PREFACE
PAGE 114
PREFACE
As everybody knows, the textile industry is one of the best
trades in the world. Especially the business of manufacturing and
exporting knitted garments is very much interesting.
The knit garments can be made in lightweight, at the same time,
with more thickness fabrics for winter seasons. For the summer
seasons, they can be made in lighter weight with less thickness
fabrics. Also there is a huge number of fabric varieties can be
made in knits. The speciality of knit garments is the elasticity.
Because of these special and comfort qualities, the requirement for
knit garments is huge and forever. Hence manufacturing and
exporting knit garments is definitely a life long profitable
business.
At the same time, there is a huge competition among the
exporters around the world. Nowadays, most of the overseas buyers
and importers prefer to do business with the suppliers
Who are having their own manufacturing factories with huge
production capacity,
Who are quality conscious,
Who are able to make prompt shipment in right time with right
quality,
Who are adopting local labour laws and code of conduct,
Who are having thorough knowledge about the business,
Who are reliable,
Who are having sound financial strength and
Who are able to supply the garments on competitive prices?
As the quota restrictions will be removed from January 2005 and
due to globalisation, we expect a huge competition in all the
businesses among the sellers and buyers worldwide. In these years,
we have been competing within our country or region. But hereafter
we will have to compete with the other countries. It is going to be
very tough. At the same time, it is not an impossible thing. We can
achieve success, if we pay more attention in knowing about the
trade thoroughly.
Actually, I wanted to share my knowledge and experience with my
younger brothers who are also in this same trade. And I wanted to
give them the important hints for their easy understanding and
reference. But while I was writing, I decided to write this also
for others who are in this trade and who is interested to know
about this trade. Then I decided to write this elaborately covering
all the stages of this trade in detail. Also I have explained the
details in very simple and easy language so that every one who
reads this book can understand easily.
In this book, I have given the costs and costing in Indian
Rupees, as it is easy for me. The readers, other than Indians, will
have to convert the costs and costing in their desired currencies.
I believe that the readers will bear with me for this
inconvenience.
I am very happy to bring out my knowledge about this trade
through this book and I have real happiness as I am sharing the
details with you. Hope all the information in this book will be
useful to you all and hope you will be satisfied. I wish you all
success in your business or career!
INDEX
Subject Heading
Page NoGARMENTS
7
GSM
7
YARN
Grey yarn & Prices
8
Mlange yarn & Prices
9
Dyed yarn & Prices
10
Mercerized yarn & Prices
10
Grindle yarn & Prices
12
KNITTING OR FABRICATION
13
Machine gauge
13
Texture
14
Diameter
14
Knitting charges
15
Knitting with Elastan (Spandex)
15
PRE-PROCESSING
17
Procedures to avoid shading
17
PROCESSING
Azo Free Dyestuffs
19
Bleaching (Chlorine & Peroxide)
20
Fabric dyeing Reactive, Pigment & Discharge dyeing
21
Lab dips
21
Winch dyeing & charges
21
Soft flow dyeing & charges
22
Fabric Mercerizing & charges
23
Fabric Washing & charges
23
FINISHING & COMPACTING
Calendering & charges
24
Compacting & charges
24
Stentering & charges
24
Heat setting & charges
25
Fabric raising & charges
25
PRINTING
All over prints
25
Pigment print (by Rotary machines) & charges
26
Procedures
26
Advantages
27
Risk factors
27
Print in open width form
27
Water base print
28
Organic dyeing & printing
28
Printing charges
28
Reactive print (by Rotary machines) & charges
28
Procedures
28
Advantages
29
Risk factors
29
Printing charges
29
Discharge print (by Rotary machines) & charges
29
Procedures
30
Advantages
30
Risk factors
30
Some tips
30
Printing charges
30
Chest prints (advantages)
31
Printing charges
31
SPECIAL PROCESSES
Tie & Dye
32
Procedures
33
Advantages
34
Risk factors
34
Tie & Dye charges
34
Batiks
34
Garment dyeing
Procedures
35
Advantages
36
Risk factors
36
Garment dyeing charges
36
EMBROIDERY
36
Applique
36
Acoba
36
Embroidery charges
37
ACCESSORIES
37
Cost of buttons
37
Cost of zippers
37
Cost of twill tapes & ropes
38
Cost of elastics
38
Cost of labels
39
Cost of hangtags
39
Cost of inner boards
40
Cost of tissue papers
40
Cost of safety pins & threads
40
Cost of polybags
40
Cost of master polybags
41
Cost of hangers & sizers
41
Cost of cartons
41
CMT CHARGES
42
SHIPPING
Delivery terms
43
Sea freight
44
Air freight
47
Calculation of the charges
48
GARMENT COSTING
48
Fabric consumption
49
Trial costing No.1 Mens Basic T shirts
50
Fabric consumption of open width fabrics (synthetic)
52
Gross weight & net weight
54
Fabric cost per kg
54
Fabric cost per garment
54
Other charges
55
Cost of trims
55
CMT charges
55
Cost of accessories
55
Cost of garment
55
Price of garment
56
Shipping charges
56
Profit
56
Cost of quota
56
Commission
56
Garment costing
56
Trial costing No.2 Mens all over printed Polo shirts
58
Trial costing No.3 Ladies Night dress
61
Trial costing No.4 Mens long pyjamas
62
Trial costing No.5 Mens Pique polo shirts
65
Trial costing No.6 Ladies Yarn stripes T shirts (feeder) 67
Trial costing No.7 Boys Yarn stripes T shirts (engineering)
69
PAYMENT TERMS
71
L/C terms
71
L/C amendments
73
Importance of B/L & Airway bill
73
Documentation
75
At Sight L/C
76
30days, 60days, 90days L/C
77
Revolving L/C
78
D/P terms
78
D/A terms
80
MARKETING
81
Self study
81
Code of conduct
81
Child labour
82
Safety
82
Workers rights
83
Factory conditions
83
Housing conditions
84
Environment
84
Policies and approaches
84
Product study
86
Market study
86
Customer study
87
Work study
89
Costing & pricing
90
Communication
90
Documentation
92
Purchase
93
Shipping
93
Payment
94
MERCHANDISING
94
Internal & external communication
94
Sampling
95
Development samples or enquiry samples
95
Salesmen samples or promotional samples
95
Proto samples or fit samples
96
Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples 96
Wash test samples
96
Photo samples
97
Fashion show samples
97
Pre-production samples
97
Production samples
97
Shipment samples
98
Lab dips
98
Accessories & trims
99
Preparing internal order sheets
99
Preparing purchase orders
99
Advising and assisting production
100
Advising quality department about quality level
100
Coordination regarding shipping
100
Helping documentation department
100
Taking responsibility for inspections
100
Following shipment
100
PRODUCTION
101
Production planning
101
Work study
101
Standard Minute Value
102
Line balancing
102
Man planning
103
Cost Per Minute
104
Patterning
104
Fabric inspection
104
Line system
105
Cutting
105
Inspection of cut bits
106
Sewing
106
Trimming
108
Quality checking
108
Packing
109
Sampling
109
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality system
109
Lab tests
112
Washing instructions & symbols
113
Quality procedures
116
Workmanship & general appearance
118
Presentation
119
Inspections
120
Coordination
121
GARMENTS
There are 2 types of garments. One is a Woven garment. Another
is Knitted garments. Shirts, trousers, sarees, bed spreads,
blankets, towels and made ups are Woven. T-shirts, sweatshirts,
undergarments, pyjamas and socks are Knits.
Woven fabrics are made in hand looms, power looms and mill made.
Making woven fabrics is simple. But yarn counts, reed & picks
(warp & weft), width should be considered with more care. The
fabric quality is made differently by various methods of finishing
and treating.
Knit fabrics are made in different kinds of knitting machines.
According to the structure of fabrics, they are called by different
names. The mainly used fabrics are Jersey, Pique, Interlock, Rib,
French Rib, Flat back rib, Loop knit, Fleece, Polar fleece and
Jacquards. The knit garments can be made in solid dyed or all over
printed or yarn striped or jacquard fabrics.
GSM
GSM is the short form of Grams per Square Metre. GSM is the very
most important thing, which defines the weight of the fabrics of
knit garments.
Garment price and quality based on many things like GSM, fabric
quality, colours, finishing, prints, embroidery, style, etc. But
GSM is the most important thing to be decided when confirming the
prices between the sellers and buyers.
GSM is the weight of 1mtr x 1mtr fabric. It means 100cm x 100cm
= 10,000 sq.cms. It can be found out by any one of the below
ways.
By the weight of 100cm x 100cm fabric bit.
By the weight of 50cm x 50cm fabric bit multiplied by 4.
By the weight of 25cm x 25cm fabric bit multiplied by 16.
By the weight of 10cm x 10cm fabric bit multiplied by 100.
We must be aware that if we use the smaller size bit, accurate
GSM cannot be achieved. The bigger size of fabric bit is better
used to get exact or closer GSM.
