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Memory
For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation).In psychology,
memory is the process in which infor-
Overview of the forms and functions of memory in the
sciences
mation is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding al-lows
information from the outside world to reach the fivesenses in the
forms of chemical and physical stimuli. Inthis first stage the
information must be changed so thatit may be put into the encoding
process. Storage is thesecond memory stage or process. This entails
that infor-mation is maintained over periods of time. Finally
thethird process is the retrieval of information that has
beenstored. Such information must be located and returnedto the
consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be ef-fortless due to
the type of information, and other attemptsto remember stored
information may be more demandingfor various reasons.From an
information processing perspective there arethree main stages in
the formation and retrieval of mem-ory:
Encoding or registration: receiving, processing andcombining of
received information
Storage: creation of a permanent record of the en-coded
information
Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back thestored
information in response to some cue for usein a process or
activity
The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness or, as amedical
disorder, amnesia.
1 Sensory memory
Main article: Sensory memory
Sensory memory holds sensory information for less thanone second
after an item is perceived. The ability tolook at an item and
remember what it looked like withjust a split second of
observation, or memorization, isthe example of sensory memory. It
is out of cognitivecontrol and is an automatic response. With very
shortpresentations, participants often report that they seem tosee
more than they can actually report. The first ex-periments
exploring this form of sensory memory wereconducted by George
Sperling (1963)[1] using the par-tial report paradigm. Subjects
were presented with agrid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows
of four. Af-ter a brief presentation, subjects were then played
eithera high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of therows to
report. Based on these partial report experiments,Sperling was able
to show that the capacity of sensorymemory was approximately 12
items, but that it degradedvery quickly (within a few hundred
milliseconds). Be-cause this form of memory degrades so quickly,
partic-ipants would see the display but be unable to report allof
the items (12 in the whole report procedure) beforethey decayed.
This type of memory cannot be prolongedvia rehearsal.Three types of
sensory memories exist. Iconic memoryis a fast decaying store of
visual information; a type ofsensory memory that briefly stores an
image which hasbeen perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory
is afast decaying store of auditory information, another typeof
sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that havebeen perceived
for short durations.[2] Haptic memory isa type of sensory memory
that represents a database fortouch stimuli.
2 Short-term memory
Main article: Short-term memory
Short-term memory allows recall for a period of severalseconds
to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity isalso very limited:
George A. Miller (1956), when work-ing at Bell Laboratories,
conducted experiments showingthat the store of short-term memory
was 72 items (thetitle of his famous paper, "The magical number
72").Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memoryare
lower, typically of the order of 45 items;[3] how-ever, memory
capacity can be increased through a pro-cess called chunking.[4]
For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person
could chunk the digits
1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(disambiguation)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_senseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_senseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Sperlinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echoic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Armitage_Millerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Twohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_number
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2 3 LONG-TERM MEMORY
into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), thena
three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk(7890). This
method of remembering telephone num-bers is far more effective than
attempting to remember astring of 10 digits; this is because we are
able to chunkthe information into meaningful groups of numbers.
Thismay be reflected in some countries in the tendency to dis-play
telephone numbers as several chunks of two to
fournumbers.Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on
anacoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser ex-tent a
visual code. Conrad (1964)[5] found that test sub-jects had more
difficulty recalling collections of lettersthat were acoustically
similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusionwith recalling acoustically
similar letters rather than vi-sually similar letters implies that
the letters were encodedacoustically. Conrads (1964) study,
however, deals withthe encoding of written text; thus, while memory
of writ-ten language may rely on acoustic components,
generali-sations to all forms of memory cannot be made.
3 Long-term memory
Main article: Long-term memory
The storage in sensory memory and short-term mem-ory generally
has a strictly limited capacity and duration,which means that
information is not retained indefinitely.By contrast, long-term
memory can store much largerquantities of information for
potentially unlimited dura-tion (sometimes a whole life span). Its
capacity is immea-surably large. For example, given a random
seven-digitnumber we may remember it for only a few seconds be-fore
forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-termmemory. On
the other hand, we can remember telephonenumbers for many years
through repetition; this informa-tion is said to be stored in
long-term memory.While short-term memory encodes information
acousti-cally, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Bad-deley
(1966)[6] discovered that, after 20 minutes, testsubjects had the
most difficulty recalling a collection ofwords that had similar
meanings (e.g. big, large, great,huge) long-term. Another part of
long-term memory isepisodic memory, which attempts to capture
informa-tion such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'".[7] With
episodicmemory, individuals are able to recall specific events
suchas birthday parties and weddings.Short-term memory is supported
by transient patterns ofneuronal communication, dependent on
regions of thefrontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex) andthe parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other
hand,is maintained by more stable and permanent changes inneural
connections widely spread throughout the brain.The hippocampus is
essential (for learning new informa-tion) to the consolidation of
information from short-term
Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of CongressThomas
Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
to long-term memory, although it does not seem to
storeinformation itself. Without the hippocampus, new mem-ories are
unable to be stored into long-term memory, aslearned from patient
Henry Molaison after removal ofboth his hippocampi,[8] and there
will be a very shortattention span. Furthermore, it may be involved
in chang-ing neural connections for a period of three months ormore
after the initial learning.Research has suggested that long-term
memory storagein humans may be maintained by DNAmethylation,[9]
orprions.[10]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olin_Levi_Warnerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaisonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_spanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methylationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion
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4 Models
Models of memory provide abstract representations ofhow memory
is believed to work. Below are severalmodels proposed over the
years by various psychologists.Controversy is involved as to
whether several memorystructures exist.
