s: I I Y > i c i r s i : \ l -t lilt. car l r* .ac* IZis i6w. 1)t~10w).

l 4 ' 1 t ~ 1 t * tf 111 4 ) l ; t ( + ( b ~ i * : ~ i i t j 1 1 i) i ~ ( l i i ) :t o ~ c a t f i b f i r ~ r b ~ o ~ r r l t l : r r * ~

(b) T he u:ilclz ups n ? ~ t ~ r ? z ( ~ inen? ly

This appears with a sli gli tly n.ro1.r. c:o~nl)l r.x or111 o f soc2i;tlouytinizatiutl ill whi ch tjwo or Inore fit(.i ( ~ iwt r e nll,~-;tc~i~dvvitaltilztlze con] i i t i i i i t ~ .31 tthorc are RC:T.-er;tl ~l ty;., of'sius~)or4 li g it c.1ic.swiflhilr the. cotniii~ulit . 7'hc nytnl,mls of t I ( ~r t ttt\c.l< )y wi tcl1icnr.rbf'tttelicl t o makc the liody of' t h e cic t i t~l nfo : ~ i r im;r,gc o IhoI:)t:t1r~tycd o~ ~i ~l lu ~l it >- :ts i ~ l t ~ r ~ ~ i t lt1rc~~gt,1issWkthi l 0111 or

poisolled I)y sorlileolic ~ l z o :an get into very closi. tont act.( i ) Tflc wit cli as nct-iil)er of a riva l fa ct onExr ~ml) les: llavtnrlte (Itivibrc, 1)ciom-),

i t ~ Mit cflell, 1(,)5C;)3

or rculign Sac*tion f r icrarc l~y r s l~l i t o o n ~ i ~ ~ ~ l ~ i i b y .I'ltis isprcstlum by wliere t l ~ r z~cusat-ions odged ag:tir~st lrsriotr~crsin the rlatcr J%orlrarz Ernpire sllorlld ~ I a s ~ e c ~firowil).

(ii ) 'I'he witl& as dzll~ gerou s er~izrt1.t

Exr;~rnples: danger ously powerful or rich13t~ls;wer.i A4rcfener, k~elow ,fifymorc usuress (l(:l)xteiri, 1959);dangerous1 - tfcrurrrtlrding - -

lzssex in the ~ixteerrt~ll ent s ~ r y(Mncf~trlnr~c, elow),l-lz:t~lrTc I<v-;x~ls Pritleh:trcl, ):3E7)).Hi1arrc>tir)l, f acclu,cntiorl: f o colltrol (IcvVi;~llts ll Ilie lliirile o feoln niu iii ty v;tlmc,ls.

(iii) 7'hc n-i tch IS nri it~tcrnttl

c l l c ~ l ~ p t11 or_lt,nitle i;iisollel<xa l~j~lc: i l ~ c * l ; t t ~ lEilt,rgc).



i l l c rr y ouglas

? he Abolnm are esl>ct;idly nteresting in this series l~ec: ~ust %of' t 110 ~)~'c(aisc: ) l i ~ , y111011 int trnttl nlid extcr ~lnl angers in their1;yln jolizi1lg 01 n t chc:r;lft (see Forgr . below). Each lctntler ~na ke shis n ;ry bj. ~ ) o ~ v a r t b l rade oollitcctiolls out.side t ltr: village altdis (:olifi-oirt.cd by i)lli: or sevcr ;~ l ivals ill itis own vi1l;tgo. F1vt:ry~lc.;~th s illLcl-1)~'ete:'i s l~ihillg *uusetl by the tr.t.t~cliery of a11illt:~"~'llitl iv:il who lias stoleit soure bodily rejects of t he vi ctiml ~ r ~ t leitlt then] ar \ay to a foreign sorcerer vr ho corrlbilies themfirtally t11 magic paint. Pai nt, the essent.inl exl~resaioll f t heo ~ ~ t ~ d i d e ,xtcnl:tl f'a,q;de ; L I I ~ f C O I I ~ C ~ ~ X L Sot r l rn~x~l ica t io~~,ast,o I)o nlixcd with the leavings of tlrc victim, especially with hisor l ~ i r cxil;ll sec~.et.ious. ht:re eo~ rld a rdly be ert rnore ex1,licitsttlterneitt of consciorls ;btt acEr front tlic outside upon tllc: urr-cfiorisc.iotxs, ~rnslisj)tx":i~~g, nte rio r self. 'I'lle Abelarn lea der, whois t l l o ~ ~ y h t ,o tli~vc. ollectclcl lav ing .; fiorn all t he members o f hiso n r l x illagrl, lias tlrerrt ill his slower i ~ s E ec ti ve ly a s th e B a h c r is~rrc:cssfi~l l l i l l1 l l i~d O M . C ~ O Y C ~~ hut full o f zo~nbies workitrgti)l8 linl. 1c0r all t1n.c 1) tx )p l~ . heir insidrs are nt t,lit1 mercy oft l l c b t3r*;iil r.

S o it .tr.o~iltl ectu that the way t h e ivitlcll works, his sources ofyo \ l,, t he ~ ~ n t u r e f his i ~ tack CHI his viutirrl, all these can berrtlatet f t o a11 ill lagc of the c.o~nnluriity anti the frirl t i of attacktic 5 hiralr conr~nlllii y valllrs ; L ~ C ~ r l ~ j ~ ( a t .

I lolac. n c have 1):nrt of tllc cxl,l:~rrnt on sought l)y Esther: o o i ~ I ~ r l o ~ r )s to n 115 thtx (:ol~j;r t.orldolrc tho lctlial inngic

of t 3 1 ~ t 4 t s11ct11f'olk I I I ( ~I ~ r u t ~ ~ i l I ytnlish LT itj(*llvrafL n wornw. Bytlio (;or ~jar systjr:rxi trf s l l ( ~ ~ ~ ~ s s i o t ~ .fYic.e c.ir.rralstes l~ctwcir.~s~ l ~ - l l i ~ ~ t i < a S ~ s l ) i ( * i o l ~ ~ f' ~xl i l l c itvitcl~(*mft ?Xl)resS~ - i ~ : t l ~ - i (LCIYMS "~~("gtlic~lit,) o ~ r ~ l ~ l ; t ~ i i ~ ~ ~nd a, r n a l ~ witch is notI I * ottali t t o 1)ooli fix alltlgtitl killir lg.; silice tllt?se ar e ni ntle 0x1

1~.11:1lf f llis O R I I s(xttle~it n t l w rii':bl R C ~ ~ Y I ~ I I ~ .ile 1)ic;ture is

IHOI-C' likt' t lit' ~ a s t : of t l ~ ~ f l ~ ; ~ ~ ; \ l ~ obo ve, I1hc witc.11 is ano ~ ~ t , s i ( l w,111(l tIlit: l i w of rutlgir a 111c1.c: cbxtenision of 110~"rilrctlj ~ o l i tfa:il :tggrcssio~i.