If we have fabrics, then we dont have any problem in finding
GSM, as we can cut any dimension to find GSM. But most of the
times, we will have only the garments to find GSM. And we will have
to keep the garment for style, making and other references. So we
will be allowed to cut a small bit from the garments. Hence
nowadays, round cutters are used. This system is used worldwide.
With the help of this round cutter, the fabric will be cut into a
small bit.
Then the GSM of the fabric can be found out by multiplying the
weight of this round bit by 100. This round bit is to be weighed in
an electronic scale with milligram accuracy. As this bit is very
small and as the weight has to be multiplied by 100, the fabric has
to be cut very sharply to get the exact GSM. Hence the blades of
this round cutter are to be sharp and new to get the exact GSM.
YARN
The thickness of yarn is measured as Counts. Yarns are made in
different counts like 2s, 4s, 10s, 16s, 20s, 24s, 25s, 30s, 34s,
36s, 38s, 40s, 60s, 80s, 100s, etc.
We can consider like this. 0s counts are cotton fiber. 20s
counts yarn is thicker than 24s yarn. Likewise 30s yarn is thicker
than 34s. So when the yarn counts are increasing, the thickness
becomes lesser. We can see, the higher the counts, the lesser the
thickness.
Yarn prices based on the thickness. Price of 20s yarn is lesser
than 24s. Price of 30s yarn is lesser than 34s yarn. We must know,
higher the counts, higher the prices.
There are 2 qualities of yarn. Combed and Carded.
Combed is superior quality. The cotton fibers are in different
lengths from 0.25 inches to 2.5 inches. According to the technical
parameters, the fibers with more length are considered to be
better. These long fibers give more evenness and more strength for
yarns. Also the short fibers are increasing hairiness whereas the
long fibers are decreasing hairiness in yarns. Hence in order to
get uniformity in fiber lengths, the short length fibers are to be
eliminated from the long length fibers. For this purpose, a special
process is being done. This process is called Combing. Because of
the same longer length of fibers, the yarn will be very even with
lesser hairiness. Hence after knitting or weaving, the fabric will
have very even look.
Carded yarn is inferior in quality. As the above said combing
process is not being done, the carded yarn will be made of the
fibers in different lengths. Hence the yarn strength will be lesser
than combed yarn. Also carded yarn will have more hairiness and due
to this, the fabric made with carded yarns will have more
unevenness.
Because of this extra process, the Combed yarn price is higher
than Carded yarn. Also Combed yarn quality is superior to Carded
yarn.
We have to use either Combed or Carded yarn according to buyers
requirements and to the suitable price range.
Yarn prices will vary from Mill to Mill due to their different
quality standards. As the yarn prices are fluctuated often and as
the yarn is the major cost factor of garments, we have to pay more
attention in yarn quality and its cost.
When we think about the raw materials for knit garments, we can
understand that there is only one raw material, which is, the Yarn.
Cost of yarn covers almost 20% to 30% of garment price. Cost of
yarn depends on the quality standards like dyeing absorbency, hand
feel, evenness, strength, raw material, availability, etc.
The processing (dyeing, bleaching and finishing) results will
differ according to the yarn quality. If the yarn contains more
lifeless and dull cottons, the dyeing absorbency will be very less.
Also evenness and numbers of naps determine the yarn quality.
The garment quality is based on the fabric quality; the fabric
quality is based on the yarn quality. Hence the garments quality is
lying on the yarn quality.
Let us see below the approximate prices for various qualities of
100%Cotton yarns.
Approximate grey yarn prices per kg in Rs:
20s 24s 30s 34s 40s
Combed 100 120 130 140 145
Carded 95 110 120 130 140
Mlange yarn:
Mlange means mixture. Mlange yarn means mixture of different
shades of yarns.
There are different mlange yarns. They are Grey mlange, Ecru
mlange, bleached mlange, Flax mlange, Colour mlange, etc.
Mlange yarns are generally made with Cotton and Viscose fibers.
According to the required percentage and colour shades, the fibers
are mixed together before making into yarn.
Grey Mlange, Ecru Mlange, Bleached Mlange are used widely. These
mlange yarns are generally in the composition of 85%Cotton /
15%Viscose approximately. In these yarns, the cotton portion will
be in light shade and the Viscose portion will be in dark
shade.
In colour mlange yarn also, the cotton portion will be in light
shade. For light colour mlange yarn, it is enough to add little
percentage of Viscose. But for dark colour mlange yarns, higher
percentage of Viscose to be added to get dark shades. For example,
the Dark Blue colour mlange yarns will have 55%Cotton / 45%Viscose
approximately. But we have to remember that if we use colour mlange
yarns with higher percentage of Viscose, the fabric made with these
yarns will have higher shrinkage; also the shrinkage cannot be
controlled. The fabric may have very soft feel and shiny look. But
we must think of shrinkage, which is very important.
Hence, we have to be very cautious of the percentage or
composition of Viscose. It is safer not to use mlange yarns with
higher percentage of Viscose, due to higher shrinkage.
To avoid this shrinkage problem, colour mlange yarns made by
100%Cotton fibers are also used. But this is more expensive than
normal colour mlange yarn with Viscose blend. But as we use 100%
Cotton, the shrinkage can be controlled to the acceptable
level.
Also there is another way to solve shrinkage problem. Fabric can
be made with Ecru mlange or Grey mlange and can be over dyed to
required dark shades. Cost wise, there will not be big difference
between colour mlange yarn and over dyeing. But this method will
solve the shrinkage problem.
Approximate Melange yarn prices per kg in Rs:
For Ecru Mlange & Grey Mlange yarns, Rs.10 to 15 to be added
with above prices of Combed yarns.
For Colour Mlange in Cotton / Viscose blend:
Light colours: Rs.20 to 30 to be added with above prices of
Combed yarns.
Medium colours: Rs.30 to 40 to be added with above prices of
Combed yarns.
Dark colours: Rs.40 to 50 to be added with above prices of
Combed yarns.
For Colour Mlange in 100% Cotton:
Approximately Rs.70 to 100 to be added (according to the depth
of colours) with above prices of Combed yarns.
Dyed yarn:
For making the stripes and jacquard design fabrics, the dyed
yarns are used. Yarns are dyed by manually and by sophisticated
machines. In manual yarn dyeing, we cannot expect the consistency
of shades, yarn strength and better quality. Hence it is always
advised to dye the yarns with the latest machines only.
For yarn dyeing, only combed yarns are used. Also the yarn
should have more yarn strength. It is called Count Strength Product
(CSP).
The prices of dyed yarn are based on the counts and colour
shades. For easy reference, the dyed yarn price of 30s Medium
colour will be around Rs.250 per kg. The prices for other colours
will be differed according to the shades.
The prices of other counts are based on the price differences of
grey (kora) yarns.
Mercerised Yarn:
This is a very special quality yarn. There is a huge difference
between the mercerised yarns and normal type of cotton yarns. These
yarns are made with selective fibers with longer lengths by
thoroughly removing the lifeless, dull and dead cottons.
Mercerised yarns are always in 2 ply, like 60/2, 80/2, 100/2. It
means 2 yarns of same counts have to be twisted together. The
minimum counts, which can be doubled, are 50s. So minimum
mercerised yarn can be 50/2. Let us see some important things about
these special yarns.
As the finer cottons are used, the yarn contains more cotton,
giving more resistance and silky feel. These yarns are made
exclusively of long fibers, as the combing process removes shorter
fibers.
As these yarns are made in multi-ply (2 ply), they have 10 15%
more resistance than single ply yarns. This will give more life to
the garments.
After combing and twisting, the yarn will be singed (gassed). By
this process, the yarn will pass rapidly through flames and the
superficial hair around the yarn would be eliminated. Due to more
heat, the hairy particles of the yarn will be burnt out. (Now this
is called Gassed Yarn).
Then the yarn is treated with caustic soda under perfectly
controlled tension. This process is called Mercerising. Mercerising
is done to strengthen the yarn and to improve luster of yarn. After
mercerising, the yarn will have great strength and greater
brightness. Also the yarn will capture 20% more humidity without
getting wet. Further, this mercerising process increases the
resistance of yarn and reduces its becoming dirty. (Now the yarn is
called Gassed Mercerised Yarn).
These yarns do not create allergies to body. Due to its high
resistance properties, these yarns are used for knitwear, underwear
and hosiery. The garments made with mercerised yarns can be washed
an infinite number of times without losing luster. Also the
garments will not be deformed regarding shape. They have
exceptional ability to absorb and disperse body perspiration. So
these mercerised yarns are very special due to its special
qualities.
If two yarns of 60s counts are gassed, then we get 2/60s gassed
yarn. Then after mercerizing, the yarn is called 2/60s mercerised
yarn.
The special features of Gassed Mercerised yarns are
1. Used for making very expensive special garments.
2. Luster and shininess of yarn / fabric / garments.
3. Complete evenness throughout the yarn / fabric /
garments.
4. Very less shrinkage of yarn / fabric / garments.
5. Longer life of garments.
After making the fabrics with these Gassed Mercerised yarns, the
fabric has to be mercerised again with caustic soda to get the
permanent shiny look. As mercerising is done two times, one in yarn
stage and another in fabric stage, this is called Double
Mercerising.