4.1 AtkinsonShiffrin model
See also: Memory consolidation
The multi-store model (also known as AtkinsonShiffrinmemory
model) was first described in 1968 by Atkinsonand Shiffrin.The
multi-store model has been criticised for being toosimplistic. For
instance, long-term memory is believedto be actually made up of
multiple subcomponents, suchas episodic and procedural memory. It
also proposes thatrehearsal is the only mechanism by which
informationeventually reaches long-term storage, but evidence
showsus capable of remembering things without rehearsal.The model
also shows all the memory stores as being asingle unit whereas
research into this shows differently.For example, short-term memory
can be broken up intodifferent units such as visual information and
acoustic in-formation. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber
(1986),patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations from
theAtkinsonShiffrin model. Patient KF was brain dam-aged,
displaying difficulties regarding short-term mem-ory. Recognition
of sounds such as spoken numbers, let-ters, words and easily
identifiable noises (such as door-bells and cats meowing) were all
impacted. Interestingly,visual short-term memory was unaffected,
suggesting adichotomy between visual and audial memory.[11]
4.2 Working memory
Main article: Working memory
In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working mem-ory model that
replaced the general concept of short-term memory with an active
maintenance of informa-tion in the short-term storage. In this
model, workingmemory consists of three basic stores: the central
exec-utive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch-pad.
In 2000 this model was expanded with the mul-
visuo-spatialsketchpad
centralexecutive
phonological loop
articulatoryprocess
phonologicalstore
The working memory model
timodal episodic buffer (Baddeleys model of
workingmemory).[12]
The central executive essentially acts as an attention sen-sory
store. It channels information to the three compo-nent processes:
the phonological loop, the visuo-spatialsketchpad, and the episodic
buffer.The phonological loop stores auditory information bysilently
rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop:the articulatory
process (for example the repetition of atelephone number over and
over again). A short list ofdata is easier to remember.The
visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial infor-mation. It
is engaged when performing spatial tasks (suchas judging distances)
or visual ones (such as counting thewindows on a house or imagining
images).The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking
informationacross domains to form integrated units of visual,
spatial,and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g.,the
memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodicbuffer is also
assumed to have links to long-term memoryand semantical meaning.The
working memory model explains many practical ob-servations, such as
why it is easier to do two differenttasks (one verbal and one
visual) than two similar tasks(e.g., two visual), and the
aforementioned word-lengtheffect. However, the concept of a central
executive asnoted here has been criticised as inadequate and
vague.Workingmemory is also the premise for what allows us todo
everyday activities involving thought. It is the sectionof memory
where we carry out thought processes and usethem to learn and
reason about topics.[12]
5 Types of memory
Researchers distinguish between recognition and recallmemory.
Recognition memory tasks require individu-als to indicate whether
they have encountered a stimu-lus (such as a picture or a word)
before. Recall memorytasks require participants to retrieve
previously learned
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Shiffrinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_damagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_damagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%2527s_model_of_working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%2527s_model_of_working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visuospatial_sketchpad
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4 6 TECHNIQUES USED TO STUDY MEMORY
information. For example, individuals might be asked toproduce a
series of actions they have seen before or to saya list of words
they have heard before.
5.1 Classification by information type
Topographic memory involves the ability to orient one-self in
space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, orto recognize
familiar places.[13] Getting lost when trav-eling alone is an
example of the failure of topographicmemory.[14]
Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories ofunique and
highly emotional events.[15] People remem-bering where they were or
what they were doingwhen they first heard the news of President
Kennedysassassination[16] or of 9/11 are examples of
flashbulbmemories.Anderson (1976)[17] divides long-term memory
intodeclarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories.