N o u 1 1 ( at1 :I j)f)ro;t(>ll Jlrtl tl ifficw It cijurst ion of wily, ill soultAc r l l f r l r8cw, {list t i c t i c - r b lci~~cls f rs i e 111 ~ * i ; ~ f f2 1 1 ~ ~ l l o ~ a e d o difrercxlts t of o r . o f ix tjllis (list rlct ion rlraliy nllthrcj-~ ) o l ~ ) g i ~ ; f ~ p i: V P fi~llozt vl I{:V;LIIS 1' r.i t c*li;lrvt3's rrirr~lat~iorl f' m x h

(bon(~el)tjs n d IISO I 'so~*(afxry' or l ) l i t ~ l c riagic nd '~vit(~1lrraf't' ori l i t c ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ l)sycl~ic> 4 0 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 -o ~ I L L ~ I I I .V11:it'c~i~er t I ~ ~ Z L J -be ~ I I h e ?

la~ rgu agc f tllr Azmrde, this usage is cutnbernc)rl~e n 1311plishsince tJhe verb 'to k)evvitrh7 s co ln ~n o~ tl y sed fo r eitlller case. I tis, m oreover, difficult to main tain ic-hell disc~lsiiirlg widelydiEere1lt cultu res onl y some of whit-h make the disrrirni nnt ion,and it is not easily tlranslatled rlto French.

On th e face of it . a separ ate allocation of rl;urgcrons ~ O M - O I * ~osep ara te social sectors is a n a y of illsulntirlg tlre lat t,er Fronradd iti ona l coollfliet. If we find tha t women use ollc kind of powerand men are th ought to use c-t~iot~ller, omlllollers one kind androyalty ;%nother, we can sujjpose that the dii-itinetion eliters intothc definition of the sexes i-il l of political classes and expresses?t h e s e p a r a t i r , ~ ~ f' their roles. When n r find th at only one kindof witchcraft is believed, i~ n d hat i t is t l lr~ugllt o be ;~rrtil;tbleto any man, WOIII~II, r chilcl, we would suj~post: luck ci~lsulation, s t,otal coml3ctitiveness runni~lg right throngsociety. Alas, fo r that too facile answerGonj a women ar e 11ot rrorrnally in corn-petit ion with men for chiefly ofiice, sndyet, t)hey are bl a m d for using the sameliind o f magic. Es ther Goody convinces usthat# hey would fare better by establishingthat they have no access to specifically m a l r medic:ilir.s. TheCjonja case in a n unu sual one, an d clonrr analy sis s11on.i; th at th eLiinds of rrledieine att ril jut ed to fema le -u-itclles differ frsorn tlrzose~rsed y men. 111 societies in x irfi two k inds of wif,rherc?~ft~ rerecog l~iz ed, roni m-hat has been said uTe would expcct the fo rli~ sof ~vitcht>raft o exl3rcss so~nething bout the social sit,~~at ion.I n the (lollgo, nlnong the I3nshorrg, Inell eornpefc for prrliticdadv;l~rt agr n n r r r p rvell-nrtIiclllattjd sj ~s tc rn f c)fiices: tlloq- :wet,horlgtlt to use mt ~g ic gnilrst o ne :ljtlot,1lcr ll the norm;tl c:o~xrscof affairs; t,o tlieir wornell tliej- at ri l~ ut c et ha1 psychic ptiwers

harnessed 1.0 jenlouny botn-cen (: oai vrs (Vsnsinn. 1969). Thissitrlation is depictcd i n t h e diapr:tln n l ~ o v ~ n which a thirlr

one :cccus;xt ions tr g a i r l ~ t wolucn.'I'hc s t t ~ l ~ ~oc.iologic.al tlistinctiotl ;tl~t)lic>s o tire -1l)c . l t l l l l lx.lit1-f

.in t J ~ O cinds of 1 itcll(>~*ixfi j s y ~ ~ l ~ i ~ ~~ o L ~ - ~ ~ I *I S P ~~ \\-c)rjlcli, antiT ~ P I I I L I l l l i lg i~ 1 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ i l c l l l in f~~t~tll t \r;~tlc><> z ~ ( ~ r ~ c ~ ~ ) t a ~ [ c ~

1x'lilio;~I ol)ject ives. I'e l . t x ~ *Mc,rtolb \villi; ~111~ ll a l ~ r i v a t COIH-

municat ion tells me tha t tlw zrliocat ion of siliister l)sycliic

xxix



1)owcr (1 rrsngic: ill11 o ~ glll: Yor uba follows the s;;Llne ines, Tllcsnln L L I ) ~ I ~ G S,o tlrc ~lxarirlc. I'rying to gclleralize fror r~ his; 1lmvc tlrawn the prec.cdirrg dingrarns with thick and i,lrin linesin ;tal nt t c m p t to inclic<tt tgllo social niches al)r) rollr iate to(1 tllgrir( us ex tc rt ~a l magic. ;tntl c;l;rl.rgerous ~j sy r l ~ ic ower. Isnggcst, for fi~rther. esting, that, wl1r.n t l~t i ource of witcahernft~)ou-vr s 11lougllt t,o ctolrlc. fro111 irlsi tlo th o witch, ~,nrtlicnl;~rlyf r o m it11 ar ea 1C)fly011(l C ) I Z S ~ : ~ U U S o ~rol . the socirtl situnt,i on n-illcbo1*r.cis1)o~d t t j -pc b( ii ) ~~ l i~ ov e,\-here the n-it cl~ s seen a,s arrj i ltt:r*lr;~l >rlrrny, iot s i z~reuil)c~r~f ;I riv:ll f;tc:tio?l. 1'hi.s is welli l l 114 t " ;~ t ,~~ t Ily 13ri;in Sy)oonr~r*;-: ~r r unnrsj- of icltians ;i'l~ou t nc

14:vjl 142y~k( 1 ) o l o i ~ ~ ) ~1 1 Js1:imic c a o ~ ~ ~1111ilii w . tllr~ tJr:ti~g<3r it11(.\ il I ~ J - P , i ~ l p ~ ~ l n rn iI )tiar";Lrrc'r, ; t l)t , to Slii~l '~ ' ; t l , h ~ rJ l ~ : ~ ~ ~o~ ~ l ~ ~ d < .ll l i t t lc c.tr11i 1 4 ,l i h i s ~vit~*lrtn.;r 'i )ow~ ;s. s not: ~ n r l n )r.~.

r r I t - irrtvr~ial irc;t ion. I l i s glrtl~c~t'shoot^ out tl:t~ignr ro~r ? l~sitleI l i1 1 1 . I ri of 21t.r u o1-tl9. hc3sor inl q - a t l l,olism of insi(le ; i l ~ t l lrtsidcis ;ll,l)lictl not only to t11e si~fj Feri ~ig~ f th e vic;t,itlr's botiy but to1 ) 1 ~ )i,(lj- of thil witch s 1%-ell,