As the prices of Mercerised yarns are higher than Gassed yarns,
to minimise the cost, Gassed yarns can be used instead of
Mercerised yarns. After making the fabrics with Gassed yarns,
fabrics have to be mercerised again. We will get the shiny look on
the fabric. But this shiny look will not be permanent and will be
inferior comparing with the fabric used with Gassed Mercerised
yarns. In this method, as the yarn is not mercerised and as only
the fabric is mercerised, it is called Single Mercerising.
In any case, the fabric has to be mercerised before fabric
dyeing.
Also Gassed Mercerised Dyed yarns are available. For yarn
striped and jacquard design fabrics, these dyed yarns are used.
Approximate Gassed (Grey) yarn prices per kg in Rs:
2/60s: Rs.310
2/74s: Rs.360
2/80s: Rs.400
Approximate Gassed Mercerised (Grey) yarn prices per kg in
Rs:
2/60s: Rs.380
2/74s: Rs.440
2/80s: Rs.490
Approximate Gassed Mercerised Dyed yarn prices per kg in Rs:
2/60s: Light colours: Rs.480
Medium colours: Rs.520
Dark colours: Rs.550
2/74s: Rs.60 to be added with the above prices of 2/60s dyed
yarn.
2/80s: Rs.100 to be added with the above prices of 2/60s dyed
yarn.
Grindle Yarns:
These yarns are also called Twisted Yarns. Two yarns of same
counts but in different colours are twisted together. Between these
2 colours, one colour will be in lighter shade and the other will
be in darker shade. After the twisting, the yarn will be in a
different mixing shade. We must be sure of these yarns are in same
counts and have same yarn strength. Also when they are being
twisted together, the number of twists per inch (usually 14) should
be even for the full length of yarn. If the twisting is not done
properly, then we will face problems during knitting.
The prices of grindle yarns depend on the colours, counts, etc.
The above prices can be referred to get approximate idea.
KNITTING OR FABRICATION
There are 2 types of knitting. One is Circular knitting (Tubular
knit). Another is Flat knitting. Circular knit is used to knit body
fabrics. Flat knit is used to knit Collars & Cuffs.
There is another type of flat knit machines, which are used to
make Sweaters (Tricot garments). With these machines, the body
fabrics, sleeves and necks are being made. And they are joining
together with the help of linking machines. We have to note that
the attachments of these parts are done with the main yarns. No
separate sewing threads are used for joining. Buyers use to call
these garments as Knitted garments or Tricot garments or Sweaters.
Mostly acrylic and wool yarns are used. Lower counts like 2s, 4s,
6s, etc are used.
T-shirts, polo shirts are also called knitted garments. As the
body, sleeves, collars, cuffs are cut separately and joined
together, some buyers use to call these garments as Cut & Sewn
Garments.
When we discuss about Knit garments, there are many things to be
taken care of. Yarn counts, suitable knitting machines, machine
gauge, machine diameter, numbers of feeders, grey fabric GSM, loop
length, grey fabric diameter, etc should be well considered before
start knitting.
The fabric before processing is called Greige fabric. It is also
called Grey fabric (kora fabric).
Machine Gauge:
There are different types of fabric structure like Jersey,
Pique, Interlock, Rib, French rib (loop knit), Flat back rib,
Fleece, Herring bone, etc.
Knitting machines are available in different gauges. 2GG, 3GG,
4GG, 5GG, 7GG machines are used for sweater knitting (Tricot
knit).
Fabrics like Jersey, Pique, Rib and Interlock are knitted on
14GG, 16GG, 18GG, 20GG, 24GG, 26GG, 28GG, and 30GG suitably. The
fabric is knitted according to the cam design. If we need any
different type of knitting, the cams in cylinder and dial should be
adjusted accordingly.
The number of needles per inch means Gauge. For example, 24GG
machine will have 24 needles per inch; 30GG machine will have 30
needles per inch. If we need more needles per inch, we have to go
for higher gauge machine.
As the higher Gauge machines are having more needles per inch,
the fabric will be knitted tightly. And the fabric will have lesser
shrinkage and better feeling.
According to the machine gauge, the yarn counts to be selected
and used. If the Gauge is higher, the thinner yarn can be used. If
the Gauge is lesser, the thicker yarn can be used.
When making knitting program, our aim must be to make tight
knitting with better fabric feeling and less shrinkage. Accordingly
we must plan to use the higher yarn counts and higher gauge
knitting machines. So the yarn count selection is more important
according to the selected Gauge machine. Also the machine Gauge to
be selected according to the selected yarn count.
For example, for Jersey fabric, we can achieve 140GSM either by
using 34s yarn & 26GG machine or by using 30s yarn & 24GG
machine. To get better quality fabric, it is preferable to use 34s
yarn & 26GG machine.
Texture:
As warp and weft are making woven fabrics, there are 2 things
making the knit fabric. They are Wales and Course. Wales is the
vertical yarn. Course is the horizontal yarn.
The machine gauge fixes Waless lines. This cannot be changed.
Adjusting in the machine can alter coarse lines. This is called
Texture.
By adjusting this texture, the required fabric GSM (Grey or
kora) can be achieved.
Diameter:
As the knit fabrics are made in tubular form, the patterns for
making garments are being made according to tubular fabrics. Hence
the diameter of fabric is very important.
When we talk about Diameter, we must take care of various
diameters. They are diameter of the machine, diameter of the grey
fabric, diameter of the processed fabric and diameter of the
finished fabric. These diameters will not be the same. Our ultimate
aim is to get the required diameter of the finished fabric
according to the patterns. So we have to check these diameters
carefully at every stage.
Diameter of the machine will not be changed. But after knitting,
each type of fabric will be in different diameters. For example, if
Jersey fabric is knitted in 30 diameter machine, the grey fabric
diameter will be plus or minus 1. That is, between 29 and 31. But
if Pique fabric is knitted in 30 diameter machine, the grey fabric
diameter will be 37. Likewise, each type of grey fabric will be in
different diameter according to the knitting method and nature of
the fabric design.
During processing, the fabrics will be soaked in dyes for more
than 5 hours. So the fabric will shrink both in widthwise and
lengthwise depends on fabric texture. And the diameter will be
changed accordingly. If the fabric is knitted with lower texture,
the fabric will grow in widthwise during processing. Hence the
diameter will be increased enormously. If the fabric is knitted
tightly by using higher yarn counts, higher gauge machines and with
higher texture, we can minimise this difference.
After processing also, each type of fabric will be in different
diameter. For example, if the grey fabric diameter of Jersey is 30,
then the diameter after processing will be 29. But if the grey
diameter of Pique is 37, then the diameter after processing will be
34.
Diameter of the finished fabric should be suitable for patterns
and for cutting. If this diameter is smaller than the pattern, then
we cannot cut the fabric as per our program. If this diameter is
larger than the pattern, then there will be more fabric wastage. If
there are 1 or 2 inches difference, it can be corrected during
compacting or other finishing process.
So the fixing of finished fabric diameter is based on pattern
requirements. Finished diameter is based on processed diameter;
processed diameter is based on grey diameter; grey diameter is
based on machine diameter; machine diameter is based on the fabric
nature. Hence the selection of machine diameter is very important
to get required finished fabric diameter.
Also as we have seen earlier, we have to pay more attention to
fix the yarn counts, machine gauge, texture and grey GSM.
Approximate knitting charges per kg in Rs.:
Jersey 8
Pique 15
Interlock 18
1x1 rib 15
Jersey with Lycra 25
Pique with Lycra 25
Rib with Lycra 30
Feeder stripes Jersey 12
Feeder stripes Pique 18
Feeder stripes Interlock 20
Feeder stripes rib 15
Engg stripes Jersey 40-60
Engg stripes Pique 50-70
Engg stripes Interlock 40-60
Engg stripes Rib 110-130
Regarding yarn stripes, if the repeat width of stripes is below
3.5cms, it can be knitted in normal machines. Colour yarns should
be feed in according to the stripes. As the yarn feeders adjust the
stripes, it is called Feeder stripes. We have to note that a
maximum of 3.5cms of repeat width of stripes is possible to knit
with the ordinary machines.
If the repeat width is more than 3.5cms, then it is called
Engineering stripes or Auto stripes. These engineering stripes can
be knitted with special kind of machines. The knitting charges for
these engineering stripes are very higher.
KNITTING WITH ELASTAN (SPANDEX):
Knitting of 100%Cotton yarn is easy. As poly cotton yarns are
blended in fiber stage itself, we get the single yarn with blends.
Hence knitting of these blended yarns is also easy.
When we knit the fabrics with different quality of yarns
together, we have to be careful of their counts. Generally the
synthetic yarns like polyester, viscose, polyamide (nylon), and
elastan (spandex) are measured in Denier. But the cotton yarns are
measured in Counts. We need the thickness of both yarns to be the
same. So when we knit cotton yarns with these synthetic yarns, we
must be sure of using the suitable denier yarn.
To select suitable denier, we can use following conversion
formula.
Counts = 5315 Denier
Denier = 5315 Counts
Let us see an example of knitting Cotton/Lycra (Elastan) fabric.