5.1.1 Declarative memory
Main article: Declarative memory
Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in thatsome
conscious process must call back the information.It is sometimes
called explicit memory, since it consists ofinformation that is
explicitly stored and retrieved.Declarative memory can be further
sub-divided intosemantic memory, concerning facts taken
independentof context; and episodic memory, concerning informa-tion
specific to a particular context, such as a time andplace. Semantic
memory allows the encoding of abstractknowledge about the world,
such as Paris is the capi-tal of France. Episodic memory, on the
other hand, isused for more personal memories, such as the
sensations,emotions, and personal associations of a particular
placeor time. Autobiographical memory - memory for par-ticular
events within ones own life - is generally viewedas either
equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory.Visual memory is
part of memory preserving some char-acteristics of our senses
pertaining to visual experience.One is able to place in memory
information that resem-bles objects, places, animals or people in
sort of a mentalimage. Visual memory can result in priming and it
is as-sumed some kind of perceptual representational
systemunderlies this phenomenon.
5.1.2 Procedural memory
In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) isnot based
on the conscious recall of information, but onimplicit learning.
Procedural memory is primarily em-ployed in learning motor skills
and should be consid-ered a subset of implicit memory. It is
revealed when
one does better in a given task due only to repetition -no new
explicit memories have been formed, but one isunconsciously
accessing aspects of those previous expe-riences. Procedural memory
involved in motor learningdepends on the cerebellum and basal
ganglia.A characteristic of procedural memory is that the
thingsremembered are automatically translated into actions, andthus
sometimes difficult to describe. Some examples ofprocedural memory
include the ability to ride a bike ortie shoelaces.[18]
5.2 Classification by temporal direction
Another major way to distinguish different memory func-tions is
whether the content to be remembered is in thepast, retrospective
memory, or in the future, prospectivememory. Thus, retrospective
memory as a category in-cludes semantic, episodic and
autobiographical memory.In contrast, prospective memory is memory
for future in-tentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd,
1988).Prospective memory can be further broken down intoevent- and
time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories
are triggered by a time-cue,such as going to the doctor (action) at
4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions
triggered bycues, such as remembering to post a letter (action)
afterseeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be relatedto the
action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists,sticky-notes,
knotted handkerchiefs, or string around thefinger all exemplify
cues that people use as strategies toenhance prospective
memory.
6 Techniques used to study mem-ory
6.1 Techniques used to assess infantsmemory
Infants do not have the language ability to report ontheir
memories and so verbal reports cannot be used toassess very young
childrens memory. Throughout theyears, however, researchers have
adapted and developeda number of measures for assessing both
infants recog-nition memory and their recall memory. Habituation
andoperant conditioning techniques have been used to assessinfants
recognition memory and the deferred and elicitedimitation
techniques have been used to assess infants re-call
memory.Techniques used to assess infants recognition memoryinclude
the following:
Visual paired comparison procedure (relies onhabituation):
infants are first presented with pairsof visual stimuli, such as
two black-and-white pho-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9/11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiographical_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_imagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_imagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_skillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_mindhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_gangliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrospective_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospective_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospective_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning
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tos of human faces, for a fixed amount of time;then, after being
familiarized with the two photos,they are presented with the
familiar photo and anew photo. The time spent looking at each
photois recorded. Looking longer at the new photo indi-cates that
they remember the familiar one. Studiesusing this procedure have
found that 5- to 6-month-olds can retain information for as long as
fourteendays.[19]
Operant conditioning technique: infants areplaced in a crib and
a ribbon that is connected toa mobile overhead is tied to one of
their feet. In-fants notice that when they kick their foot the
mobilemoves the rate of kicking increases dramaticallywithin
minutes. Studies using this technique haverevealed that infants
memory substantially improvesover the first 18-months. Whereas 2-
to 3-month-olds can retain an operant response (such as acti-vating
the mobile by kicking their foot) for a week,6-month-olds can
retain it for two weeks, and 18-month-olds can retain a similar
operant response foras long as 13 weeks.[20][21][22]
Techniques used to assess infants recall memory includethe
following:
Deferred imitation technique: an experimentershows infants a
unique sequence of actions (such asusing a stick to push a button
on a box) and then,after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the
actions.Studies using deferred imitation have shown that
14-month-olds memories for the sequence of actionscan last for as
long as four months.[23]
Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to thedeferred
imitation technique; the difference is thatinfants are allowed to
imitate the actions before thedelay. Studies using the elicited
imitation techniquehave shown that 20-month-olds can recall the
actionsequences twelve months later.[24][25]
6.2 Techniques used to assess older chil-dren and adults
memory
Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older childrenand
adults memory. Some examples are:
Paired associate learning - when one learns to as-sociate one
specific word with another. For examplewhen given a word such as
safe one must learn tosay another specific word, such as green.
This isstimulus and response.[26][27]
Free recall - during this task a subject would beasked to study
a list of words and then later they willbe asked to recall or write
down as many words thatthey can remember.[28] Earlier items are
affected
by retroactive interference (RI), which means thelonger the
list, the greater the interference, and theless likelihood that
they are recalled. On the otherhand, items that have been presented
lastly sufferlittle RI, but suffer a great deal from proactive
in-terference (PI), which means the longer the delay inrecall, the
more likely that the items will be lost.[29]
Recognition - subjects are asked to remember alist of words or
pictures, after which point they areasked to identify the
previously presented words orpictures from among a list of
alternatives that werenot presented in the original list.[30]
Detection paradigm - Individuals are shown anumber of objects
and color samples during a cer-tain period of time. They are then
tested on theirvisual ability to remember as much as they canby
looking at testers and pointing out whether thetesters are similar
to the sample, or if any change ispresent.