NOW o ~~c tu r r ro thc (:rxltl~rr~n u llieh ~ ~ i t ~ i . 11~cl ie fs t r ~ ither.

ili;acst,isc. or tiottnl v ;I k~scn . 1 ~vif hs'rixft slrarpeils cliefi11i.t on15 I l r * ~ . r br * r ) l { i c ; ;tre ill ticfitlrd. .s wotlltl r : r pcet it) o f)e ahse nt wllcreI jlrtr(1 q lo (<tit for a l t * ; i ~ -( I r f i ~ l i t i o ~ ~ .' l lras ninotlg 11coldlr 17.110 11nve\-pjsy / ) ; i ~ * s ~ ,r~* ( lg~~ l : i~*O ( ~ ~ Z I ~o~kt I ( ' t = C O S I I I O ~ s lilcply to IFlpss clrjrtlin:~tcltll I)y tho iclo;t o f tl;r~lgcla,ot~i;: lulllnn beings t,hur~ ll

:t &c,c.ic.ty ~ t llic.11 itrtlrlnll i ~ r t ~ t ~ ; t c > t i o ~ is ( * ~ o R c * .Ye wol~lil mf)eci t

; l , l ;trr.ooo~nor\ll~it~rltlits of' J W J J c r t t ) (lorn irm t cl M hc1.c. hnlrr:t~lsIUY.~ ~lo-;ply l) o~ l nr3 ;r~rothor.. I1111 if flhe so illtcrlsiv-tl sovial, y x l : \ ( i i , t l . : ; \ IT i t - r ~ l l ~lc~t i~lc~tf .P ~ r o ~ l l ( l.spc1c.t thc nnt111-c?po-Illc,qjlriqn~ f the c30srtro; t,o hc. ~*c.nrrlr:tf~iic:,o nl,lrold tllc r.uo~-al: 1 1 1 { ic)pi:~l~ " o t l f ~ j \ t , ~ t t~l(~l:stal t";tt 1; M II(:X'OR,S. f i 11 t~c~1s i~ ed n r b i ; \ l il~ttlracat o i l is i l l cltlfirrc~tl. u cl 11 o i r l t i tAxpet.t I u~itchr'r-aft-

c t t l ~ ~ l i r i ; ~ i t t ~ s jbos1nos. I'l~i.: r r rg i t l l i t~~t i s~iggt~sted ttstl hr?nlltBifiljlyillrlrtr.:rto(l i n :I l i t t lrl-lr~~orv~ltrst it*lcx I)y Cctr3ficy 1,icnhardt.

i t l l js c ;trr3 g l ; ~l to t.ttf)r.ocl~tc.c cbrsib. Z-lc aai,ttlj):lrcs tlsc Nrr rr-l i l l \ t : ~ t7orl~i i ( h v +. in ir l l i ( 4 1 1% tvh~~r;tl ' l 11a t 1 0 ~ s-(~I*J- i t 1lp. ~yi t , l~\ , < i t o ' t i r ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ tf i\ l . i i l i s i g \ i { b Iovilrg A ~ ~ t ~ : b < a

j i I t b N , I ~ I ~ -I i t 1 1 ~ : tsot~i ; i l t orl(/ i s s j ) : ~ ~ ~ s t ~ l y~ d ~ : ~ l j i f~ 1 ~l t i ~ k ~ I - P

l ~ ~ I i q \ J ~ / ~ ~ ~n t hiii 4 ~ ~ \ f ~ ~ ~ ~ ti t t ~ i f s ~ bilo S ~ ; I - ~ ) I ~ Y11cl l):tsi ttrtks

: L E ~ ~ ~I O ~ / l ~ t h i ~ n(aohit~os s (Ioni 11:tt~d * o r ~ ~ f ~ s j ~ o ~ t ( l i f ~ g l ~ ~))- I d i b f;tlr t(~111cll 10t f1111~- ~ ~ ~ t l ~ i * o ~ ) o ~ l ~ ( ~ r ~ j l l i ( * )lt3ity. 11 t l w o t l l t ~ ~311tl. IIP

X X X

Al~lrdc , o~l~j~cl l~i llgor the fiivonr of ea1)riciort;i l~ at ro il s n littlilvillago courts, have ; ~ u ~l t~i rc ly irrc1inl)lc: social n-orliX of 1)tclat:t.r~volut~ious , al;ttre fa vou~.itc:s, ind cqntijl~y consl)ii*;t ors. 'I'llraircoswvlos is eioxtlinated by tlre idea of ~n:tlieio~rs l~1lli117 5 itcl1csarrtl velrgefinl ghosts.

Here, surely, art: ~r nn ll ribal ~nic~roeoslns f tlrc sllift, incosnlology ~ rhi cll ook 1)l;tce betwclers th e ~ll idd le f th e sistel:llilr: ~ l t ( i

th e ~nitlellti ftlil: st"vt.11t eent1ll

x l rr q - taloiig tllc intt~1lcc~tu:lIle;ulcr.s of I<i~ropc. 'reror-I 'uol~rr, nr of the most sociologically

sensitive of our Ilii;tol.it~~~s,i18 Iiighlig Ilt c d th e a p1j:tr.ent 1)ar:t doxtliat wit ell I)c.litfs lrai3, tho suj,l3ort o f tlle most lliph1~ (lilci:tte~Jnre~i t the end of' the sixteenth ccntory (1 )6'i. (:linl,ter :().'Iirlstentl of I,c:irrg oc,tlsisi elitlg- tnd c :onli llu;t lly a,gainc;t i tiestruc-live srxl)erstitiol~ o -sc lrir:tt t lxe ig11ora.11 subsc;ril)ocl, th ey ~ ~ l ~ l l c l t lmid arde~rtly ,rol)t~gale'i t . Ollly ill bhp mi(l-sovcll ecn tll ccn t.ur)-.with the triurll1)ll of the laity over the clergy. onlj. with tlic-sv:trlillg of' tl.ic ideological -wtrfttre ljotwccn (jlrlr.istiialls, 1.s hichint.vital,ly rlourished Is:tte a nd k a r , only then was i t pos~ihle ,oer1tcrt:lin a ~rrod twl dea of oti op~hl+nting n a mc?clrn.~lical

universe strippet1 of angels as u-ell as of deltlons. To 'I"rc\.i-ol--ftoper's profount1 insightis wt xsay vrn t urc to oRc:r orlc fi0131the co~nl,arisotr f Nuer-1)ililin ancl Anutzk. h r , as llc irzsi~t~s nliis int rcttluctiorl. th e si?rti.clr ll r erltilry ct~ nll ot jc uritierstootl ifthcb grc;~t witoh crnaxc s ig~ sor ed. ach periorii nlust I)c seen its ;L