If we use 38s counts of cotton yarn, then we have to use same 38s
counts of Lycra yarn. Then only the knitting will be even. In order
to select the suitable denier, we use the above formula. We see
that 140 Denier is equal to 38s counts. So, 140-denier Lycra yarn
is to be used for this fabric.
Also, during knitting, the number of feeders of Lycra yarn is to
be decided according to the required percentage of Lycra. This is
the same procedure for the other synthetic yarns too.
PRE-PROCESSING
We are making the fabric, wishing to get the finished fabric
with following qualities.
GSM (as per Purchase Order)
Diameter (as per Pattern)
Shrinkage (as per the tolerance normally below 5%)
Colour (shade, fastness as per approval)
Fabric feeling (as per requirement)
To fulfill all these important things, we have to check
following things before knitting.
GSM during knitting, before processing, after processing, before
finishing or compacting, after compacting (on cutting table).
Diameter machine diameter, before processing, after processing,
before finishing or compacting, after compacting (on cutting
table).
Shrinkage before compacting and after compacting.
Colour shade and fastness before and after finishing.
Fabric feeling should be controlled during knitting, processing
and compacting.
We must be aware the fact that even if we use the same mill
yarn, same knitting machine, same dyeing factory and same finishing
process, we will not get the same result every time. For example,
even if we use the same mill yarn but with different yarn lots, we
will get different results. Likewise we will get different results
due to knitting machine make, gauge, processing methods, qualities
of dyes & chemicals, processing timing, processing water
quality, compacting method & temperature, etc. So it is not
possible to define the entire system with 100% conformity. Hence
regarding knitted fabrics, we always expect different results every
time and every time we must be prepared for avoiding the
differences or deviations.
Due to the above reasons, after processing, there will be shade
variations between lots. If we take more care during processing,
these variations can be limited. But we cannot avoid shade
variations between lots 100%.
At the same time, we must be aware that there should not be
shade variation between body, sleeves, collar and cuffs in one
garment. Also there should not be shade variation between garments
of different sizes, which are packed in one carton. This is very
important.
Even though the buyer knows that the lot to lot shade variations
can not be avoided 100%, they will expect at least no shading
between garments packed in one carton.
To avoid shade variations, we have to follow the following
procedures.
To avoid shading between body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, rib,
rope, twill tape:
1. Grey fabrics for body, sleeves and grey collars, cuffs, rib,
rope, twill tape should be knitted with same mill yarn from the
same yarn lot.
2. Fabric for body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, etc., should be dyed
or processed in one lot only.
3. Body and sleeves should be cut in the same fabric roll.
Fabric program should be made accordingly. (If this is not possible
or not suitable due to more wastage or any other reason and if the
body and sleeve fabrics are in different diameters, they should be
dyed or processed as one lot only).
4. All the parts of one garment (body, sleeves, collars, cuffs,
pockets, patches, ribs, etc) should be numbered during cutting.
Numberings should be followed till the full garment is made.
To avoid shading between different sizes of garments in one
carton:
1. We must study the packing methods clearly. If the packing is
assorted sizes in one carton, before sending the fabrics for
processing, each lot to be made according to assorted sizes. Number
of assortments of one lot is to be decided according to the dyeing
vessel capacity.
2. If the packing is Solid size in one carton, before sending
the fabrics for processing each lot to be made with the Size wise
fabrics. Weight of the fabric of one lot is to be decided according
to the dyeing vessel capacity.
3. Collars, cuffs, ribs, twill tapes, ropes, etc should be added
in to the above fabric lot, so that all necessary fabrics and
accessories are being dyed at one time.
To avoid shading between fabric lots:
1. Water temperature, processing time, quantity of water and
quality of dyestuffs are the defining factors of dyeing. These
should be consistent to get even dyeing and consistency in shades.
As it is not possible in traditional manual winch dyeing, we should
dye the fabrics only with latest soft flow dyeing machines.
2. Same mill yarn from the same yarn lot to be used.
3. When we have to use yarn from different lots, the grey
fabrics from one yarn lot should be sent for processing separately.
Fabrics from the second lot should be sent separately. Mixing of
lots should be avoided.
4. Approved lab dips should be followed for the 1st fabric lot
ONLY.
5. When the colour shade in the first fabric lot is approved,
the same shade to be followed for the second and further lots too.
First lot cutting swatch to be followed for further lots. This
cutting swatch to be sent along with the other grey fabrics lots
when they are sent for processing.
6. Once 1st lot is approved, only this lot cutting to be
referred and followed for further lots. Lab dips should not be
referred. This is very important.
PROCESSING
AZO DYESTUFFS:
When we discuss about processing, we must be aware of Azo
dyestuffs. In April 1996, German Government had banned import of
consumer products using one or more of carcinogenic aromatic amines
in textile and leather articles, which have the possibility of
direct contacts with the human skin. They are clothing, bedding,
towels, hairpieces, wigs, hats, diapers and other sanitary items,
footwear, gloves, watch straps, belts, purses, wallets, briefcases,
chair covers and toys.
Nowadays other developed countries are also following the ban of
azo dyestuffs. Following are the 24 banned azo dyestuffs.
4-Aminobiphenyl,
Benzedrine,
4-Chloro-o-toluidine,
2-Naphthylamine,
o-aminoazotoluene,
2-Amino-4-nitorotoluene,
P-Chloroaniline,
2,4-Diaminoanisole,
4,4-Diaminobihenylmethane,
3,3-dichlorobenzidine,
3,3-Dimethozybenzidine,
3,3-Dimethylbenzidine,
3,3-Dimethyl-4,4-diaminobiphenylmethane,
P-Cresidine,
4,4-Methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline),
4,4-Oxydianiline,
4,4-Thiodianiline,
O-Toluidine,
2,4-Toluylendiamine,
2,4,5-Trimethylaniline,
O-Anisidine,
P-Aminoazobenzene,
2,4-Xylidine,
2,6-Xylidine.
If the garment supplied by a supplier, is tested and proved that
it contains any of these banned dyestuffs, the buyer has the right
to reject the goods or even to sue a case against the supplier for
not following the regulations. Hence, even if the buyer has not
specifically mentioned about this, we have to use Azo Free
dyestuffs only.
Since the dyeing factory cannot determine whether the dyestuff
is azo or azo-free, it is safer to get the confirmation from the
dyestuff manufacturer. It is important to note that different
dyestuffs with the same colour index number can produce different
results due to differences in the purity of the raw materials and
contamination by impurities.
Some buyers will ask their suppliers to certify that they are
not using azo dyestuffs. In this case, before certifying to buyers,
it is safer for the supplier to get the certificate from their
dyeing factories and their dyestuff suppliers.
Some buyers will ask their suppliers to submit lab test reports
for azo free dyestuffs for each colour of the garments they are
producing for them. The lab test charges for azo dyestuffs are very
high. It is approximately Rs.7, 000 per colour.
BLEACHING:
There are 2 qualities of bleaching. One is Chlorine Bleach.
Another is Peroxide Bleach.
Chlorine Bleach:
Chlorine bleach is cost wise cheaper and lesser in quality. It
will have lesser whiteness. If a garment is made of Chlorine
bleached fabric, the whiteness will vanish after washes and will
become pale white or Offwhite. The fabric will have Chlorine smell.
Also it will give irritation to body. Above all, as Chlorine
contains azo dyestuffs, it is banned in most of the countries.
Chlorine bleaching charge: By open winch or open tub: Rs.10 12 /
kg.
Peroxide Bleach:
So the other option is Peroxide bleach. Any bright shades like
Milk white; Snow white can be achieved by Peroxide bleach. The
brightness will be forever even after many washes of garments.
There will not be any smell. Also it will not give irritation to
body.
Peroxide bleaching can be done in 3 methods. They are by using
open winches, soft flow machines and continuous bleaching
machines.
Winch bleach is the traditional method. Peroxide bleach can be
made only with hot water. Hence we have to be sure that the
bleaching factory is having boiler and whether they are using
boiling water for our job.
Some bleaching factories will say that they will use Peroxide
bleach in winches. But they will use Chlorine bleach and will do
Peroxide coating to minimise their cost. But this is not
acceptable. If we smell the fabric deeply, we can smell Chlorine.
If this fabric tested for azo contents, the result will show that
it contains azo dyestuffs. Also after ironed and packed the
garments into a polybag and kept for some time, we can smell
Chlorine immediately after removing and smelling the garments from
the polybag.
So it is better to bleach the fabrics either by soft flow
machines or by continuous bleaching machines. By using Continuous
bleaching machine, we can get consistent Whiteness throughout the
entire lots.
Peroxide White charge if made by winches: Approx Rs.22 24 / kg
depending on shade.
Peroxide White charge if made by continuous bleaching machines:
Approx Rs.3035/kg.
FABRIC DYEING:
There are 3 qualities of dyeing. They are Reactive dyeing,
Pigment dyeing and Discharge dyeing.
1. Reactive dyeing:
When we call dyeing, it means Reactive dyeing only. This is the
normal dyeing. The dyes used for dyeing are called Reactive Dyes.