7 Memory failures
Transience - memories degrade with the passing oftime. This
occurs in the storage stage of memory,after the information has
been stored and before itis retrieved. This can happen in sensory,
short-term,and long-term storage. It follows a general patternwhere
the information is rapidly forgotten during thefirst couple of days
or years, followed by small lossesin later days or years.
Absentmindedness - Memory failure due to thelack of attention.
Attention plays a key role instoring information into long-term
memory; with-out proper attention, the information might not
bestored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.
8 Physiology
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memorysuch as the
hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, orthe mammillary bodies
are thought to be involved in spe-cific types of memory. For
example, the hippocampus isbelieved to be involved in spatial
learning and declarativelearning, while the amygdala is thought to
be involvedin emotional memory.[31] Damage to certain areas in
pa-tients and animal models and subsequent memory deficitsis a
primary source of information. However, rather thanimplicating a
specific area, it could be that damage to ad-jacent areas, or to a
pathway traveling through the areais actually responsible for the
observed deficit. Further,it is not sufficient to describe memory,
and its counter-part, learning, as solely dependent on specific
brain re-gions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes
in
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striatumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammillary_bodieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning
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6 10 GENETICS
neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by
long-termpotentiation and long-term depression.In general, the more
emotionally charged an event or ex-perience is, the better it is
remembered; this phenomenonis known as the memory enhancement
effect. Patientswith amygdala damage, however, do not show a
memoryenhancement effect.[32][33]
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-termmemory. He
postulated that any memory that stayedin short-term storage for a
long enough time would beconsolidated into a long-term memory.
Later researchshowed this to be false. Research has shown that
di-rect injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storageof
recent experiences. This is also true for stimulationof the
amygdala. This proves that excitement enhancesmemory by the
stimulation of hormones that affect theamygdala. Excessive or
prolonged stress (with prolongedcortisol) may hurt memory storage.
Patients with amyg-dalar damage are nomore likely to remember
emotionallycharged words than nonemotionally charged ones.
Thehippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hip-pocampus
is also important for memory consolidation.The hippocampus receives
input from different parts ofthe cortex and sends its output out to
different parts of thebrain also. The input comes from secondary
and tertiarysensory areas that have processed the information a
lotalready. Hippocampal damage may also cause memoryloss and
problems with memory storage.[34]
9 Cognitive neuroscience of mem-ory
Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the reten-tion,
reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent
internal representation. The term of inter-nal representation
implies that such definition of memorycontains two components: the
expression of memory atthe behavioral or conscious level, and the
underpinningphysical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter
com-ponent is also called engram or memory traces (Semon1904). Some
neuroscientists and psychologists mistak-enly equate the concept of
engram and memory, broadlyconceiving all persisting after-effects
of experiences asmemory; others argue against this notion that
memorydoes not exist until it is revealed in behavior or
thought(Moscovitch 2007).One question that is crucial in cognitive
neuroscience ishow information and mental experiences are coded
andrepresented in the brain. Scientists have gained muchknowledge
about the neuronal codes from the studies ofplasticity, but most of
such research has been focused onsimple learning in simple neuronal
circuits; it is consid-erably less clear about the neuronal changes
involved inmore complex examples of memory, particularly
declar-ative memory that requires the storage of facts and
events
(Byrne 2007).
Encoding. Encoding of working memory involvesthe spiking of
individual neurons induced by sen-sory input, which persists even
after the sensory in-put disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005;
Fransen etal. 2002). Encoding of episodic memory involvespersistent
changes in molecular structures that altersynaptic transmission
between neurons. Examplesof such structural changes include
long-term poten-tiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent
plasticity(STDP). The persistent spiking in working memorycan
enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in theencoding of
episodic memory (Jensen and Lisman2005).
Working memory. Recent functional imaging stud-ies detected
working memory signals in both medialtemporal lobe (MTL), a brain
area strongly associ-ated with long-term memory, and prefrontal
cortex(Ranganath et al. 2005), suggesting a strong rela-tionship
between working memory and long-termmemory. However, the
substantially more workingmemory signals seen in the prefrontal
lobe suggestthat this area play a more important role in
workingmemory than MTL (Suzuki 2007).
Consolidation and reconsolidation. Short-termmemory (STM) is
temporary and subject to disrup-tion, while long-term memory (LTM),
once con-solidated, is persistent and stable. Consolidationof STM
into LTM at the molecular level presum-ably involves two processes:
synaptic consolidationand system consolidation. The former involves
aprotein synthesis process in the medial temporallobe (MTL),
whereas the latter transforms theMTL-dependent memory into
anMTL-independent mem-ory over months to years (Ledoux 2007). In
recentyears, such traditional consolidation dogma has
beenre-evaluated as a result of the studies on reconsol-idation.