whole. l11~c~reft>re c. should take his strot.killg account o orvthe rnirlds of higllly rstcernctl sc.l~ol;-n.s ere in thrall t n thew i *r;llc~-:tft c,ss~trlogg long with h i s other clla1rtt.r. on t h ege~l eral risis of tho n~id-sn\-elitt:cntll entury ( I 96S; pp. 46-89),I3cl.e bc describes h o ~ ~ilt: orderly. rusl~)~~"ihle ities o f t h c earlyrlellaiss;~lloo J rxre sl11)pl;ill ed XS t llr. J-:cl~;liss:lncae )1'i11(:es. I ~ C S M *t,he estr;s\.;~g;altc.r. f th e mltirs w; s suutttincid 11y a sj-ntr.rtl c-J'

f i t i o h i t to ; 1 1 ) 111h 1)l*ua~jorii - fjf tllc~ > e o ~ , l ~ ~ .s ill(% t : v e ~ ~ t ~ ( ~ ~ i t1 ( Y ~ I I ~ 11 - j - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o : t c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . lw ir i1ic31*t3a,si1lgs ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ ( l o ~ i rl(3igll l ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ c lhe i 1 ~*igucl-rii des1 at r~osl~llc~rc f i,l~c)cao1rr.ts: g~?uat i)ririrlrs \1-c3r o lratli~ lrcl spclrt. arid great t l i l l l l s

r t I t.1 t l j ~ ; i ~ t . t ~ :1\111~1 ill f lie M a k t of f l le il2 ~) : ~t ' rn l l~ .lvt l l 1 1 1III'C

l)rrr>ar*io1rs, I C ~ ~ C ~ S ( T ~ ~ ) C ~I ~ C ~ I O J \lig 1r;lill of clerics arlri cborrrti~fiiieirls l " I l r * s c h L (*t tL f l ~~~tj~*ll<*("ti d s 1$~120 i~ilrtd ,o slr:lli~~ llc*lrl.ir.lvf>s 2 of i t ,f>lirifs. 1 i~~so ( .n~a r lh o ~ ~ ~ i ) ~ ~ i i t o r so l r

~ ) ; I I ~ O ~ I : L ~ ~ ~~l ly ot) cvt%ily ax\ the u t~ ii -c ~~ st ~ s I ( ao i~ l l t e r l ) i~~a tf

xxxi



t llcbi~~ o( *ic t~; ~'.j711(:i1~ oos11-10~ :xs (h i11 natJctI, not by God as ~1

sl)iritli;cl ltlniv; lt*lit of :^ iirighty ~x riro ll. )ut I)y o tl lc r ( i ; ~ t rge ro~ ~l r [ ~ I ~ I ; L J I ~ ~: o t n ~ ) ~ng ;l ,g;~il~st,ll('m i~llfi ti~-l ~r,-ith d01~0ilitb )OWCL'R.\ 4 ~ .r~cog,rnize t1 A ~ i t i ; t l z ty c of cosnlology filling t'lilc rnirrds oft)(lol>lr? l l ;ti1 -4rli~itli t -ln of ~ ~ ( . i i l l i t ~ ~ ~ a t i o i ~ .11e 11 ar ad 0~ fi 11 t r 1 l l l r b c . t rtal s )po rt fix ~vit~c11~r;~f'te1iefs is resol v ~ d ,ince iti.r c,rtl l 1 t x p;bt,ently ;11)snrcl to expt*et zt Nucr- I ) i~~k& O S I I I O ~ ~ ~ J T

111 ; i l l ~IllIIitk M M < ~ ( J ~ . 111y 11llt"ll t ~ h ~evoltntic)11~ f tJhe irlid-d k r l t1rt-y tlwt tSoj d the 1ni3t1 ilt~rlltissitt~ve tJates .; -a9 n ncw kilrtll

of irlit c 1l~c*tu;il o c:trlc:rgc. ljro~)o"i'lg a Jtew kind of cosruios to f i t ,1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 ~ 1 ~ocit" y, r l ' r t ? ~ ~ ) ~ - l t o ~ ) ~L I ~ ~ C S ~tllttt 1)nt for the Iltefor-?tiat o11 tn(l f,lic* lon1ltt~r.1.efor111i1t~io~1, hich artificially sustaiiledt I l r l cl:r.r*liclr ll lc.lloctJr til s,y~ lt ,l~ c>s i~ .l ~ e l ~ l ~ r ~ ; l i ~ s : t l ~ ~ en ght havel ~ t l lit-clc>t ,o the l i : i l l i g l r t r . ~ t r ~ ~ c ~ ~ i t ~ .I bc: wo great figures het~.;p(:(:i;~lly iliglc:: o l ~ t ll this c.1~:vt~lol)nierlt re Erasnlus atrdI )tvc.ar.l c.s. 1 l o w nruc3h ~rrore ilie the si>r.:ict,y f i-Io~riadic ~n st or al -ii; s i r rlrrx 1 1 ~rn ~rrctli;it,c ocial worlds of these tllinkclrs. E~& SI IIU S1l;td his fi~r-fillng rl"angfL f schc~irarly aorrcts-;~)~irdetlts. i c travelled:~n itl(tly. 'l'llo ti;~il,v ~~rr.ss~rt-csf irlr~st:nl)ablc~, o~lg-tarrn, :t,~ce-f i t - f > ~ i t . r*c~l;:l,tic~rlscrci tot llis ~tlol)lr.tt~. ie Li1rer.y. tflc caprice oft)tiillclrv ;i trtl ~ ~ l ~ ' ( l i ~ ~ i t l ~ut ectulrl evstclc its efrecats. 113 his t,mrn,I)c~s ::~rt,os. n his clloscin vm~; lt io tl f schol ar t~n101xg solcIierfi.l i r i k t l i n rrblalivt. isol:ttiorr. 'I'liis abovr all sc3enls o be tllc rcyuirc-r,lckl t for c t i> r l c2nr )l;tting 21 t"o~:k\l rlc coslllos not s ul ~j ec t Q

; I I I ~ ~t~o~)of i~or~~l l i (~~~i~ igs . .I 1r;i t s i ~ t ~ ~ f v ~ l ~ l l - c ~ ~ ~t t ~ r y ~c~;tclc~rrcs should have held 111ore

st 1 01~1y o M ik.11 /) f~l ii ~C ~1l;tl:l 1311. g t ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ : \ lun of th e pol)ulat ioni s rlo 1or1gr x 1 1,;lrut lox. "I'llcy recall th ei r prec-lcct$sgors n I,cxt,e

l1i 1t ~ i l 1 r.o voj)ic~l iitJ so rc o~ ~y nd a~l t ' i -~orccry clcall~ri(ju~si ~(1 :i(>cht~sc\( tJllciir rix-als of' 111~11i~~iously lf3st9royiiig t,heir