As we discussed above, only Azo Free dyes should be used.
2. Pigment dyeing:
In this type of dyeing, the Pigment dyes are to be used. Pigment
dyeing is used when the fabric is to be stone washed or acid washed
or enzyme washed (like Jeans). Pigment dyes are mainly used for
printing. Generally this pigment dyeing is made in Jigger machines.
By using these dyes in dyeing, the fabric will be very stiff, as if
the fabric is pigment printed on both sides 100%. After this, the
fabrics will be washed in special soft flow machines for getting
special effects like stone wash, acid wash, enzyme wash, etc.
Nowadays, there are advanced soft flow machines with simplified
methods from which we get better results. We will have more
discussions on this, in the chapter Garment Dyeing.
3. Discharge dyeing:
For this type of dyeing, Discharge dyes are to be used. Some
dyes are having the quality of discharge. Discharge dyeing is
required only when the fabric is to be Discharge printed. We will
discuss about this later when we discuss about Discharge
printing.
LAB DIPS:
Before proceeding dyeing, the Lab dips are made in the
laboratory. 2 to 4 lab dips are made similar to the required shade.
According to the approved lab dip, bulk dyeing will be done. As
each yarn will have different dyeing absorbency and as each fabric
type will have different dyeing absorbency, the lab dips should be
made in the same fabric, which we want to dye the particular
colour. Then only we will get required results. For example, if we
want to dye Jersey fabric for bulk, the lab dips should be done in
the same Jersey fabric bits. Even, other Jersey fabric, who is made
with different yarn, should not be used.
When lab dips are made, the combination of dyes & chemicals
are noted well in the books. This combination is called Recipe. The
same combination is used in bulk dyeing proportionately.
There are 2 types of dyeing. One is Winch dyeing. Another is
Soft flow dyeing.
WINCH DYEING:
Winch dyeing is a traditional method of dyeing. Fabric rolls
will be joined together by knotting them. During dyeing, the
fabrics will roll on winches. When a motor rotates the winch,
dipping in diluted dyes will roll the fabrics. The dyes are diluted
with hot boiled water and kept in the bottom of the vessel. After
checking whether the required shade is attained, fabrics will be
removed from the winches.
The dyeing process will take different timings for different
colours. Some dark colours will take approximately 8 hours. As the
winch is kept opened, the temperature of water will not be
consistent. Temperature in the 4th or 5th hour will not be the same
in the 1st hour. It will be much lesser. Hence the absorbency of
colour will not be even. Also as the fabric rolled in folded form
on winches, the colour patches will be occurred on the fabrics.
For the regular shades, the dyes are available in suitable
shades. These dyes are called direct dyes.
For some shades, the direct dyes will not be available. In these
cases, dyes of some 2 or 3 colours are to be mixed proportionately
to get the required shades. These are called Combination colours.
Each dye will have different solubility and reactivity. When 2 or 3
different dyes are mixed together, fabric may not absorb some
colours properly. Due to this, the particular colour will not have
the total required shade and colour fastness.
The dyeing charges by open winches: Light colours: 20 25
Medium colours: 30 40
Dark colours: 45 50
Darkest colours: 55- 60
Royal: 70 80
SOFT FLOW DYEING:
It is also called Jet dyeing or Closed Winch dyeing. These types
of machines are used in recent years. It is a closed winch.
Temperature, dyes & water capacity, fabric capacity, timing,
everything is computerised. Due to this, the temperature is
consistent. Hence the fabric absorbs the dyes evenly. Also the
colourfastness will be better.
Though soft flow dyeing is more expensive than winch dyeing,
this is the best way to get required shade exactly with better
colourfastness. There will not be any colour patches. Also the
fabric wastage will be lesser than open winch dyeing. In open winch
dyeing, the fabric rolls are joined by tying the ends. So after
dyeing, the fabric wastage will be more due to the rejection of
these roll ends. They have to be cut and rejected. But in soft flow
dyeing, as the fabric rolls are joined with over lock stitches, the
fabric wastages can be reduced considerably.
Shades and charges:
There are too many shades in each colour. It is difficult to
give exact definition for light colours or dark colours by their
names. Anyhow let us have a rough idea about colours.
Offwhite, Light Grey, Lt Blue, Lt Pink, Lt Yellow, Lt Orange, Lt
Green, etc are Light colours.
Blue, Orange, Blue, Light Red, Yellow, Medium Green, Grey, etc
are Medium colours.
Navy, Dark Blue, Green, Brown, etc are Dark colours.
Black, Red, Olive Green, Military Green, Dark Navy, etc are the
darkest colours.
The costliest colour is Royal. (It is too expensive, as the
direct dyes for Royal to be used to get the brightness. Sometimes
if the shade is lighter and if the customer cooperates to reduce
the cost, the shade can be achieved with the combination of Blue,
Black, Red, etc. By these colours, we can get similar shade; but it
will have poor colourfastness. So it is advisable to use direct
dyes only).
For the darker shades more dyestuffs are to be used. Due to this
and due to more processing time, the dyeing charges for darker
shades are higher than the lighter shades.
The dyeing charges by soft flow machines: Light colours: 30
40
Medium colours: 40 - 50
Dark colours: 60 70
Darkest colours: 70 - 80
Royal: 90 100
FABRIC MERCERISING:
This is a special process. The fabrics made by gassed yarns or
gassed mercerised yarns have to be mercerised to strengthen the
fabric and to get permanent shiny look and brightness. The fabric
will be treated with caustic soda under perfectly controlled
tension. After this mercerising process the fabric will become
tight and the diameter of the fabric will be much reduced. So it is
advisable to knit the fabrics with the knitting machine not less
than 26 diameter.
Due to this mercerising, the fabric gets not only very good
strength and improved luster; but also improved colour absorbency.
Hence the consumption of dyestuffs and processing time are reduced.
Due to this, the dyeing cost will be reduced by 15 to 20% from the
normal dyeing charges.
To do the fabric mercerising, the fabric is not needed to be
made by gassed or mercerised yarns. Any normal fabric also can be
mercerised to strengthen the fabric and to improve luster. Though
we have to bear with the mercerising charges, we can get 15 to 20%
reduction in dyeing charges, if mercerising and dyeing is done in
the same processing mill.
The dyeing quality will vary depending on mercerising quality.
If the mercerising is not been done properly, the dyeing quality
will be inferior. Hence it is always safer to do the mercerising
and dyeing in the same processing mill under same roof.
Approximate fabric mercerising charge is Rs.45 to 50 per kg. We
can get some reduction from the mill, if we do both mercerising and
dyeing together with them.
FABRIC WASHING:
We make some fabrics with dyed yarn or mlange yarn. But after
knitting, these fabrics have to be washed with soft cold water to
remove the smell and dusts of yarn. Also to avoid the handling
stains, these fabrics are to be washed.
Not only the fabrics. The collars, ribs, twill tapes, ropes made
with dyed yarns or mlange yarns also to be washed to avoid stains,
smell and to get softer hand feel.
The washing charge is normally Rs.5 per kg.
FINISHING & COMPACTING
CALENDERING:
After bleaching or dyeing or washing and after drying, the
fabrics will have wrinkles and creases. To remove these wrinkles,
the fabric is to be ironed to enable easy cutting. Technically we
call this ironing method as Calendering. This is done with steam
pressure to get smooth, glossy finish of fabric. Also this will
help the fabric to maintain its diameter.
Steam calendering charge: Rs.1.50 to 2.50 / kg.
COMPACTING:
Nowadays it is not enough to calender the fabrics. When we
calender the fabrics, it will only remove wrinkles and will
maintain the diameter. But it will not control the shrinkage or
fabric weight (GSM). There are no facilities in calendering
machines. As the shrinkage and GSM are important things, we have to
compact the fabrics with the latest compacting machines.
With these compacting machines, we can adjust following
things.
1. Diameter.
2. GSM.
3. Shrinkage.
But all these 3 things cannot be adjusted simultaneously. We can
adjust either diameter or GSM or shrinkage. We must be aware of
this important fact. We can get better result from these compacting
machines, if we use this machine for only controlling shrinkage. To
get required GSM and finishing diameter, we must take more and more
care during yarn selection and knitting. If we failed to take
preliminary steps for GSM and diameter, we will be in trouble in
the end while finishing the fabrics. If we try to achieve these 3
things together, nothing can be done.
Charges for Tubular compacting: Rs.6 per kg.
STENTERING:
The compacting machines are used to compact the knit fabrics in
tubular form. Some times, we will have to compact the fabric in
open width form. These open width fabrics can be compacted by Open
Width compacting machines or Stenter machines.
Generally these Stenter machines are used for compacting woven
fabrics. From these machines, we can get the same good result for
knit fabrics also.
Charges for Open width compacting: Rs.12 15 per kg.
Charges for Open width Stendering: Rs.15 20 per kg.
HEAT SETTING:
The 100% Cotton fabrics are normally very soft, as cotton is the
natural fiber. But if the fabric is made or blended with synthetic
or artificial fibers like Polyester, Polyamide (Nylon), Elastan
(Spandex), Acrylic, Viscose, etc, the fabric will be very stiff and
hard. These fabrics cannot be used with these stiffness and
hardness. Hence to get softer hand feel and flexibility, these
blended fabrics have to be Heat Set.