These studies showed that prevention af-ter retrieval affects
subsequent retrieval of the mem-ory (Sara 2000). New studies have
shown that post-retrieval treatment with protein synthesis
inhibitorsand many other compounds can lead to an amnes-tic state
(Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai2006). These findings on
reconsolidation fit with thebehavioral evidence that retrieved
memory is not acarbon copy of the initial experiences, and
memo-ries are updated during retrieval.
10 Genetics
Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy.A
notable initial success was the association of APOEwith memory
dysfunction in Alzheimers Disease. The
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_representationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engram_(neuropsychology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_transmissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike-timing-dependent_plasticityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconsolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolipoprotein_Ehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%2527s_Disease
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search for genes associated with normally varying mem-ory
continues. One of the first candidates for normal vari-ation in
memory is the gene KIBRA,[35] which appears tobe associated with
the rate at which material is forgottenover a delay period.
11 Memory in infancy
For the inability of adults to retrieve early memories,
seeChildhood amnesia.
Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumedthat infants
could not encode, retain, and retrieveinformation.[36] A growing
body of research now indi-cates that infants as young as 6-months
can recall infor-mation after a 24-hour delay.[37] Furthermore,
researchhas revealed that as infants grow older they can store
in-formation for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds canrecall
information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-oldsafter up to five
weeks, and 20-month-olds after as longas twelve months.[38] In
addition, studies have shown thatwith age, infants can store
information faster. Whereas14-month-olds can recall a three-step
sequence after be-ing exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need
approximatelysix exposures in order to be able to remember
it.[23][37]
It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can re-call
information over the short-term, they have difficultyrecalling the
temporal order of information. It is onlyby 9 months of age that
infants can recall the actionsof a two-step sequence in the correct
temporal order -that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2.[39][40]
In otherwords, when asked to imitate a two-step action
sequence(such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in
theplunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds
tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in thecorrect order
(step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants(6-month-olds) can only
recall one step of a two-stepsequence.[37] Researchers have
suggested that these agedifferences are probably due to the fact
that the dentategyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components
ofthe neural network are not fully developed at the age
of6-months.[24][41][42]
12 Memory and aging
Main article: Memory and aging
One of the key concerns of older adults is the experi-ence of
memory loss, especially as it is one of the hall-mark symptoms of
Alzheimers disease. However, mem-ory loss is qualitatively
different in normal aging fromthe kind of memory loss associated
with a diagnosis ofAlzheimers (Budson & Price, 2005). Research
has re-vealed that individuals performance on memory tasks
that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adultstend
to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowingthe temporal order
in which they learned information;[43]source memory tasks that
require them to remember thespecific circumstances or context in
which they learnedinformation;[44] and prospective memory tasks
that in-volve remembering to perform an act at a future time.Older
adults can manage their problems with prospectivememory by using
appointment books, for example.
13 Effects of physical exercise onmemory
Main article: Neurobiological effects of physical exercise
Long-term effects
Physical exercise, particularly continuous aerobic exer-cises
such as running, cycling and swimming, has manycognitive benefits
and effects on the brain. Influences onthe brain include increases
in neurotransmitter levels, im-proved oxygen and nutrient delivery,
and increased neu-rogenesis in the hippocampus. The effects of
exercise onmemory have important implications for improving
chil-drens academic performance, maintaining mental abili-ties in
old age, and the prevention and potential cure ofneurological
diseases.
14 Disorders
Main article: Memory disorder
Much of the current knowledge of memory has comefrom studying
memory disorders, particularly amnesia.Loss of memory is known as
amnesia. Amnesia can resultfrom extensive damage to: (a) the
regions of the medialtemporal lobe, such as the hippocampus,
dentate gyrus,subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal,
entorhinal,and perirhinal cortices[45] or the (b) midline
diencephalicregion, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the
thala-mus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.[46]There
are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying theirdifferent forms, it
has become possible to observe ap-parent defects in individual
sub-systems of the brainsmemory systems, and thus hypothesize their
function inthe normally working brain. Other neurological
disorderssuch as Alzheimers disease and Parkinsons disease [47]can
also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, orhyperthymesic
syndrome, is a disorder that affects an in-dividuals
autobiographical memory, essentially meaningthat they cannot forget
small details that otherwise wouldnot be stored.[48] Korsakoffs
syndrome, also known asKorsakoffs psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory
syndrome,is an organic brain disease that adversely affects
memory.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIBRAhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_amnesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_and_aginghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%2527s_diseasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aginghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Long-term_effectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Long-term_effectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_disorderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%2527s_diseasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_diseasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff%2527s_syndrome
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8 16 MEMORY AND STRESS
While not a disorder, a common temporary failure ofword
retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-tonguephenomenon. Sufferers
of Anomic aphasia (also calledNominal aphasia or Anomia), however,
do experience thetip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis
due todamage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.