c~lo{jui~r~cic.,(%t.r ISror~ l 1 1 ; ~ ~ilull(1 that he 1 e g ; ~ ~ yf writillgs

;~,l) out orr:erj- f *otrl tillis pt'"x<o"d scat. l x low) e m be traced to ast.1 )f' tlr:fi~lnl l c soc>i;tl ~ljelltts - t l ~ o s r f rrcn~lerni(*s rrd il~sccrxr*e( Y J I I I * ~f1ivi : t ls . l l : i ~ - i o t ~ ~ i i t * s~ l s o a r ~ g ~ ( 1l ~ e n l s ~ lPS $5 it 11c o ~ i f ) e i -i~lril; 2tc.t icjlih ;irlrl Itlc:ii*st nttrs IT:^:: a l s o ill tlefirlr3d. Iri Idate Llitlti-ciuiiy t hit o tlwr IIIY<;LS of' sovieiy ("iljc)ychd v-ax7 * 11)011 I~T-C of~ T ~ I ' I I S ~ H I -o tlrat (Iot~ltisll ei tr ~ f ~)cr5;~:eut11o1r 1 i ~ t 10 ~1ns~3-cr-ing r * r x ~ j ) o r ~ s ~ll t llci ~viriur ~)ol~ml;ilon , ltrlt at t lli~ ncj of tllrsixi(~111i 1 ( w i t W > - ;I great 1 ) e r i o d o f < > ~ ~ ~ ; L I I S ~ O I Ii as c;oi~li~lg o i hc>lo ;c .l llc. : ~ c ; i ~ t f t r i l i i . s ' ~spc:.r.iclr~c.r~ f illscbca~r~*ity~lutntun c.al~r.iuc..

and ulrf ;~ir o~l ~l~et i t ~iol l as wid(xsprcad, Tlllts n-e mnay s ta rt, tocxplaill why t'lleir bclic?fb were ~ ~ o t ~otlt nined. 1 thin their owncircles but wc1.c: ui~leclisltled tll st1 cll des r-tnetive violellcc: abroa d.

It nla y f)e a gloonly coll clusi o~l lla t t31c people least likely tobelieve in -sx;it'c,hcts re tho se wllose lc wl of socia l iilt eraeti otl isso low and so irr eg~r lnr ll2r.t the y lln -t. litt le ~lee cl of socirtldelinitlion. 71re Mlju tli ~,ygr nies ~~rl i t l r r r clictrc in -nit eLles norcllijoy R, riellly orgnrrizc.d set of cosrrro1ogir::ill ideas (("l'urrtl)~~ll,196Ci). 'I'llcir cnsc swggt?st;,.i that TTC ,iho-nld reject, the eolrl-1)ensatol.y theory of whiil,(lflcbr;~f't I ~ ' o ~ / I O S C ~ ~y iZ\';~(1~1 1952).Accordjxig tlo this vicw, ~vit~hcl'cclft s ill1 alterilixtive rnetl~od fcsplaini~ig misfortune., whicll sul~sti 8iite8 for r n y lwlogicnl orscientific exl)l:txlatiol~s. Bu t the j3ygnliew prove tllat, there is noreasall to believe thtit if oire clecliltes tlre oilrer \-sill pop up in i tsplace. People can do ~vit hon t xy)lantitio~rs luisfol~tunc, heycall live in tolerance ;ancl anlity and withoni ~llet~al~hyaicalcuriosity. The precoriditioli is that tikey should be free to moreaway Proln each other wi~e~rever traiilis appear. The price ofsuch a benign eo sn~oiogy s a low level of orgalljr/,,?tio~l,

H u tthis is not the: only ~ v a y o cont rol wilicll 7n)eliefs. All oth er

is by means of' ;L highly orclcrccJ system of ascribed rolcls. 3-ct ifthese are too ilrflexiblc, other grotcisquc be1it:f's tt1q)e;xr. loanTAewis l~etott-, ). 300), eolinl)nri~ig c1ic.f~ irr att ac. 1~ y iclcntificcltl-itjches wit11 bt3lief's i r l att,;~ck y l~nidcntifiecl ;j)irits, elat es th elat ter t o rigid role btrnctures. I$c describes worz -~c~ ~+ ho use theirillnesses as a rrletzns of ~ x a c t ~ i i l gilore gerzeroufi trca tilnerlt fro111their hus bn~ lds . 'lli;-., s llalf-cs-a,y bctueell attack and reroncilia-tioxl. Ile indicates the role structure ixl nhicltl it n ould be n

aj)jr"rol~*iate tr ate gy onc mfllere tllc wtlalicr pa rt y in a relatliorl-s11ip seolrs, no t to 11reak it off'. bu t to ~riiP,ignte t 's r i go~ ~r.

R711ere tl.lel*(l s w i ("11~~itft 11(3r0 ia 11slrally ~v i t 4 1 1 -cle;ln$:i~~g.

One of TCcitlr llliorxl;~i;'s nsiglrt w into t flc 1)ost l<cfo rrr~;i ionillr>rcnse n l<ngli sh -wit c:hc>laaft cc.~rs:ltior s l~ttitlts o i he loss ofr*eligioms tre l~ni c~rn t~s or clettli~lg wit 11 l)cr~onttl )rolilr.rlrs: 1~011-

fession n~ i d i1)solutiorl. exorc*i s~ll u1t3 ~~ ro t c ( " i~ -~ >I ~ c ~ s ~ ~ I ~ Rllr.vi11g1,cc~onrt. nrrav~til;nlt~lc~, -itt ill craft fcanrs 1vcr.c less easily c~o~~ trollcct .131 r l f ~ j i ~ an f l r ~1olo11ic11 period, ?il hilc orrlcala 1 rc oiit l;tst ccl.w i t cIrc.r;-cl't was ~ o l l t o I I c Y It o S O J ~ ~ C x f f. jy other* xncnrls I t oyIVillis (1)r low)gis-cis a l)~$itlf verall ~)c~rsl)ec~livcf tlxt~sc lro.1.c.-rrlellts wlliclz arise t t r r c l sl~rc all r r r .r-;tst itr~a,": f'12fi"ic:~;l u1c1 d i e



o t ~ t . If * O I ~ I I ) ; L I - P S I ~ O J I I1ltiirwt i~l gl y nit11 i~lillellnia,l c1dts., \ l i s o ~ ~: f ~ l ~ t r ; ~ ~ - l l ( "1)t lou biLI:~l1('C'"i~lih ollg ~ i w v jy ;I t:lo~t:-~ipof' l i r. ca : i t 3 tx rx s f 1); lJr*fc.i11:ti3 c ivirlc*r*. fft~tlol~s l l itllil for i 1 0 1 1 ~

t i r l r b l j c:orut? i ~ r<;ta;t, ;\fii(.:l,. Iqlgrir L ~ S ~ ~ Y I I ~ .ro111 Il~lll~breds f

tn i ci ;irt..;ty to cotls~rlt, 11 il.;;r~tgc~ l ~ o r ~t lrrir fillllilit?~ i11d theirillric+scls iind t o I l ; t \ r i tlir~iir. w n nrtrlles clcarctl of nit,el~c~r.aft,k~~~lritbiotl.