Heat set can be done both in open width and tubular form. But to
get better result, it is better to do heat set in open width
form.
As 100% Cotton fabrics dont need this heat set process, they can
be used for cutting in tubular form itself. But for the blended
fabrics, the heat set process is a must. So generally the blended
fabrics and synthetic fabrics are finished in open width form
only.
Charges for Heat set: Rs.25 30 per kg.
FABRIC RAISING OR BRUSHING:
Some fabrics need to be raised on one side or both sides.
Especially, the heavy fabrics made for winter seasons, require to
be raised to get softer hand feel or to get rich look. Loop knit
(French rib), fleece, and flat back rib fabrics are usually raised.
After dyeing and after drying, the fabric is to be raised by a
suitable machine.
The raising is to be done to the same direction of the fabric.
If the fabric is raised in the opposite direction of fabric, the
raising effect will not be good and it will damage the fabric
structure.
Charges for one side raising: Rs.10 per kg.
PRINTING
There are two different prints. They are all over prints and
chest prints.
ALL OVER PRINTS:
All over prints can be made both manually (table prints) and by
machines. Fabrics are spread on long tables and printed manually
with screens. Printing is done one colour by one colour. We can
print the second colour, only after drying the 1st colour. As the
fabric has to dry after printing of each colour, it will take more
time for multi colour printing. The print quality depends on the
printers stroke. If the stroke of the printer differs, the print
quality will differ. Hence the application of colours will not be
even and consistent. Also the registration (placement) of all
colours will not be perfect.
Hence nowadays-Rotary machines are used for all over printing.
Though it is little expensive than manual table printing, we have
many advantages in rotary printing. They are as follows.
1. Quick and time saving.
2. Up to 10 colour designs can be printed simultaneously.
3. Perfect registration (placement).
4. Consistent printing colours and quality.
5. Immediate drying.
6. Less wastage.
For printing in Rotary machines, tubular screens are to be made
for each colour. The films and screens are to be made with great
care to get perfect accuracy, seating and registration. Some times,
we will have to make the films with the help of computers. Even
though it will cost more, we can achieve perfection in
printing.
Rotary screens are in tubular form. The diameter of the screen
is 64.1cms. Hence the repeat of print will be 64.1cms. To avoid
visibility of the repeat joint after printing, more care to be
taken while making films, BLD (Bright Light Duplicating) and
engraving screens. Extra care to be taken for geometric designs
like multi checks with inner designs. Though the films are made
with computer, screens are also to be made accurately with more
attention not showing the repeat joints in screens.
There are some machines available to print with 90cms screen
width. These machines are very rare in use.
We have to be sure that softener should not be added during
dyeing or bleaching. If the softener is added, the fabric will have
shiny look (like waxing). Due to this, the fixing of printing on
fabric will be affected. Then the printing will look blurred. When
we drop one or two drops of water on fabric, if the fabric absorbs
the water, it means the fabric does not have softener. If the
fabric does not absorb the water, it means the fabric has softener.
If the fabric has softener, it should be removed from the fabric by
washing the fabric again.
Also before printing, we have to be sure that the fabric is
dried completely. If the fabric is even slightly wet, when we print
on rotary printing in tubular form, the first side printing will be
in lighter shades. After printing, as the continuous process, the
fabric will get completely dried. So when we print the same fabric
on the second side, the print will be better than on the first
side. So there will be difference between both sides in shades and
registration. This will create major problem in garmenting. Hence
the fabric is to be completely dried before printing.
Pigment prints, Reactive prints and Discharge prints can be
printed with Rotary machines.
PIGMENT PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):
This is the regular print. For this, Pigment dyes (inks) are
used. This can be printed either in tubular form or in open width
form.
Procedure to print in tubular form:
1. Grey fabric to be bleached or light colour dyed.2. Softener
should not be added in dyeing.
3. Fabrics must be absolutely dry before printing.
4. Required printing colours are mixed with the turpentine base,
which is a petroleum product. Due to the higher cost and scarcity
of turpentine, kerosene is used as an alternate.
5. Fabric is printed according to the designs and colours of
each screen. As the continuous process, the printed fabric will go
through the drier machine. Then the printed fabric will come out in
thoroughly dried form.
6. Then the fabric is to be rolled on the other side and the
other side is to be printed.
7. As the petroleum product (turpentine or kerosene) is used as
the base, after the print, the fabric will have the smell of this
base fluid. Hence after printing on both sides, the fabric should
be cured to remove the smell from the fabric.
8. If the print has more than 20% print coverage or printed with
dark colours, the fabric is to be washed after curing. This wash
will help for better fixation of colours; avoid smell, better
shrinkage and better colourfastness. If we need softer hand feel
after printing, the printed fabric can be enzyme washed.
9. Then, as the normal procedure, the fabric is to be compacted
to control shrinkage and to remove wrinkles and creases. But some
print designs may lose its shape after compacting. For example, a
square design may change into a rectangle; a round design may
change into an oval shape. The fabric washing will help to avoid
these problems and to retain the print designs.
Advantages:
1. Cheaper cost.
2. Any shade is possible.
3. Selection or mixing colours are easier.
4. Print shades can be checked and corrected during
printing.
5. Printing colours will be the same before and after
printing.
6. Can be printed in tubular form and open width form.
7. Less process after printing.
Risk factors:
1. Will have lesser colourfastness especially in rubbing and sun
light.
2. Print smell.
3. Rough hand feel.
Print in open width form:
If we print the fabric in tubular form, we will get shade
variation of printing colours between both sides. Also at least 1
fabric on each edge of each printed side will be wasted due to the
merging of printing inks, etc. So totally at least 4 width of
fabric will be wasted. Also due to the double job, the charges will
be little higher than open width printing.
Hence it is preferable to print in open width form to avoid
shade variation between sides, to minimise the fabric wastage and
to minimise the printing charges.
Procedures are the same for tubular print and open width
print.
Water base prints:
As turpentine or kerosene is used as the base fluid, the fabric
will smell after printing. Also the printed fabric will have
slightly rough hand feel. As an alternative for this, water is used
in place of turpentine or kerosene. This is called water base
prints. Water base colours are to be used as printing inks. But
this kind of water print is very rarely used, because of dull look
and blurred print effect. Printing charges are almost the same as
pigment prints.
Organic dyeing & printing:
As the dyes and chemicals are synthetic, there is another way of
using natural substances for dyeing and printing. They are called
organic dyes. They are made mainly from the vegetables. But this is
very expensive and very rarely used.
All over prints (Pigment print) charges per kg in Rs.:
Table printing (manual printing): 20 to 30% print coverage: 25
30
30 to 50% print coverage: 45 50
50 to 70% print coverage: 50 60
Rotary printing: 20 to 30% print coverage: 20 30
30 to 50% print coverage: 30 50
50 to 70% print coverage: 50 60
70 to 80% print coverage: 60 70
80 to 95% print coverage: 70 80
Printed fabric washing with slight enzyme: 8 10
Printed fabric washing with heavy enzyme: 10 12
REACTIVE PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):
This is a special kind of print. For this, Reactive dyes to be
used. (We have to remember that Reactive dyes are used for fabric
dyeing also).
Procedures:
1. Grey fabric is to be bleached or light colour dyed.
2. Softener should not be added in dyeing.
3. Fabrics must be absolutely dry before printing.
4. As the print dyes will penetrate into the fabric, there may
be print impression on third page of fabric. It is called Third
page image. To avoid this, it is better to print in open width form
only.
5. The preparation of printing colours is not easier. Shade
masters will prepare one shade; but after printing we will get
entirely new shade. Hence it needs very good knowledge and
experience for getting the required shades.
6. Before bulk printing, small length of fabric is to be printed
for checking the shades. One bit of this printed fabric is to be
tested with hot silicate to see the final shades. Accordingly the
dyes can be fixed or altered for bulk printing.
7. Printed fabric is to be kept under silicate storage for 10 12
hours.
8. Then the fabric is to be washed and rinsed in running water.
To remove the print dusts, this wash is essential. If the fabric is
washed in winches or tubs, the print dusts will stick to the fabric
again. Hence the fabric has to be washed in running water. As the
water should not be recycled, it is better to wash the fabric in
rivers. It is called River Wash.
9. Then fabric is to be dried.
Advantages:
1. Best colour fastness.
2. Brightness of colours even after many washes.
3. Longer life for prints.
4. Very soft hand feel. By touch, we cant find difference
between the printed and unprinted areas.
Risk factors:
1. Very expensive.
2. Too many important processes to be followed.
4. Too much care to be taken in every process.
5. Very difficult to get all the required shades exactly.
All over prints (Reactive print) charges per kg in Rs.:
Rotary printing: 20 to 30% print coverage: 60 70
30 to 50% print coverage: 70 80
50 to 70% print coverage: 80 90
70 to 80% print coverage: 90 100
80 to 95% print coverage: 100 120
DISCHARGE PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):
This is also a special kind of print. For this, Discharge dyes
(Remazol dyes) are to be used.