15 Factors that influence memory
15.1 Influence of odors and emotions
In March 2007 German researchers found they could useodors to
re-activate new memories in the brains of peo-ple while they slept
and the volunteers remembered betterlater.[49] Emotion can have a
powerful impact on mem-ory. Numerous studies have shown that the
most vivid au-tobiographical memories tend to be of emotional
events,which are likely to be recalled more often and with
moreclarity and detail than neutral events.The part of the brain
that is critical in creating the feel-ing of emotion is the
amygdala, which allows for stresshormones to strengthen neuron
communication.[50] Thechemicals cortisone and adrenaline are
released in thebrain when the amygdala is activated by positive or
neg-ative excitement. The most effective way to activate
theamygdala is fear, because fear is an instinctive, protec-tive
mechanism which comes on strong making it memo-rable. Sometimes the
feeling can be overwhelming. Thisis when a memory can be hazy yet
vivid, or hauntingwith perfect clarity. This discovery led to the
develop-ment of a drug to help treat posttraumatic stress
disorder(PTSD).[51] When someone is in a heightened emotionalstate,
the events causing it to become strong and ground inthe memory,
sometimes disrupting daily life for years.[52]
An experiment done with rats helped create the drug fortreating
this issue. Dr. Kerry Ressler at Emory Univer-sity, used tones and
shocks to test an existing drug calledcycloserine (an
anti-tuberculosis drug). Rats would heara tone and receive a mild
shock, training them to fear thetone. Then the drug was given to
one set of rats, and thetests were done again. The rats that did
not receive thedrug froze in fear. When the tone was heard, the
ratsgiven the drug ignored the tone and continued on.[53] Thedrug
can effectively allow for new receptor connectionsbetween neurons
and relaxing of the amygdala when itcomes to fear, allowing
patients to have a chance of re-covery from PTSD.Dr. Barbara
Rothbaum at Emory University conductsexperimental treatments for
PTSD using the knowledgethat exactly the same neurons are active
when remember-ing an event as when it was created. Her
administrationof the drug cycloserine is intended to help patients
fosternew connections between neurons, providing a window tolessen
former traumatic connections. Rothbaum decidedto use the drug in a
therapy session that utilizes virtual
reality to give PTSD suffers a second chance. Once theevents
that have caused the PTSD are identified, the pro-cess can begin.
The surroundings of the events are recre-ated in a virtual reality
helmet (for instance, in a combatvehicle in the desert).[54] This
would help to recall the tar-get memories in a safe environment,
and activate the neu-rons without activating the fear response from
the amyg-dala. When the dicyclomine is in the patients system
andthe same neurons are active that were active during theevent,
the patient can now have a chance to re-form neuralconnections,
with less chemicals present from the amyg-dala. This does not erase
the memory, but rather lessensthe strength of it, giving some
relief so that people suf-fering from PTSD can try to move on and
live their lives.Recall is linked with emotion. If pain, joy,
excitement,or any other strong emotion is present during an
event,the neurons active during this event produce strong
con-nections with each other. When this event is rememberedor
recalled in the future, the neurons will more easily andspeedily
make the same connections. The strength andlongevity of memories is
directly related to the amountof emotion felt during the event of
their creation.[55]
15.2 Interference from previous knowl-edge
At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio StateUniversity,
researchers have found that memory accuracyof adults is hurt by the
fact that they knowmore, and havemore experience than children, and
tend to apply all thisknowledge when learning new information. The
findingsappeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal
Psy-chological Science.Interference can hamper memorization and
retrieval.There is retroactive interference, when learning new
in-formationmakes it harder to recall old information[56]
andproactive interference, where prior learning disrupts re-call of
new information. Although interference can leadto forgetting, it is
important to keep in mind that there aresituations when old
information can facilitate learning ofnew information. Knowing
Latin, for instance, can helpan individual learn a related language
such as French this phenomenon is known as positive
transfer.[57]
16 Memory and stress
Stress has a significant effect on memory formation andlearning.
In response to stressful situations, the brain re-leases hormones
and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorti-coids and catecholamines)
which affect memory encod-ing processes in the hippocampus.
Behavioural researchon animals shows that chronic stress produces
adrenalhormones which impact the hippocampal structure in thebrains
of rats.[58] An experimental study by German cog-nitive
psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demon-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tonguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomic_aphasiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_Statehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_theory
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9
strates how learning under stress also decreases memoryrecall in
humans.[59] In this study, 48 healthy female andmale university
students participated in either a stress testor a control group.