, \ I I ~ ir*ol,olr~gi.;t : 1l:t'irt" 11~11ilIIy 1 )1)1~r,n(dl~t"~i. 17 i f ~411~'r;ift roint l l t l I 'oil ~t of \ i c a i r r of t , 1 1 ~~c*c~us;;c.i.,1Iv ~\ib>-l: ~ ~ s s i l r ~ l i ~ l g,I ~; rt lrcb: ~ c j c x ~ l . ; l t t i c ) r l i s f i l l - i t x . 'I'lris Ilits ~t-rrtdt: t llnrtl for* rls tto iiiterpret,\\ it,c~llc~s;r l c a o r l ibssic 111s. I11rrczt2 tto ji,r;~c.tise \ i t vl~craft against; \ I I q l(:ny, t lli:hfqn ~ v ? ~ \ L I nt C X ~ ~ I ' P ~ts ~ n l p t y >o~~sijimg. ut t,l~(:idfi; r I l i t t tl pfbl'soll 1iiI3. ~ i i i c f ~ t ~ l y)clicxv61 irliself a ?vitc:h A,I IC~ o

1 0 t tlivirlcr to 1 ) ~u rd of his st ate is di-lficult ltio understurld11 i t E t j n t 1 1 ~.t.1-rrrs of our ur1;tlysis. 'I'llis i s 110 clouht T~T,fly 13arltara\\T;tr~tl s k-ivitl tlr3seri[)l on of -M.itch -uol~ft's~i011 lllts in A~11;~lit( I ):>ti) tri:ttlt? no little iinpact at, the tirue. 'I'her.t:li>se I csl,eciallyc:ilrxt: t 1 1 t ~ ~ t ~ 0 o l l f 1 i l ) l 1 t , i o l i s o this voltlrlle which describe culturesi t ) \t lrlic ll it, is i1nl)ossihlc not Lo mul)pow (oncsc3lf a 1)oterrt ial wit ell.I:jol)o~'t Esni~t 11;iki" d5i(%se of i h ~ ~t)lf hitt eliil~brc~r lay (1)rit)ed1 ~ .promiscis of' fi~otl) r l rtii~ir~t i ~ i i ~ l glie adult w~ rI (l iew byt l r c h i r * tlor-sii 'illg cvc,~ili~ssii~rls f t~it~cllcr.:tft. ut eonfcssions aret ~ o t , lii l y s t*xt ~%crf. 1 - 11ril)r~s \rid tll~.c:ttn. Jnliall Pit t-Rivers:t11~1 NI;~lcolintncbl dcsc#riZ)c .osrriologicv+. 1 1 ~ n C'ctltrul Arrlericn,o ~ l t : ll i l f r i r t ~ , ll M lli(4i t=;2(11 l l ~ l t l i t l ~ las one or aer-trill were-:~~lirtt:ll )crsollali 1io:: :LI t rik)tlte(l to Ilil ll. 'llhc truestioll a t allytirule is 0111j~ iirllcithcr. orle'*s altirnal st.lv-es are ~~emeenble rd;bxljic~rons.

J t stkelns tll;-\t i ll tht. 1.ic:l1 ibllti~sy of f)P;~r~yn,l~g -ere-axlirnalsc1oc.s not rrorntr~llj .rsrll1 r r \\ it t ~llcr aft -ctccusatiot~g. I'he tJlireciionirl vllic*11 the: X~cllic-:fk 1~)i irlt s 't o t ~ c r s o ~ ~ t l l cs1)orrsit)i lity nllcb

11f>1*~01iitl t~rl)li(+:ii on . I L I I ~ ot (~1ir~vtI-y ~ t east) t c)the hostilityof ot1lc.r~'. I'hi.; ct.lloc~i; ioclfrcy IAic~ttI~arclt7s c:cBount of" I)illk;livi(c*llci*nft 1 O ; i l ) . I ) i ~ l l i a x\vitvl~tb.i rc ~ n ~ i ~ l l yl~ollyiljous alrtlt r ~ t i r l r l r l tf i f a c t 'I'llr. t :oric:ckt) t o f t l l i . 1- icll is notrc the less veryr b z l ) l i c * i t .I t is r rb tk t l to rsi>rrlirltl .;~(>11 r l m of tllc tla~rgem ii Itiltlsc4lf':

thinks hi111 s ~ l f 1 ~ : t ~ i,cX~ed. I'lte re\-cssi1)f.e ~.oles f t Ilc 1 t clrand t he victim in t,he ordeal an d the Ili nlia's st rong rcluctttnceto call any man a witch, secrn to mo t)o be t reeog~iitiori hatt mall who e asily t,llillks himself f iat rd is one irrllo easilyhat)es, and t h a t ;I man w h o spes otjllers ns bearing nlaJicetowartls hinrself is one wlio hirnself feels rlinlice. This is thesit uati on of ~lirit~ches. Th e night wit cjll is an outl a~ l- -t>cn~rseItr en~k~odics ,llost% pl~ctit,e s nd ~1;~ssions n c?vcry r11a11~vlric h, f ungos-enled, would rlt.stuoy any nxora.1 law. 7111~night witch may thus he sccn to c:rirrt~spc:)ut1 o the concoaledilltelltinu, t l ~ c lnlosalit,,y ; ~ l r i l . c l l t~ llc. iip1)osition t o sl~a,x"r:d~lzoral nltlrs ~+-llicll rlal.it1 c o~ r l n ~ ~ u ~ iy ~ ~ o s s j l ~ l e .f the uzriqlxeself, C X ~ S ing a11( ;tvt8ing rs 511("11, 8 ilthrfugh, I I L ~ ~ C ~ S ~~ ) ( lnone IT-tty, lic night, w itch is a fin~lt~asy, llderstiood ill allot,ll~"rway he is illdeccX a rcalit>y which tlle llizlkn li11o~7. 11 isu n c e r t c l n l e t ha t 1 1 ~ hould be associ:~ ed '~vit,h iefornicdand i1111)erfect treat ~ V C ~ ,V ~ O y their. very nat i r e cannot befull ni ernber ~ f society' (1951, pp. 317-318).

Tlllls ljIin1ia ~vitchcraft otlcepts scj~reseut n zssassi~ient of~lor mal iun ~an nt~ ir c ncl self-npl)raisal. For them, l~e ll >a11l ie within them ~clvcs. II ~vitcbc.rafd-d011:1 lia t ed cosruologies, in(wntritst, PIIVY zmd ~llaljr"~ nd all cvils arc a t tributcd t,o;~ lonormnl reighbolxrs. For tll em, hell is ot htkr 1)eople. L k i -i";t c"t11ss ha s reeerrt Iy renlltrlieill tlia t t h i s fa1rnc,ris cfictunn ofI"iartlrae ha s 110 rrriiversnl value but i s ~tlri*cly n t r t 2rnogr.n y)'rlic:

co~nrlrer-rt n a pc2rtieular v~llttrrc: I U ( i 8 . 11. 422), E ~ e r y t h i n g ellrtve ssi d R O far 11ca.r~ im ou t. Sottte ~ 1 1 1 1 res are I ) ~ C ) I I C o tellI)eliefs, otl~ ers re not. T.Vc arc i~IltIOf32 rc2ncly t)o st at e tl ~t -. ,rc-d i s ~ t o s i ~ ~ gocial st ~~uc~t~mrc s, Vhcrc soci tl in t er:t,et ion is i n erlsr:and ill defined, therc we may C X ~ G C ; : ~ o fi nd ~ ~ i t ~ 1 1 ~ r r " l f t)clicfs.