If we have to print dark colours on White or Light colour
background, we can easily use Pigment printing. It means, if the
printing colours are darker than the base colour, we can use
pigment printing.
But if we have to print light colours on Dark colour base, we
have to use Discharge printing.
(In some cases, in pigment printing, if we have to print White
colour or very light colour on dark base, Gadi is added with the
printing colour to stick on the fabric. But this will not have
better fastness. Print will vanish even by rubbing or washing.
Prints will be so rough when touching the printed area.
Importantly, as Gadi contains azo dyestuffs, it is not used widely.
It is better to avoid this).
We have to remember that not all the dyes have discharging
qualities. Only discharge dyes are having discharging qualities.
Hence it is essentially important that the fabric is to be dyed
with Discharge dyes (Remazol dyes).
Procedures:
1. Fabric is dyed with discharge dyes ONLY.
2. Softener should not be added in dyeing.
3. Fabrics must be absolutely dry before printing. 4. As the
print dyes will discharge the dyed portions and penetrate into the
fabric, there will be print impression on third page of fabric. It
is called Third page image. To avoid this, the fabric is to be slit
opened compulsorily before printing. That is, the fabric to be
printed only in open width form.
5. Before bulk printing, the printing dyes to be checked whether
the required colour shades are achieved. This is very important as
during printing, the printing shades will not be visible (like
Reactive printing).
6. Printing to be done with discharge dyes. When printing, the
printing dyes will first remove the dyed portions where the print
is needed. Then they will let the required colours to be fixed in
the same places. These two things will take place at one time
simultaneously due to the special quality of discharge dyes.
7. After printing is completed, the fabric is to be stored in
silicate storage for 10 -12 hours for fixation of colours.
8. After printing, the fabric is to be washed Normal washing. No
river wash is needed.
Advantages:1. Only possible best way to print on dark colour
base.
2. Better colour fastness.
3. Better soft hand feel.
4. Long lasting print quality.
5. Can be printed manually too.
Risk factors:
1. Expensive print cost.
2. All colour shades cannot be achieved.
3. So much care to be taken before printing in selecting
suitable colours.
4. All the pre-processes and post-processes to be done with much
care.
5. Can get better print quality only on some base colours like
Black, Red, Green, and Navy.
Some tips:
If the printing colour is only White, the fabric is to be
peroxide bleached before dyeing. Then after discharge printing,
after the removal of dyeing colour, the base colour White will be
visible as printed.
If White is one of the printing colours, the same procedure to
be followed to get the White colour.
If the printing colour is only Offwhite, the fabric is to be
half bleached before dyeing. Then after discharge printing, after
the removal of dyeing colour, Offwhite colour will be visible as
printed.
All over prints (Discharge dyeing + Discharge print) charges per
kg in Rs.:
As we see, the fabric is to be discharge dyed. Therefore, it is
better to dye and print in one factory itself. Accordingly let us
see the printing cost including dyeing cost. These costs will
differ according to the dyeing shades, number of colours, etc.
Hence the below costs are to give you a rough idea only.
Table printing (winch dyeing + printing): 20 to 30% print
coverage: 60 70
30 to 50% print coverage: 70 80
50 to 70% print coverage: 80 90
Rotary printing (dyeing + printing): 20 to 30% print coverage:
90 100
30 to 50% print coverage: 100 120
50 to 70% print coverage: 120 140
70 to 80% print coverage: 140 160
CHEST PRINTS:
Chest prints can be printed both manually and with machines.
Nowadays only the machine prints are used. Like all over printing
on rotary machines, printing spot prints on chest printing machines
too have many advantages. They are as follows.
1. Perfect colours and shades.
2. Perfect placement and registration.
3. Better colour fastness.
4. Better smoothness and sharpness.
5. No smell. No stain in unprinted areas.
6. Quick production.
7. Multi colour facilities (10 colours at a time).
8. Less wastage.
9. Longer life for prints.
There are 2 types of machines. One is called Octopus automatic
machine (MHM). Other one is Semi-automatic machine. Octopus machine
will print automatically. This machine is very costly (about Rs.40
lakhs). Hence the printing cost will also be higher. But prints
will have the best quality.
But nowadays the Semi-automatic machines are used widely. These
machines are made locally at cheaper prices (about Rs.1 lakh). With
these machines, we can get better quality prints at cheaper
cost.
There are different quality chest prints namely Pigment prints,
Plastisol prints, Glitter prints, Flock prints, Water prints,
Non-PVC prints, Foil prints, Foam prints, Reflective prints,
Perfume prints, Motif prints, Embossed prints, Sugar prints,
Transfer prints, Sticker prints, etc.
Chest printing charges:
Chest prints can be printed both in garment form and bit form
depending on the print design and area. The printing cost is
generally based on the number of colours, print area and
coverage.
Manual printing (table printing) charges:
Only pigment prints should be printed by manually.
Up to 2 colours: Up to 5cm x 5cm: 2 per pc
Up to 10cm x 10cm: 4 per pc
Up to 15cm x 15cm: 6 per pc
Up to 20cm x 20cm: 8 per pc
For more than 2 colours, 10% of charge per colour can be added
with above charges.
It is advisable to print maximum 4 colours by manually.
After the manual printing, the printed fabric or garment is to
be cured to remove the print smell. The cost of curing is
approximately Rs.5 per kg.
Machine printing (Plastisol inks) charges:
The printing cost also depends on the print quality like
plastisol, flock, foil, sugar, glitters, foam, etc. Here we will
see the print cost for normal print namely Plastisol print.
To get the cost of other special quality prints, it is better to
check with the printers.
Up to 3 colours: Up to 5cm x 5cm: 3 per pc
Up to 10cm x 10cm: 5 per pc
Up to 15cm x 15cm: 7 per pc
Up to 20cm x 20cm: 10 per pc
For above 3 colours, 10% of cost per colour is to be added with
the above costs. 8 to 10 colours can be printed with machines.
After plastisol print, as there will be no print smell, the
fabric or garment is not needed to be cured. But the printed part
is to be fused to have better fixing and colourfastness. Fusing
cost is included in the above costs.
The garment or fabric bits can be with softener finish. It does
not matter, whether the garment or the fabric bits are having
softener or not. Print quality will not be affected and will be the
same.
SPECIAL PROCESSES
There are some other special processes like Tie & Dye,
Batiks, Garment Dyeing (Garment wash), etc.
TIE & DYE:
This process can be done manually only. Reactive dyes or
Discharge dyes can be used. It is better to use Discharge dyes.
This tie & dye process will give special dyeing effect.
It can be done in garment form or bit form according to the
design and style.
Procedures:
1. Only 100%Cotton fabrics can be tie & dyed manually (in
India).
2. The fabric is to be Peroxide bleached for better result. (If
it is Chlorine bleached, the result will not be good).
3. If we do tie & dye in garment form, the garment to be
made in bleached fabric. Important thing is that the garment to be
stitched with 100%Cotton Grey thread only. As Polyester thread will
not get dyed, only 100%Cotton threads to be used for stitching.
4. As the garment will shrink during tie & dye, the bleached
fabric is to be compacted well before making the garment.
5. After the tie & dye process, nothing can be done about
measurements, shrinkage and shape of garment. Hence some sample
garments to be tested before bulk tie &dye, by taking note of
all the details. They have to be followed carefully to avoid
problems in measurements, shrinkage and shape.
6. If we do tie & dye in bit form, the fabric bit is to be
cut with shrinkage allowance and cutting allowance in lengthwise
and widthwise.
7. When we cut the fabrics either for making garment or for bit
form, the fabric is to be cut in Wales (vertical) direction
perfectly. Though this is the regular procedure for all garments,
this has to be followed compulsorily for Tie & Dye, essentially
for keeping better dimensional stability of garments after tie
& dye.
8. If there is embroidery to be made in DTM colours (Dye To
Match), the embroidery should be done with 100%Cotton thread only.
Then only the embroidery threads will be dyed suitably. If we use
normal embroidery threads, they will not get dyed.
9. If the embroidery colour is not DTM, the embroidery can be
made with normal embroidery threads.
10. Fabrics for body, sleeves, neck rib and other accessories to
be dyed simultaneously according to the requirement.
11. If there is any other base colour except White, the garment
or bit to be dyed to the required base colour. And to be dried
under shades naturally.
12. Garments or bits are tightly tied with ropes according to
the required design. It may be stripes or any other design.
13. Then the tied portions or untied portions will be dipped
into the required colour dyes. This is the dyeing process. The
dipping will be done manually. It will take few minutes only.
14. Then the ties are removed and the garments or bits to be
dried under shades.
15. Then the garments or bits to be tied again for the next
colour(s) and to be dipped in the next colour(s) and to be dried
under shades. And so on.
16. We have to remember that so far, the fixing agent is not
added with the colour dyes. If the fixing agent is added during
these above processes, the other colours will not fix properly.
17. After the completion of dipping of all required colours and
after the garments or bits dried after the final colours, the
garments or bits to be fixed with fixing agent.