Those randomly assigned to the stresstest group had a hand immersed
in ice cold water (the rep-utable SECPT or Socially Evaluated Cold
Pressor Test)for up to three minutes, while being monitored and
video-taped. Both the stress and control groups were then
pre-sented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hourslater, both
groups were tested to see how many wordsthey could remember (free
recall) as well as how manythey could recognize from a larger list
of words (recogni-tion performance). The results showed a clear
impair-ment of memory performance in the stress test group,who
recalled 30% fewer words than the control group.The researchers
suggest that stress experienced duringlearning distracts people by
diverting their attention dur-ing the memory encoding
process.However, memory performance can be enhanced whenmaterial is
linked to the learning context, even whenlearning occurs under
stress. A separate study by cog-nitive psychologists Schwabe and
Wolf shows that whenretention testing is done in a context similar
to or con-gruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the
sameroom), memory impairment and the detrimental effectsof stress
on learning can be attenuated.[60] Seventy-twohealthy female
andmale university students, randomly as-signed to the SECPT stress
test or to a control group, wereasked to remember the locations of
15 pairs of picturecards a computerized version of the card game
Con-centration or Memory. The room in which the exper-iment took
place was infused with the scent of vanilla,as odour is a strong
cue for memory. Retention testingtook place the following day,
either in the same roomwith the vanilla scent again present, or in
a different roomwithout the fragrance. The memory performance of
sub-jects who experienced stress during the object-locationtask
decreased significantly when they were tested in anunfamiliar
roomwithout the vanilla scent (an incongruentcontext); however, the
memory performance of stressedsubjects showed no impairment when
they were tested inthe original room with the vanilla scent (a
congruent con-text). All participants in the experiment, both
stressedand unstressed, performed faster when the learning
andretrieval contexts were similar.[61]
This research on the effects of stress on memory mayhave
practical implications for education, for eyewitnesstestimony and
for psychotherapy: students may performbetter when tested in their
regular classroom rather thanan exam room, eyewitnesses may recall
details better atthe scene of an event than in a courtroom, and
personssuffering from post-traumatic stress may improve whenhelped
to situate their memories of a traumatic event inan appropriate
context.
17 Memory and Sleep
Making memories occurs through a three step process,which can be
enhanced by sleep. The three steps are asfollows:
1. Acquisition which is the process of storage and re-trieval of
new information in memory
2. Consolidation
3. Recall
Sleep does not affect acquisition or recall while one isawake.
Therefore, sleep has the greatest effect on mem-ory consolidation.
During sleep, the neural connections inthe brain are strengthened.
This enhances the brains abil-ities to stabilize and retain
memories. There have beenseveral studies which show that sleep
improves the re-tention of memory, as memories are enhanced
throughactive consolidation. System consolidation takes placeduring
slow-wave sleep (SWS).[62] This process impli-cates that memories
are reactivated during sleep, but thatthe process doesnt enhance
every memory. It also im-plicates that qualitative changes are made
to the memo-ries when they are transferred to long-term store
duringsleep. When you are sleeping, the hippocampus replaysthe
events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortexthen reviews and
processes memories, which moves theminto long-term memory. When you
do not get enoughsleep it makes it more difficult to learn as these
neuralconnections are not as strong, resulting in a lower
re-tention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes itharder to
focus, resulting in inefficient learning.[62] Fur-thermore, some
studies have shown that sleep deprivationcan lead to false memories
as the memories are not prop-erly transferred to long-term memory.
Therefore, it isimportant to get the proper amount of sleep so that
mem-ory can function at the highest level. One of the
primaryfunctions of sleep is thought to be the improvement ofthe
consolidation of information, as several studies havedemonstrated
that memory depends on getting sufficientsleep between training and
test.[63] Additionally, data ob-tained from neuroimaging studies
have shown activationpatterns in the sleeping brain that mirror
those recordedduring the learning of tasks from the previous
day,[63]suggesting that new memories may be solidified throughsuch
rehearsal.[64]