FVhere hnrnan rrlalions are sl'amse alltl tlifY~l.ic>, r -i~l~crc. olrrsarc -very fully aseri1)ed. n-c n-oul(l 110t CXI)C(" to f i~ l i l i t ' i t ,~l~(-raft1)elit.f~. ftfxr* this, it i s iclrlll)t ~ l g c*ollcc>t tlrr.~* rlit;irlrcs of\vit,olx l l r c h cc*rtsnlolr,gicls 11(l YX~ t o : t ( ~ ~ o t t ~ i tor t l ~ ~ t l ly N ~ I I C ~ P T ~ P G

of' c~cmflict. Z)scrlc~c~ f chornl)t.t t iorl , or* :rl)srrlc.c. o f iallli)igui y i l l

13oles ox* of coilt r;idieiioli i n ~ l li l z r n l c g ~ t ~ i t l ~ .X'llc. ~ r p l l ~ n c l l t i illt t t l i t : 11s cluittcb :i long ~ a y ut 11ot c l l l i l c ~ f ; ~ l~iotxgll: or l h t .

f3slry;tllg of t h ~Ves ?a~~i~hroc>~lsca t l l ~ dea o f tllc u-i cTs Irl oreas a. rilirror to their o w n c~oti~cio~lcc;ntitl ye t (riu like dlr. 1)ilil;;t)



I d -odz~c fiont 1lf.j ire wit.ll (bo111j)tlfit o t l i l ~ l d ~ ~ r l l ) i g l ~ i t y. cherish t hoir r a r e

;IS :I \ r : t r. l l i~ rq rg;tir~fit, L too rigid so(ai;rl dt:t,c.rr~lirtii;ln.r~I Ilr o ld ~ ~ n r ; rig111 l;rs srratltl it.; ~ H I I - L J O W .2s 1 : ~is it ahcraf t

h f nilicn nrn ~r)tl(~r*r.nr?(l. lu. firlld i n o p c ~ s o allyone who cnreir tor.11 i T i 4 A l l l~ro~)i)logisf~slrlerl o longer fcar t h e 11ist.ori:m as it

~ w r s o n 7 l i o . i ~0 1 1 it i s 1.0 ili~t.ro?- h e o t l ~ c r ellosv's gr11er 21' Z ~ -

t ior l ' ( l<c~i~~iran . 5li, p. 7 1), mlt l hisborinns rlrcd not be m-arrrert;r.gxirist c o l ~ j ~ i ~ l g1;~vi~;JIIy LW s ~ ~ c * i h c I siliCf ~:OI~CIIUS~O~IS.h er l i s t i l l g l l i h ~ ~ ( ~ c i~o11f.rib111U I ~ Sf ilislloria~ss o this volunle s~lggestl'iLi(1illg f ~ r t b p IS ll r:h ;LS t l * i l ) l ~ t . i ~ ~nlut,es. \?ie PiLI l ~olsfid(:~~t,lg~ k . \ ~ ) c v ' t t h:rt ihe ill1 ilisip11t.s of t Irr Azailclc book ~will e exploit,cdir l rrlnlry ot llcl. tlisc:il)lruc~i;.

1 . I I t,lrls int ro t l~ lc t ion lw t f > r r r ~r, it cllc.rrzft i s uscbtl i cox rr all forms of ho1ir.fin sl vll I inclirrg, Insc>irr:ition t)?; e il vyc, a r l t l f)r:uitrhirrg. When i t is ncccsenryt o t11scx.irnirlstc betxr m tlr ffi.rrmt kirrtls, dcs;icri~)ti* rt plrmscs are rtsocl. I n tllcstlltst:rrltt\ t p r t of t l ~ c ook, hon r v w , most of tho rolttrr hutors I1;~x-e uwci' t . i iLr*llcritft ' to rcxf6.r. oxrlr~si\-cly o irltrrrrnl psychic power to harm, and

sc , r t : c~ ) for br..~*itc~lli~lf:y mi-:arw of extcr~ tal igmbols, ullethcr by spells,c.ii:tr.nis, o r ~ ) r ) t l o ~ l s .

~ ; v ~ n . ; - ~ ~ r ~ i ~ r . t ~ ~ r ~ ~ l t : l , .i:. r:. 1 133 711rb Iirtc:Ilcc :tu;~l isti ii:lrglishj 111tc.r.-p t ~ t t io t l o f R l , z . i i ~l h ~ l l ~ t i ~ ff P /u u?t ; j of L f 7 t . ~( 2 ) . gyp^ iaIlCTtiiv(>rsitj-,Cairo.I ):l-k. I i l - v ~ y - l l i ~ ~ ~ l ~ l ' ili(.ory of J'rirt~it ve 3li~ilt;ility. ulle t i tL f

Faculty c,J ~ l i - f , s (1). 1Ggj~ larl i l r r i v t ~ r s i i y. :;riro.

If Re3. Vi tchcr ;~f i . ,kriccx 8 (-4): 417-422.1 1:37, ilvilch(*rcqff, rtrc-lcsand d/cx yica(x)ilonfj h ~ : ~ l / d p . Oxforci:( 1; 1 ' ( * 1 ~ ( 1 0 t ~"l"("$.i . 1 : o t 0 1 i .VI/.I/ iia ] ) ( O ~ I / ~ J .

o\f:~~"(l: ' l ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ l>lY%s.

l I f O l ) . r I ' l ~ ~ b N I I ~ Tf' t l ~ h OIIII ~ I W8iid;~ii 111 f T o ~ * t ~ ~{ 12.j41ians - rif *1i : i l (1 t b f l * ). i r u ~ ) ~ / i t i { ~ ( ~ l5 r / \ f ( 1~~ 2. J )J I 272-2%1(;,Ilo~ltlo~l: sfor.tl Cillit7cr.sity I X OSS ( fiw the Ixltcrlzttt onal A2fricarlIrrrtit~lte).

-- - 19-49, 7'he anusi oJ ('?/?-e7.~nica.olltlon: OxfortZ TJni~ersityl~rcss.195fi. N ~ L C Tioligioli 0 ~ i k ) s ~ l :~ l : i r ~ ~ i ( l o ~ ~' r t ~ ~ s .

- . 1 I(i5. ?'hca?.i~s f 1 iv"ilico Rcligi017. Oxford: (:l;tr(*~l(+o~~'1 tabs.