18. Then the garments or bits are to be dried under shadows.
19. As the fixing agent is fixed now, the colours are fixed in
the garments and fabric bits. (In case of emergency, now the
garments or bits can be dried with machines too. But to get better
result, it is better to dry them in shadows).
20. Before cutting the bits for garments, the steam lines are to
be carefully found out, as the designs will be slightly confusing
due to symmetrical effect.
Advantages:
1. Enormous designs can be made.
2. Very attractive and suitable for high fashions.
3. Better colour fastness.
4. As it is done manually, can be made at affordable prices.
Risk factors:
1. As all the processes are done manually, there will be less
consistency of designs and quality.
2. Much time consuming process especially due to natural
drying.
3. More and more care to be taken at all stages starting from
knitting, cutting, garmenting, processing, etc.
4. During and after the process, the fabrics can be dried only
naturally. Drying by machines is not possible. No alternative can
be made in rainy seasons. Shipments may be delayed if we dont plan
properly expecting the natural problems.
5. For larger quantities, many dyeing factories to be engaged
accordingly. By this, due to different dyes, methods, etc., we will
get different qualities and results.
Approximate Tie & dye charges per kg in Rs.:
If it is to be tie & dyed in bit form, the charges will be
based on number of colours, GSM, length and width of the bits.
Approximately, for 2 colours, 70cm length x 60cm width (tubular)
bit, the charge may be Rs.18 to 20.
Approximate charge for 2 colours may be around Rs.70 to 80 per
Kg either fabric form or garment form.
BATIKS:
This is also done manually. This is almost like tie & dye.
This is like printing. This is also called Wax printing.
The printing designs like stars, flowers, etc., will be made by
wax. The procedures are the same as for tie & dye. The print
designs made by wax are stuck to the fabrics and over dyed. The
fabric beneath the wax designs will not get dyed. Hence after
removing the waxes, the fabric will look like the designs are
printed.
Though it is being done for woven and knitted fabrics, mainly it
is used for Woven fabrics. Mostly used for sarees, churidars,
curtain cloths, bedspreads and lungies.
The prices for batiks are almost same as Tie & Dye charges.
The charge of making wax designs will cost more, depending on the
design.
GARMENT DYEING:
This is one of the expensive and special processes.
We had seen that winches dye the fabrics and closed winches
(soft flow machines). After the fabrics are dyed, they will be cut
as per the patterns to make the garments. Then body, sleeves,
collars, cuffs are attached together. Since many parts are
attached, there may be shade variations between these parts, even
though we have taken more care. Also the garment may have more
shrinkage to washing. To avoid this and to have special washed
effects on the garments, garment-dyeing method is followed.
This garment can achieve dyeing following special effects.
1. Stone wash.
2. Acid wash
3. Enzyme wash
4. Faded wash.
5. Denim (Jeans) wash, etc.
Procedures:
1. Fabric for body, sleeve, collar, cuff, neck rib, rope, etc.,
to be made from the same mill yarn and from the same yarn lot.
2. All these fabrics and accessories to be scoured (half
bleached) together.
3. The garments to be made from these scoured fabrics.
4. Garments should be stitched with 100%Cotton threads only.
Buttons and buttonholes are to be made with the same 100%Cotton
threads only.
5. If there is embroidery to be made in DTM colours (Dye To
Match), the embroidery should be done with 100%Cotton thread
only.
6. When we cut the fabrics for making garment, the fabric is to
be cut in Wales (vertical) direction perfectly. Though this is the
regular procedure for all garments, this has to be followed
compulsorily for garment dye, essentially for keeping better
dimensional stability of garments after garment dye.
7. After the garment dyeing, nothing can be done with the
garments for measurements, shrinkage and shape. Hence some sample
garments to be tested before bulk garment dyeing, by taking note of
all the details. They have to be followed carefully to avoid
problems in measurements, shrinkage and shape.
8. By these sample garments dyeing (pre-bulk dyeing), the
washing method and washing effect are to be checked and
confirmed.
9. The garments are dyed in soft flow machines with Pigment
dyes.
10. As the garments are dyed in vessels, the stitched areas will
get the washed or the faded effect. This effect will be more in
some places where many fabrics are attached together - mainly at
neck seam around collar, shoulder seam, placket box, cuffs, side
slits and pockets. (Depending on the required effect, the
substances are to be used. For example, for stone washed effect,
some special pebbles are used during washing to get stonewashed
effect).
11. If the garment is processed more than enough, the garment
will get damaged in some areas mainly at neck seam around collar,
shoulder seam, placket box, cuffs, side slits and pockets. Hence
the garments should be washed very carefully according to the
required effect.
12. Recipes of approved lab dips to be followed exactly.
13. Washing methods and timings to be noted well and to be
followed carefully.
14. Each vessel (soft flow dyeing machine) will have different
capacities. The garments, dyed from one machine at one time, are
called Lot. There will be difference in shades and washing effect
between lots. Hence quantity of garments to be divided into lots
according to the packing method. This is important to avoid shade
and effect variation between garments in one carton.
Advantages:
1. There will not be any shade variation between body, sleeves,
collar, cuffs, etc.
2. As the shrinkage is controlled completely, there will not be
any shrinkage further.
3. Washed look can be achieved.
4. Different qualities of washes are possible.
Risk factors:
1. It is not possible to get the exact shades 100%.
2. Shade variation between lots cannot be avoided fully.
3. Due to the damages in garments, rejections of garments will
be high. Hence average cost of garments will be increased.
4. Due to the special effects and quality, it is expensive.
5. Much more care to be taken in all stages to avoid rejections
and problems.
Approximate garment dyeing charges per kg in Rs.:
Scouring: 30
Light and medium shades dyeing: 80 100
Dark shades dyeing: 100 130
EMBROIDERY
Embroidery can be made by manually and by computerised
machines.
As all the machines are fully computerised with most advanced
technologies, nowadays embroidery is being done with the best
finishing and consistent quality. With these machines it is
possible to make any complicated design even in 9 colours.
Other types of embroidery are Applique and Acoba embroidery (all
over embroidery).
Applique:
This is made as decorative embroidery. Some piece of same fabric
or contrast fabric is to be attached with the garment and
embroidery to be made on or around this fabric cutting.
Acoba embroidery (all over embroidery):
With the above said embroidery machines, size of the embroidered
area is restricted to some extent. This will vary from machines to
machines. But to make the embroidery all over the fabric, some
other special machines to be used.
In these special acoba embroidery machines, all over embroidery
can be made. (Like the fabric is printed in rotary printing
machines).
Though acoba embroidery can be made on woven and knitted
fabrics, the best results can be achieved in woven fabrics. Because
of its own quality nature, knit fabrics will get more damages and
holes by acoba embroidery.
Acoba embroidery is commonly made in sarees, blouses, designers
fabrics, decorative fabrics, curtain cloths, etc.
Embroidery charges:
Embroidery cost based on the number of stitches, number of
colours and sizes of embroidery.
Due to competition, nowadays the embroidery cost has come down
as around Re.1.00 per 1000 stitches. But the minimum cost is around
2.50 per garment, though the number of stitches is lesser.
Applique embroidery cost is based on the fabric cutting cost,
fixing cost, etc in addition to the number of stitches, number of
colours and sizes of embroidery.
ACCESSORIES
Buttons, Zippers, Twill tapes, Ropes, Elastics, Badges, Labels,
Hang tags, Inner boards, Tissue papers, Packing pins, Polybags,
Inner cartons and Outer cartons are called accessories.
The prices of accessories are based on the quantity and quality.
Also each accessory has many dimensions, qualities, specifications,
etc. So it is difficult to discuss here about their prices in
details. It is better to check the current prices with the
suppliers.
Anyhow, for making costing, we must have a basic knowledge about
the costs. Hence let us see approximate prices of them as
below.
Cost of Buttons:
Ordinary design of shirt buttons (chalk): Rs.8 to 10 per gross
(12 dozens).
(Imitation) Horn buttons: Rs.10 to 15 per gross.
Special designs of shirt buttons: Rs.15 to 40 per gross.
Shirt buttons with engraved letters (inside design): Rs.50 to 70
per gross.
Shirt buttons with embossed letters (inside design): Rs.40 to 60
per gross.
Metal buttons, wooden buttons Varies as per design, quantity,
etc.
Cost of Zippers:
No5 (5mm width) Nylon 7 length: Rs.7 per zip.
No5 Nylon 24 length: Rs.24 per zip.
No5 Metal (brass or antique brass) 7 length: Rs.5 7 per zip.
No5 Metal (brass or antique brass) 24 length: Rs.22 24 per
zip.
For adult garments, No.5 zippers are used. For children
garments, No.3 zippers are used. Cost of No.3 zippers is lesser
than No.5 zippers.
Lock quality is to be checked. Mostly the auto lock zippers are
used. In these auto lock zippers, if we leave the puller when the
zipper is halfway opened, the auto lock will lock the zipper. Even
if the tapes are pulled, the zipper cannot be opened. It can be
further opened or closed only by pulling the pullers. These auto
lock zippers are used because they are very safe.
The a