18 Memory construction for gen-eral manipulation?
Although people often think that memory operates likerecording
equipment, it is not the case. The molec-ular mechanisms underlying
the induction and mainte-nance of memory are very dynamic and
comprise distinct
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10 19 IMPROVING MEMORY
phases covering a time window from seconds to even
alifetime.[65] In fact, research has revealed that our mem-ories
are constructed. People can construct their memo-ries when they
encode them and/or when they recall them.To illustrate, consider a
classic study conducted by Eliza-beth Loftus and John Palmer (1974)
[66] in which peoplewere instructed to watch a film of a traffic
accident andthen asked about what they saw. The researchers
foundthat the people who were asked, How fast were the carsgoing
when they smashed into each other?" gave higherestimates than those
who were asked, How fast werethe cars going when they hit each
other?" Furthermore,when asked a week later whether they have seen
brokenglass in the film, those who had been asked the questionwith
smashed were twice more likely to report that theyhave seen broken
glass than those who had been askedthe question with hit. There was
no broken glass depictedin the film. Thus, the wording of the
questions distortedviewers memories of the event. Importantly, the
wordingof the question led people to construct different memo-ries
of the event those who were asked the question withsmashed recalled
a more serious car accident than theyhad actually seen. The
findings of this experiment werereplicated around the world, and
researchers consistentlydemonstrated that when people were provided
with mis-leading information they tended to misremember, a
phe-nomenon known as the misinformation effect.[67]
Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individu-als to
repeatedly imagine actions that they have never per-formed or
events that they have never experienced couldresult in false
memories. For instance, Goff and Roedi-ger [68] (1998) asked
participants to imagine that theyperformed an act (e.g., break a
toothpick) and then laterasked them whether they had done such a
thing. Findingsrevealed that those participants who repeatedly
imaginedperforming such an act were more likely to think that
theyhad actually performed that act during the first sessionof the
experiment. Similarly, Garry and her colleagues(1996) [69] asked
college students to report how certainthey were that they
experienced a number of events aschildren (e.g., broke a window
with their hand) and thentwo weeks later asked them to imagine four
of thoseevents. The researchers found that one-fourth of the
stu-dents asked to imagine the four events reported that theyhad
actually experienced such events as children. That is,when asked to
imagine the events they were more confi-dent that they experienced
the events.Research reported in 2013 revealed that it is possible
toartificially stimulate prior memories and artificially im-plant
false memories in mice. Using optogenetics, a teamof RIKEN-MIT
scientists caused the mice to incorrectlyassociate a benign
environment with a prior unpleasantexperience from different
surroundings. Some scientistsbelieve that the study may have
implications in studyingfalse memory formation in humans, and in
treating PTSDand schizophrenia.[70]
19 Improving memory
Main article: Improving memory
A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issueof the
American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry foundthat people can
improve cognitive function and brain ef-ficiency through simple
lifestyle changes such as incorpo-rating memory exercises, healthy
eating, physical fitnessand stress reduction into their daily
lives. This study ex-amined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with
normal mem-ory performance. Eight subjects were asked to followa
brain healthy diet, relaxation, physical, and mentalexercise (brain
teasers and verbal memory training tech-niques). After 14 days,
they showed greater word flu-ency (not memory) compared to their
baseline perfor-mance. No long term follow up was conducted, it
istherefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effectson
memory.[71]
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic prin-ciples and
techniques that can be used to vastly improvememory known as the
Art of memory.The International Longevity Center released in 2001
areport[72] which includes in pages 1416 recommenda-tions for
keeping the mind in good functionality until ad-vanced age. Some of
the recommendations are to stayintellectually active through
learning, training or reading,to keep physically active so to
promote blood circulationto the brain, to socialize, to reduce
stress, to keep sleeptime regular, to avoid depression or emotional
instabilityand to observe good nutrition.
19.1 Levels of processing
Main article: Levels-of-processing effect
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the methodand
depth of processing that affects how an experience isstored in
memory, rather than rehearsal.
Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participantsa pack of word
cards and asked them to sort theminto any number of piles using any
system of cate-gorisation they liked. When they were later askedto
recall as many of the words as they could, thosewho used more
categories remembered more words.This study suggested that the
organization of mem-ory is one of its central aspects (Mandler,
2011).
Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980)asked participants
to say words in a distinctive way,e.g. spell the words out loud.
Such participants re-called the words better than those who simply
readthem off a list.
Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve aseries of
anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some
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11
difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled thedifficult
anagrams better, presumably because theyput more effort into
them.
Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave partici-pants
descriptive paragraphs of a fictitious Africannation. There were
some short paragraphs and somewith extra sentences elaborating the
main idea. Re-call was higher for the ideas in the elaborated
para-graphs.
19.2 Methods to optimize memorization
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an in-dividual
to recall information verbatim. Rote learning isthe method most
often used. Methods of memorizingthings have been the subject of
much discussion over theyears with some writers, such as Cosmos
Rossellius usingvisual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an
indi-vidual is more likely to remember a list of items
whenrehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. Incontrast
to this is cramming: an intensive memorizationin a short period of
time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnikeffect which states that people
remember uncompletedor interrupted tasks better than completed
ones. The so-called Method of loci uses spatial memory to
memorizenon-spatial information.[73]
20 See also Adaptive memory
Intermediate-term memory
Method of loci
Mnemonic major system
Politics of memory
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23 External links Memory entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Phi-
losophy
Memory at PhilPapers
Memory at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Memory on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
Memory-related resources from the National Insti-tutes of
Health.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophyhttp://philpapers.org/browse/memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhilPapershttps://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2393https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Projecthttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548yyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBChttp://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p00548yy/In_Our_Time_Memoryhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/memory.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Healthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health
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16 24 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
24 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
24.1 Text Memory Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory?oldid=651936215 Contributors:
AxelBoldt, Dreamy