I r t tnz tc , ~ ) a r i s - ~ r , .l58. Sl)iritfi, 1Vitc.lit.s atrd 8orc.c.i'ers i t ) t l ~ t .Srtp(*rn;lf l19al E c o n o ~ u j ~ f t l c b Yalici, Jou/*~r,cnl l l ~ o jc~l l?zlhr.o-poloyi tn i :/ ,lstit?ct~,8 ( 2 ) :185-1'78.

cxELI , ;N ~ n ,, lf358. Tinreb : i ~ l c t7'1ieory ill Social Arzt 1ir o~) olo g~.

, find 67 (266): 182-202.1: IA xi c II x A X M , 1965. CYus?to7i~ t r ~ dCo~ljf i'f liil I - l f ~ i ~ ~ .xfi)~'rl: 31ack-

n-ell.x I, u c 4 i I o 11 N, c L Y 1) F: . 19 44 , iVtrzjilho I.Cvii(*kr.?.nJ'f. 'ea ll~otly usclarn

Yztpc~s . E~z'vRI'cIlT~liversity. 2 (no. 2 )K U II 3 . H. 1962. 7 ~ S t ~ t l ~ ' t 2 ~ ioj' ~jl i(ntiji'i' 111 ~o11~tIo~1.s .:~LI ( 'U~O:

U ~ ~ i r e r s i t ~ yf GIiI~ago r i " ~ .li 61- r - S T T < A ~ J S S , , 1968. L ' O f z ' y i ~ z ~es ~,inzii~r.ri;ic t c ~ b l ~ .i2j tho-

loyiqtte.sI I I . ikaris: f lo11.

r , I E N rinxz n T. a. c 1951. s o m e Not it)rl ~ f' \\Fitellcraft aillong t'llcDirllia. A,fi.icn 21 (4): 303-318.

n s ~ t u - I C K . . G 1952. The Social Cont)ext of Ceca JVitcli I3elicf~.

kffi.ica22

(2): 120-135, 3 ) :2 15-233.966. ~Sorrery n i t s Socicrl iCTetti?ig: A ~ Y t u d yof the ~liTo?-ther.nRhodesia)? Ce&cr. 3lanelrt:stt:r.: 3llanrllestr~u TTnirr>rsity E"r.t~ss.

M A Y E X , P I X I L I P. 1 ,3.?4. Ff-itches, I i l i t l lg~ll ' i l l I l o ( * t ~ l r ~ . XX1odt'~linivcrsity , Grallau~ston 1.

M I D 1) L E r 0 N, J 0 II N. 1960, Lugbarn &f31iyio92. Lo l ldon : OxfordUnivc~vsitj- +rcs ( fi r t l ~ c ut cr-rial iorral ,4f ~ i i e l ~ ~ rlrstijt l c ) ,

n l l r e r l E L L . C ' I , Y I ) E . 1956. T h e Z ao Ivill(lyt:A Ntudy i , ~ h ~ocialkStrztct?,ire a i\-yc~.i;cnl(nn(l l j T r i D p ,If;tl lcl~c~stt~:l.I[;~x~clk(-"stx U~iiver-sity II'ress-;.l $(i;4. 'l'llr. 1 1earling in n'3fsf01tu11~~ o r IJI-X)~II fr.ic:ill+. l ~ r'1.1 T o r . t ~ ~t (.:. I)i~t~f>rfc\ll c * ~ s ., _/il,iric(xj~?~?IS/) ? ~ I ; of T7~07l,qht.Ilondon: Oxfor t l L'nivlhrsity IY5.c.r~ (tor t llc Irltt3nitlt oual AfricanInstitute),

li A r) n I,, s . IT. 1952. \ \ ' i t c l l c r a S t in F'olxr. Af ~-ic.nn ocicit ps : An 13ssayin Ilonrjiarjsoil, ,4 ??~el*irn2 ,4 ?I tlr~~opo'logii~l4 (1 : 18-29,

x t ~ r s m n ~ ,AV I I , . 1956 C ' ~ ) ~ ~ d t ~ - a i ) l t11117 I-(tri~'t:j j i i l ? ) 2 ~ i i r ( i ~ ~I $ d u c a t i o ~ ~ ,irrcolri. Nibb,: LT1ri.c-clr+it y of Nc~l)r*;xskin,x.css.

ns crr nn 3 ,s, A , I . 19:36. A n4ocIct.r~ Rlovr~nscrlt of' \I'itcllfiutlt~rs.,l,Pii.a 8 ( 4 ) :448-461.

TI< C \ ~ O R I< O Y E R . t ~ . 967. f?c/iqiotzsi l t ~ ? h)7 ~ ? u t i o u . t t d ,Yo(*i(tl( l bc r~ rye .,orrt-toli: &Iacruillan.



,r rr rt rj : u r, I , , qor,r w ilr 19fi6. TT'/y,y?un~dS ~ r v f r n f. 1 o t l t l o r l : Eyrc,ijf'O tt,i~i? O t l l ~ .

t i ~t r r , v . w. 1 ).?4 S C ~ I S D Ir i l d C o i ~ t i ~ l u i t j12 ,4J1,icn~r ocniutj/:1 r r Y ? ~ r / gf IV(I PII/I)ICillnqi ] ;.I;. J'lar~c:llc~stc~: \'I;-t~lclic*str

l Jrlii cvsit,p I r. ~ , sJ )ti-$. \Vit,c*llclr;tf'ta1rt1 ~ O T P ( T J - . r 1 7 ; i f r o~ io l~ iy ~ * t ~ - s ~ i i :; I ~ L ~ H I ~ V S ,

. i irtr 34 (4) . 314-325.Z N S I N A J 1 3Ci 3. ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ Itbi~orl Ortical of t lz t : Uuullo~lg . n It. M.

I<at)t:r+ry h'l. 1)otzgl;ts (ctls.), m l ~ ifa . X~OXIC OII:avi,rt,ockI3ltbieat on$.1 ' ~% ). 3 A R N 113~2. 1956. some Ohservut ions on f ttIigioui: :ult,s in

Asl ra~lh i . l f r i c a 26 (1) : 47-60,rt I -r :, M . w. l ?f i l . Cillc~~~c??zt,~i ,~, i ~ v c r k Bc?li~js n.rid Rit~culs.

NEnnehc3sCor.: i\lalrclic~~tcr.I ~ ~ I ~ t ~ r s i t y1 1bss (for t l i ix R110dt -I,ivitzgstoric Inst itirt,c.).

\t I 1,s N 111t u A N K ( 1.). liI(i'7. 1 ) ~ n f t r ~ ) i sf iC:r ic t t~r i rc?bi~sr~i ,A032d0i1:I l t b i n c ~ r ~ l a l r n .

\ Y I I , ~v , r: o 1-1 r7n e 1 & r o N r c A 1945. Y7he A ?zuly;i.irs f Social( jtnnyr.. I ~ ~ ~ s P ~71 Ot ) .~~? l i a t i o~? .~t ) C~nt?*aE- p i c a . Calnk~ridge:Carrl r,r.iclg?rt? nivclrsi ty 1 ' r r . r ~ ~ .

@ Mary 1)ouglaii 1970

Mery Douglas Witchcraft, Confessions, Accusations

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